DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

A Report on Industrial Practical Training at Tanga basin, in September 24, 2018 to

September 29th 2018

BY

DEUSDEDIT J. MAHUNDA

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 ABSTRACT

The field work was conducted at Tanga basin located at the eastern coastal of Tanzania at Tanga
regional representing sedimentary rock in Tanzania found at the coastal part of the country.
Tanga basin (sedimentary basin) it’s very essential for petroleum geology since it bring
understanding of mostly locality and structures, which leave question and answer among
petroleum geologist in more discovering in petroleum industry about basin and hydrocarbon
potentiality, also it bring awareness about environmental depositions and petroleum system in
generally about sources rock, reservoir and cap rock. But during our field work at Tanga basin
we encounter mostly of sedimentary rock and few metamorphic rock which varies in lithological
unit and environmental deposition from different coordinate, such lithology including dolomitic
marble at the basement of Tanga basin, lower Karoo sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, middle
Karoo dark shale, upper Karoo sandstone, upper upper sandstone, Jurassic Limestone and
claystone of cretaceous but, both this lithology varies in color, textures and mineral composition
and environmental deposition in term of energy level, also we encounter same fossils such as
Oolite, spicues, echinoids, bivalves, gastropods, coral and trace fossil (plant imprints) which are
very important in petroleum exploration especially for core analysis, strata identification, age
correlation and to determine past environmental deposition of the sediment. But the main
purposed of field practical study at Tanga basin was, to described locality in all aspects of
geological description based in petroleum element such sources rock, reservoir rock and cap
rocks, to construct a geological map of respectively area along with lithological section of
mapped area, also to study and understanding the structures within a lithology, stratigraphic
framework and to understand a geological development of Tanga basin. Generally the
lithological unit at Tanga basin varies in dip direction due to different episodes which tend to
take place at a particular time (rifting and drifting extension) resulted from tectonic activity.

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 7
1.2 ACCESSIBILITY ............................................................................................................ 8
1.3 CLIMATIC CONDITION AND PHYSIOGRAPHY ...................................................... 8
1.4 GEOLOGICAL SETTING .............................................................................................. 8
1.41 REGIONAL GEOLOGY ................................................................................................ 8
1.42 LOCAL GEOLOGY...................................................................................................... 10
1.5 TECTONIC SETTING .................................................................................................. 10
1.6 MAIN OBJECTIVE ....................................................................................................... 11
1.7 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................. 11
1.8 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................................. 11
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 13
3.0 METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 13
3.1 INSTRUMENTS AND TOOLS ......................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 17
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION....................................................................................... 17
4.2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM RELATION TO TANGA BASIN ............................................. 33
4.3 PALEONTOLOGY OF TANGA BASIN .......................................................................... 34
4.4 DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTS ENERGY IN TANGA BASIN .................................. 34
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 35
5.0 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 35
5.1 RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................. 36
5.2 REFERENCE ................................................................................................................. 37

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TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1 The geological map of Tanzania showing basins locations ............................................. 6

Figure 2 Dolomitic limestone marble of Tanga karoo basement .................................................. 18
Figure 3 Sandstone cemented by silica ......................................................................................... 20
Figure 4 Dessication cracks .......................................................................................................... 21
Figure 5 Moatling marks ............................................................................................................... 21
Figure 6 Ripple marks ................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 7 Dewatering fractures ...................................................................................................... 22
Figure 8 Plant imprint ................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 9 Lamination in siltstone ................................................................................................... 25
Figure 10 Layers of Mudstone and Siltstone ................................................................................ 27
Figure 11 Mudstone layers............................................................................................................ 28
Figure 12 Coarse grain sandstone with pebbles ............................................................................ 29
Figure 13 weathered limestone ..................................................................................................... 30
Figure 14 Limestone Karsts .......................................................................................................... 32
Figure 15 Mud limestone .............................................................................................................. 33

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Sedimentary basins are regions of Earth of long-term subsidence creating accommodation

space for infilling by sediments. The subsidence results from the thinning of underlying
crust, sedimentary, volcanic and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of
adjacent lithosphere. Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually
associated with plate tectonic activity and these sedimentary basins are primary formed in
and distinguishing in various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent and transform).
But formation of basin various in different plate tectonic which vary in preservation potential
such as;
Continental lithosphere is the layer of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks which
form the continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as
continental shelves. It is less dense than the material of the earth's mantle and thus "floats" on
top of it. But this plate is able to store elastic stresses over long time referred as elastic
lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic
plate. The crust overlies the solidified and uppermost layer of the mantle. The crust and the
solid mantle layer together comprise oceanic lithosphere. Oceanic crust is the result of
erupted mantle material originating from below the plate, cooled and in most instances,
modified chemically by seawater. This occurs mostly at mid-ocean ridges, but also at
scattered hotspots, and also in rare but powerful occurrences known as flood basalt eruptions.

Plate tectonic has the premise that deformation is concentrated along plate boundaries, the
continental lithosphere deform far from plate boundaries and appear to behave at geological
time scale. Formative mechanism of sedimentary basin fall into small number of categories.
These categories are:

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 Isostatic consequences of changes in crustal/lithospheres’ thickness.
Loading of the lithospheres causes a deflection or flexural deformation.
Viscous flow of the mantle causes non- permanent subsidence/uplift.
But the sedimentary basins of Tanzania have been classified into four morphotectonic
groups: the coastal basin, the Karoo rift basins, basins found within the present East African
rift valley and the cratonic sag basins.

Figure 1 The geological map of Tanzania showing basins locations

The sedimentary basins of Tanzania have been classified into four morphotectonic groups:
the coastal basin, the Karoo rift basins, basins found within the present East African rift
valley and the cratonic sag basins. Except for the cratonic sag basins, each of these basin
group has been affected by rifting at one time or another. Tanzania coastal basin is

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 categorized into Tanga basin, Ruvu basin and Mandawa basin. Tanga basin is analyzed from
basement, Karoo, Jurassic and cretaceous. Tanga basin is in the coastal at the northern part of
Tanzania, which has different types of lithologies from the basement, low, middle, upper
Karoo also is divide into to lower U1 and upper U2, middle Jurassic and cretaceous. The
basin also contained the fault trending from north north east (NNE). The attention was to
determine the hydrocarbon potentialities of the lithologies in Tanga and measuring dip and
strike of bands or layers. Different layers contained fossils.
Also the section and lithological map of Tanga were taken this enabled us to determine the
thickness of the bands and the distribution of lithologies in Tanga. Tectonic events largely
controlled the evolution of the coastal basin of Tanzania and the Indian Ocean.
These included the Karoo rifting during Permo-Triassic, the breakup of the Gondwana
Supercontinent, which started with rifting in the Triassic period, the opening of the Somali
basin in the Middle Jurassic, and the Cenozoic rifting along the East African rift system. The
Karoo rifting created a zone of weakness that led to the fragmentation of the Gondwana
Supercontinent. The Jurassic rocks in Tanzania crop out along the coast belt in Tanga basin,
in the north, along which the NNE Fault Pattern is predominant, which is characterized by
the NNW Fault Pattern. The oldest sedimentary rocks in the Tanga basin comprise
continental Karoo sediments and occasionally evaporites of the Lower Jurassic to Triassic
age.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Tanga region sits on the Indian Ocean, near the border with Kenya, has a land area of
474 square kilometres and had a population of 293,821 inhabitants in 2014
(Population and Housing Census, 2012). Tanga region is situated at the extreme
north-east corner of Tanzania between 40 and 60 degrees below the Equator and 370-
39010'degrees. east of the Greenwich meridian. Tanga basin is the basin which is
found at the coastal of Tanzania and it separated by Indian Ocean an East and
metamorphic basement in west .

In Tanzania those faults are represented by two major trend NNE-SSW Tanga fault
pattern distinguish two major sub-basin in coastal Tanzania Selous-Ruvu-Tanga
rifting a long which the NNE-SSW Tanga fault is predominant and Ruvu-Mandawa
basin contain the NNW-SSW Lindi Karoo fault trend. But the coastal basin in
Tanzania it extends from Tanga region in Northern part and Lindi/Mtwara in southern
part and at central it cross Coast region. Dar es Salaam platform is one of the basins
found in Tanzania.

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1.2 ACCESSIBILITY
Tanga basin is well accessible through the Tanzania regions, Morogoro and Coast
regions to the south, Kilimanjaro and coast regions to the south, and Kilimanjaro and
Arusha. Mostly of the field site road can be easily be accessed by vehicles such as
busses and cars, but while in the field site its only through walking to the targeted
location.

1.3 CLIMATIC CONDITION AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

On average, the warmest month is February. On average, the coolest month is
September. May is the wettest month. This month should be avoided if you don't like
too much rain. February is the driest month. On average, the temperatures in Tanga
basin are always high. Most rainfall (rainy season) is seen in March, April, May,
October and November. The average temperature in Tanga is 26.3 °C. Tanga basin’s
climate is classified as tropical. The winters are rainier than the summers in Tanga.
This climate is considered to be As according to the Köppen-Geiger climate
classification. The dominant climate in Tanga basin is warm and wet. It is found
along the coast and in the inland. In most cases, there is no big variation of
temperature at the coast due to the influence of the Indian Ocean. About 1290 mm of
precipitation falls annually.
Tanga basin extends inland in a varying width of between 20 km and 30 km. In the
west it is bordered by a small escarpment rising up to 200 m. The northern part of
Tanga basin features the Umba plains which extend far into Kenya.The Lwengera
River which is a tributary of the Pangani River divides within its north-south valley of
the Usambaras into a eastern and western part. The East Usambaras rise to about
1,000 m to form a central plateau. The Southern part of the Umba Plains and the
Usambara Mountains form, a massive mountain range rising in the south-west to an
altitude of more than 2,000 m. It gently slopes from north to south towards the Umba
River, which originates from the northern part of the West Usambara Mountains and
drains the entire plain.

1.4 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

1.41 REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Geological setting of coastal basin of Tanzania is associated with tectonic activity.
Broadly, the major features are the northeasterly trending Selous / Ruvu rift basins

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separated from a northsouth string of embayment collectively termed the Jurassic Rift
Basins. A Tertiary sag basin dominates the offshore Coastal Basin making underlying
structure inherited from offshore extensions of the rift basins.
Basin configuration reflects the interaction of structural elements derived firstly from
rifting and secondly from major basement lineaments which fan from south west to
north west and may be related to thermal doming in the early Jurassic between
Madagascar and Tanzania.

The stratigraphic evolution of the Tanga basins is described below in terms of four
stages in continental rifting, namely pre-rift, syn-rift, transitional and post-rift:
 Syn-rift sedimentation began in the late Carboniferous and continued
throughout the Permo-Triassic into the early Jurassic during which time the
major Karoo basins rifting and fault movement initiated erosion
 Transitional stage during the early Jurassic encompassed the last pulses of
major rifting; it is particularly associated with differential subsidence leading
to the formation of a series of semi-enclosed basins
 Post-rift stage lasted from the Middle Jurassic to the Recent. This event is
marked by a regional unconformity and the start of a major marine incursion
which transgressed a basin topography inherited from earlier rifting.
 Pre-rift Gondwanaland was made up of a series of stable cratonic nuclei
separated by zones of structural weakness later to develop into the rift zones
which fragmented the supercontinent.

The main tectonic series which have influenced the structural evolution of the Tanga
basin are as follows:
 Early Jurassic thermal doming between Tanzania and Madagascar leading to
enhanced differential subsidence of the Jurassic Rift Basins on the eastern
flank of the Masasi Basement Spur.
 Bajocian onset of sea-floor spreading in the Somalia Basin along the northern
arm of a rift - rift-transform triple junction resulting in the southward
movement of Madagascar along the transform (Davie Fracture Zone) thereby
abandoning the Selous/Ruvu rift as a failed arm.
 Development of the Modern Rift Basins in the late Tertiary related to a period
of major thermal doming, uplift and erosion in East Africa accompanied by
extensional faulting and subsidence in the offshore area and the formation of
the Tertiary sag basin
 Extensional rifting beginning in the late Carboniferous and extending through
the Permo-Triassic into the early Jurassic.
 Cessation of sea-floor spreading in the Somalia Basin in the late Cretaceous
and lithospheric cooling causing major subsidence in eastern Tanzania.

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1.42 LOCAL GEOLOGY

Locally the geology of Tanga basin consists of sedimentary rocks which

resulted from different formation of such lithology including Limestone,
Sandstone, Siltstone, Shales, Mudstone and Claystone which dominate the
mostly part of area plus Alluvial sand which cover the ground area.
The geology of the Tanga area is composed mainly of Jurassic and Neogene
rocks . The geology of Tanga basins was influenced with tectonic activities
which lead to formation of different structures and lithologies. There were
lithology and structures in the Tanga basin which showed geology of basin
and deformation being differently. Mostly dominant rocks from the
basements are metamorphic rocks and dominant rocks from basins were the
sedimentary rocks. The area north of the Sigi River there is most of the rocks
which are of Karroo age, Also there was presence of Tanga limestone the
lowest member of the Jurassic rocks in the area. Above it are gray calcareous
sandstones, brown sandstones and conglomerates, and greenish siltstones with
flagstone bands. These have been preserved by down faulting against the
limestone, and they outcrop over small areas below the eastern edge of the
limestone
But during our field work the lithology was described in term of locality
names, textures, color, visible porosity and amount of organic matter within it,
mineral composition and environmental depositional. Actually the existence
of this rock type observer was due to nature and favorable environment based
on its formation.

1.5 TECTONIC SETTING

Tectonic setting of this area indicates that these rocks have been deformed in some
areas due to rifting and drifting extension originated from plate tectonic, where by the
outcrops were originally horizontally bedded and this was observed in most parts of
the area we encounter shale which resulted from differential stress occurred at a
particular time and deposition environment varies from high energy to low energy.
But during this time the area experiences severely cycles of transigressive and
regressive period as the result sediment deposition sequences accumulation, but
during the time the drifting ended which lead to weakly extension, hence this area to
experience low energy environmental with large succession of sediment.

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1.6 MAIN OBJECTIVE
To study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of
hydrocarbon fuels in Tanga basin.

1.7 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

 To know the lithology which are dominant in Tanga basin
 To understand petroleum system of Tanga basin
 To study sequence stratigraphy of Tanga basin
 To analyze the rock lithology found in term of color, grains size in Tanga
basin
 To operate different field geological equipment and instrument
 To study the paleontology of Tanga basin and its depositions environments

1.8 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Petroleum system in Tanga basin is made of different elements which encompass
reservoir rock whereby we were able to study its stratigraphy and its sedimentology
(rock history) to determine if there is a likeliness of the existence of petroleum
system. After we come up with concluding the existence of a petroleum system, they
go for further scientific tests-collecting different data and analyzing them to be able to
decide whether it’s possible for drilling and completion of a petroleum system. But
due to abundant poor types of reservoirs and source rocks in addition to the type of
kerogen there is little or no discovery of oil and gas in Tanga.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

After the oil is created, it is pushed by pressure upwards. Under the pressure from the oil the
shale rock (which is a typical source rock) can form cracks and allow the oil to flow either
upwards or in horizontal directions. The rocks that can both store and transmit the oil are the
reservoir rocks. (REINHARDT, 2013)

Good reservoir rocks have high porosity, which is the ability to store fluid, and permeability,
which is the ability to transmit fluid. Usually, these two characteristics are correlated: the higher
the porosity the higher the permeability. (GLATZ, 2013)

Other factors affecting the volume of the reservoir rocks. Grain size and pattern arrangement:
Apart from the arrangement pattern of grains size which effect rock properties, the actual size of
the grains does not affects the permeability of a neither reservoir rock nor porosity.Shape of the
grains: grains with high sphericity tend to pack themselves well to make a minimum pore space,
the fact which increases angularity and hence pore space volume increases. Sorting or uniformity
of size of the grains: size of grains has an effect on reservoir properties; the more uniform the
grains are sized, the great proper volume of voids spaces. Thereby mixing grains of different
sizes tends to decrease total volume of void space. Subsequent action to the sediments
(compaction): The more grains are compacted, more the volume of void spaces decreases.
However the compaction of sand is less effective than the way clay does. Lastly how the grains
were formed.(WINCHESTER, 1985)

As a rock to be named a reservoir has to be a porous and permeable lithological structure. It

encompasses sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks may be made of sandstones (quartz
sand or arksosic sandstone), carbonates mud or dolomite. Dolomites mostly form good reservoirs
because the common reason behind it is that there is Mg, 13% smaller than Ca in a way that
during dolomitization, there is a total decrease in volume of the material by 13%, here by 13%
porosity is gained. (ANDERSON, 1992)

A lot of reservoir rocks are sandstone and carbonates. Sandstone is a rock composed of sand size
grains. Carbonates consist of calcite and dolomite. The dolomite is obtained from calcite CaCO3
by substituting one of the calcium molecules with magnesium CaMg(CO3)2. (PENNWELL ,
2001)

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Secondary porosity, the porosity formed after deposition leads to other couple of reservoirs
types. Dissolution porosity type is made of carbonate dissolution and leaching. It is also called
carbonate reservoirs. Fracture porosity which is characterized by not being voluminous. (DOTT,
1969)

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY
The method used to collect data during our field work was random traversing through
walking by feet. And during our field work we used different equipment to collecting and
organized data such as Compass, GPS and hand lens, Magnetic compass, Geological hummer
and sample bags, Field note book, Pen and digital camera.

3.1 INSTRUMENTS AND TOOLS

The tools, instruments and equipments used in field work during the data collection are
described belows as follows;

Geological Compass; specifically for structural measurement of strike, dips and dip direction of
the outcrop exposed. Basically in our field work we uses geological compass to measure
orientation of geological structures, as they map in the field to analyze (and document) the
geometry of bedding planes, joints. The type of compass used during mapping was known as
Brunton compass and suunto compass.

GPS (global position system), is a satellite based navigation system. This equipment in our field
work we used in geological mapping for finding ones position, mapping lithology, measuring
elevation, storing sampling points and descriptions of formations when samples are collected.

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Hand held lens; In our field work we used to make the first analysis of rock samples in terms of
grain size in the field before further analysis is performed in the laboratories. The analysis needs
to be detailed and descriptive giving all properties of the sample: rock type, color, texture,
identifiable mineralogy.

Geological hammer for splitting and breaking rocks. In our field work we used hammer for
obtain a fresh surface of a rock in order to determine its composition, nature, mineralogy, history
and also to estimate of rock strength and sometime we used geological hammers for scale in a
photograph.

Sample bags which best suit geological samples are canvas in fabric have a sewn in tie tape and a
label tag on the outside to insert the sample number and location point. Plastic bags may be used
where the sample is soft, disintegrated or wet.

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Field notebook It is of a great significance in the field, the field note book should be hardcover
for ease when writing and should easily fit into a pocket. In our field work we used note book for
writing every piece of information we came across with along the way and we recorded details
about mineralogy, specific coordinates of outcrops, time, locality as well as geological features
like joints, sedimentary structures.

Field camera is the only back up memory in addition to the notebook. In our field work we used
camera to take photography of lithology from different angles as possible since its very
important to take photographs of all interesting features ensuring a scale is used in each instance
and photographs are important for descriptive purposes especially during report writing and for
making presentations.

Marker pens were used for labeling samples before they are put into the sample bags. Marker
pens were of different colors such as red, blue and black.

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Measuring tape is important for taking actual measurements of lithology and structures, during
our field works we used tape measure to perform that kind of stuff, for instance in lithology that
exhibit layering, it is necessary to measure the thickness of each layer precisely.

First aid kit: Safety in the field is always a priority nevertheless accidents cannot be ruled out
thus the need to be prepared with a first aid kit. Furthermore it is crucial that at least one person
in the field crew be trained in basic first aid techniques.

Colored pencil; we used colored pencil in our field work specifically during the construction of
geological maps for differentiate lithology in a map

Trace paper. Moslty we used trace paper in our field work for present lithological section,
geological map and cross-section, in two dementional for geological map and three dimentional
for coss-section and lithological section of mapped area in a paper.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 DESCRIPTIONS OF LITHOLOGIES IN TANGA BASIN
During the field work activities in Tanga basin we encountered different types of lithology
we observed:

LOCALITY 1 : MBUTA AREA (MBUTA QUARRY)

Coordinates: Longitude 0494849, Latitude 9495556, Elevation 167M, Time 01: 22pm

The old strata were overlaid by the younger strata, we started from the oldest strata which
were the basement, a referred basement karoo boundary, and we located a dolomitic
limestone marble as the overlaying sediment on top of the basement. A dug out quarry with
dolomitic limestone marbles cemented by calcite exposed at Mbuta quarry, lying incontact
with the basement, this is the basement of karoo in Tanga basin.

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Figure 2 Dolomitic limestone marble of Tanga karoo basement

The locality has undergo metamorphism and deformed due to high temperature. Dolomitic
limestone marble contain minerals composition quartz, magnesium carbonates, Muscovites.
The matrix being the dolomitic grains and the cement being the calcite The texture (size
grains) of dolomitic limestone marble was coarse grain with crystals made of dolomite
(CaMgCo3) and cemented by Calcite (CaCo3).

Geological structures includes lineaments which were fractures that defect some trends,
natural fractures trending North North East, artificial fracture created from blasting, and a
fault. Deposition environment was fresh water carbonates (Marine) deposited through insitu
position (authoctonus; forming materials in a specific environment which were not
transported or carried anywhere). It may represent a poor reservoir due to calcite cement
which could not undergo dissolution before solidifications.

In some cases due to weathering the calcite had undergo dissolution integrated by sandstones
the iron was deposited between the fissures. There were some tectonic activities which
resulted into tilting of the horizontal dolomitic limestone to a certain angle of dip and they
varied from surface to surface while giving a direction of the beds.

Measurements of Strike and Dip

AREA STRIKE DIP

MBUTA AREA (QUARRY) 820 NE 700 SE
100 SE 260 SW
700 SE 180 SW

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 160 NE 060 SE
200 SE 160 SW

Measurements of layer thickness

LAYERS THICKNESS (cm)
1 22.5
2 40.5
3 25
4 8.5
5 10
6 17
Basement 54

LOCALITY 2 : UMBA RIVER

Coordinates: Longitude 0496646, Latitude 9495052, Elevation 116M, Time 04:00pm

Sandstones at Umba river could represent a poor to fair reservoir due to silica cementing
materials due to dissolution (it could not dissolve a silica cement if it were in liquid before its
solidification). The Umba river sediment are are initial strata which start with coarse
materials, high energy deposits very shorter time, deposited during glacial time. This is also
the lower part of the Lower Tanga beds, following the sandstones or conglomeratic sandstone
towards the mudstone in the river the fine layered siltstones which later moved into the
middle karoo beds.

At Umba river there were sandstones pebbles, some mudstones, which were at the river
banks. The material in the river were specifically glacial deposits which had greenish
sandstones with pebbles and drop stones that were called Diamictites, micrites and tillites due
to their glacial deposit and some of them were coming from the basement (the angularity and
sphericity were observed).

The cement of the sand was silicate opposed to the calcite cement from the dolomitic
limestone. Umba river is a stratotype (selected area in geology where all sediments of certain
phenomena are taken to be the source). The sandstone was also acted by tectonic activities
due to some fractures which trends North North East with the same characteristic of fractures
that are found on the coastal basin.

Geological structures includes fractures and a fault which was represented by water and
exposed to the surface by the river, the fault trends North North East.

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Figure 3 Sandstone cemented by silica

LOCALITY 3: KAKINDU RIVER

Coordinates: Longitude 0489996, Latitude 9449809, Elevation 116M, Time 10:55 am

These middle Tanga karoo beds are mainly carbonaceous shales and carbonaceous siltstones
in the Kakindu river, the thickness was 800m. At the Kivundo river we noticed oil seep
which came from the fractures indicated by the river Kakindu at an area known as Kivundo.

These being the “kitchen” in the karoo whereby the middle beds are the source rocks due to
presence of dark carbonaceous siltstones, shale, fine siltstones and carbonaceous shales.
River Kakindu had a fault which trends North North East forming its own causes following
this fault so as to flow.
Dark greyish carbonaceous shales and brown carbonaceous siltstones, the siltstone had fine
grains while the shales were very fine wih fine grains highly compacted and some mixed
with sandstones. Lacustrine (lake) was the deposition environment with very low energy.

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Sedimentological features in Kakindu river were those manifested by sediments after or
during deposition. These features includes the following:

Moalting marks: Round marks formed due to highly heating of layers (strata)and evaporate
leaving behind round shaped features

Figure 5 Moatling marks

Figure 4 Dessication cracks

Dessication marks/crack (mud cracks or cracked mud) : Are sedimentary structures formed
as muddy sediment dries and contracts in Kakindu river. Crack formation also occurs in clay-
bearing soils as a result of a reduction in water content. Naturally forming dessication marks
start as wet, muddy sediment dries up and contracts. A strain is developed because the top
layer shrinks while the material below stays the same size. These cracks may later be filled
with sediment and form casts over the base of Kakindu river.
Dewatering fractures (marks) : When rocks absorbs a lot of water it then later squeeze and
release the water due to high temperature, finally fracturing the rocks as it comes out.

Figure 6 Ripple marks

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Figure 7 Dewatering fractures

Ripple marks are sedimentary structures (i.e. bedforms of the lower flow regime) and
indicate agitation by water (current or waves) or wind.Current ripple marks at Kakindu form
in response to water currents flowing in one direction and have asymmetric profiles. This is
possible due to the fact the longer side of the ripple always faces the upstream direction.

Plant imprints: Embeded plants in shales, plant embeded in layers of sediments. Plants
remain are formed due to absence of oxygen, and it is the same way coal is formed. These are
remains of plant which left on the surface of beds. These are good indicators of deposition
environment. These plants imprints are secondary depositional structure.

Figure 8 Plant imprint

Measurements of dip and strike

AREA STRIKE DIP

KAKINDU RIVER 740 SW 180 SE
580 SW 160 SE
560 SW 160 SE
680 SW 160 SE
220 SW 240 SE
420 SW 160 SE
220 SW 200 SE

LOCALITY 4 : PANGARAWE QUARRY

Coordinates: Longitude 0497605, Latitude 9448205, Elevation 91M, Time 04:50 pm

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The continuity of middle karoo beds was interrupted because just immediately from the
Pangarawe we had the kilulu hill which was the upper karoo beds,
Sequentially to allow for understanding of stratification of sediment, the road section from
other middle beds that were Ndoyo Bridge, Kombe Bridge, Mrinji Bridge and Ngole Bridge
were the most appropriate way to build upinformation from the lowest to the highest but the
Kilulu hill was a product of tectonic activities where faults took place and it was uplifted.

In Pangarawe we observed changes in stratification due to karoo sediments being deposited

in Lake Environment (lacustrine). The exposure is mainly meant for road materials examples
siltstones. Pangarawe is along the middle Tanga karoo beds. These beds progrades into upper
Tanga bed, this area is a remnant of source rock because of shales and siltstones which are
highly compacted. The thickness of the strata depended on the type of energy and the type of
water, so the coarse grained materials were mainly deposited in high energy environment
shallow lake condition and the thickness was determined by the duration of the amount of
water.

High energy environment depended on how far the river could fill the materials in the lake
and the fine grain materials were deposited on low energy and deep water lakes, as we move
from the lower karoo Tanga beds towards the middle karoo beds we noticed the change in
organic matter contents from pale grey material (colorless) to the colored material dark
therefore makes the material in middle karoo beds carbonaceous. The deposition
environment is mainly lacustrine with series of very thin bedded siltstones. The sedimentary
feaures inlcudes dessication marks trending in variety of degrees and the dewatering marks.
Dewatering fractures/marks are sediments frakes in small pieces due to dewatering fractures
being subjected to shallow lake deposit results into thin layers of siltstone andmarks of
dewateering fracures, these fractures trends North North East. The petroleum system in
Pangarawe quarry is a source rock outcrop which varies in terms of lithologies. The
condotion which existed was an oxic environment. Carbonaceous materials contained more
organic matter and which qualified to become a source rock.

Measurements of dip and strike

AREA STRIKE DIP
PANGARAWE 460 NE 180 SE
340 NE 040 SE
260 NE 260 SE

LOCALITY 5: KILULU HILL

Coordinates: Longitude 0513729, Latitude 9472870, Elevation 159M, Time 10:10 am

23
After the Ngole Bridge there was a contact between upper karoo U2 and the Mesozoic that
overlaid the karoo sediments, due to coarse grain sandstone being deposited at high energy it
means the contact also contained conglomerate sandstones, huge boulders and then the
limestone. The Kilulu hill is divided into two parts the lower part and the upper part. The
upper tanga beds are divided into two parts the lower U1 and upper U2. We noticed that it is
not very easily to find and say the lower part is completely fine grains and the upper top part
is completely coarse grain. This is because during the deposition of sandstones which were
coming in the lake at a given period of time, there was a condition which was known as
cyclic deposition which varied with the energy level. When the lake is deep we get fine
grained cemented together and when it becomes shallow we get coarse grains. The lake
varied with the amount of water and energy level repeatedly deposition creating a
phenomena of cyclicity. The cyclic deposition due to sorting formed the layer of sediment to
have more fine than coarse at the lower part U1 and more coarse than fine at the upper part
U2. At Kilulu hill we observed sandstones of greyish with ting yellowish sandstones. The
grain size of the sandstone varied from the bottom of the hill to the top of the hill, from fine
to medium, medium to coarse and course to medium grains. Most sandstone were weathered
partially but cemented together by silica, some of these sandstones were compacted and had
poorly sorting due to high energy while other sandstone had well compacted with good
sorting. At the center of the hill the grain size of sandstones became homogeneous (having
same grin size) this is due to low energy. We could have a phenomena known as coarsening
up sequence, the fine material deposit at the bottom while coarse material at the top. Kilulu
upper beds are definitely reservoir sandstones they would represent a reservoir if they were
buried deeper and are still insitu and wet. The fractures represented the uplifting of fault
block and tilting from the dip of 9° very highly tilted. There were fractures and fault which
were the indications of activities that took place in the Kilulu hill. The upper sandstone had
very coarse grains similar to the sandstone at Ngole Bridge.

Measurements of dip and strike

AREA STRIKE DIP
KAKINDU HILL 540 NE 160 SE
520 NE 140 SE
280 NE 620 SE
620 NE 120 SE
580 NE 620 SE
360 NE 460 SE

LOCALITY 6: NDOYO BRIDGE

Coordinates: Longitude 0511428, Latitude 9459623, Elevation 13M, Time 03:21 pm
The layers of mudstone can be found in place of siltstone this is because during the
deposition there was a time where less water flew and brought in materials at a low energy.

24
 A phenomena of repetition due to changing of energy level, the decrease of water leads to
increase of coarseness of materials but increasing of water leads to fine sediments. So the
river went through cyclic deposition by increasing and decreasing of water in it. This can also
be seen at Kilulu hills. The river was shallow and materials were brought by high energy
there was no slow deposition leading to formation of reservoir. Cross bedding are bending
layers, joints that are formed due to displacement (fault). They mark the end of compact
siltstones. They create Y shape sediments are laid down in thin layers.

Figure 9 Lamination in siltstone

No sediment laid down in bands forming uniform, in the process if formation form features
like stream flow. When material form on top of other from one point to another if there is no
obstruction, but when there is obstruction the flow is no longer smooth flow but turbulent
flow. The strata form a certain characters no uniform flow. When the mud was flowing and a
certain stone act as obstruction on the path of flowing the mud will surround the stone and no
longer laminar flow but turbulent. Features due to turbulent includes the bedding of the
strata. It shows how deposition takes place it takes in small portions and not at once. The
siltstones belonged to the middle beds but the siltstones are of different variety they contain
some mud inside, these are known as mud siltstones. Some mudstone due to compaction they
create stratification, compaction is due to overburden the bottom layer is overlaid by the top
layer, squeezed in a way the particles in a rock reduce mobility due to compaction and
become harden so the layers are not visible.

Measurements of dip and strike

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 AREA STRIKE DIP
NDOYO BRIDGE 760 NE 060 SW
660 NE 120 SW
740 NE 080 SW
520 NE 060 SW
680 NE 080 SW

Measurements of Layer thickness

AREA LAYERS THICKNESS (cm)

NDOYO BRIDGE Mudstone 57
Siltstone 37
Siltstone 61
Mudstone 46
Siltstone 35
Siltstone 85
Mudstone 30
Siltstone 15
Siltstone 65
Mudstone 15
Siltstone 63
Siltstone 91

LOCALITY 7: KOMBE BRIDGE

Coordinates: Longitude 0510533, Latitude 9458410, Elevation 11M, Time 04:42 pm

The large band of siltstone continue to reduce in size into smaller bands due to thin layers as
function of deposition and time spent to deposit was less. Some of the mudstone had turned
their colors to blue, purple, greenish and grey when dried. The sediment had variegated
colors, no specific color was observed.

Measurements of layer thickness

AREA THICKNESS (cm) LAYERS
KOMBE BRIDGE 50 Mudstone
20 Siltstone
07 Mudstone
14 Mudstone
6.5 Mudstone
03 Siltstone
05 Mudstone
04 Mudstone
07 Mudstone
05 Siltstone

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 08 Mudstone
06 Siltstone
07 Siltstone
13 Mudstone

Figure 10 Layers of Mudstone and Siltstone

The energy level of siltstone was higher compared to low energy level of mudstone.
Mudstone had more fine grained materials than siltstones. Presence of mudstone bands,
Kombe river is the entry of the center of the lake. The time of deposition increase mudstone
is the source rock.

Measurements of dip and strike

AREA STRIKE DIP
KOMBE BRIDGE 420 SW 080 SE
620 SW 280 SE
480 SW 120 SE
520 SW 360 SE
460 SW 060 SE

LOCALITY 8: KIBAONI DODA

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 Coordinates: Longitude 0509956, Latitude 9455847, Elevation 21M, Time 05:47 pm
AREA STRIKE DIP
0
KIBAONI DODA 40 NE 140 NW
0
62 NE 120 NW
560 NE 120 NW
0
48 NE 320 NW
520 NE 140 NW

LOCALITY 9: MRINJI BRIDGE

Coordinates: Longitude 0509770, Latitude 9456752, Elevation 56M, Time 05:55 pm

Figure 11 Mudstone layers

AREA STRIKE DIP

MRINJI BRIDGE 960 SE 060 SW
860 SE 120 SW
720 SE 080 SW
580 SE 220 SW
320 SE 280 SW

LOCALITY 10: NGOLE BRIDGE

Coordinates: Longitude 0509538, Latitude 9450726, Elevation 22M, Time 11:23 am

These sandstones are definitely reservoirs because of their grain size. They would represent a
reservoir if they were buried deeper and are still insitu and wet. The sandstone had variegated

28
 colors; some were green, blue, and purple. There was inclusion of pebbles in the sandstone
and holes formed when the pebble changed from iron 2 to iron 3. Another geological
structure include the fault which was brought about during rising up of displacement of upper
beds, for upper beds to be raised the faults are responsible.

Figure 12 Coarse grain sandstone with pebbles

Some sandstone had layers of mudstone this is due to variation in the depth of the lake during
deposition. During deposition there was a time on little water flow bringing in materials at a
low energy. The beds were not even, the beds decreased in size of the layers from larger to
smaller thickness; this is also due to variation of depth during deposition.
At Ngole bridge, the sandstones had coarse grain size and highly compacted similar to the
top of Kilulu hill (upper karoo U2).

Measurement in layer thickness

AREA THICKNESS (cm) LAYERS
NGOLE BRIDGE 2 Mudstone
15.5 Sandstone
5 Mudstone
13 Sandstone
6 Mudstone
11 Sandstone
3 Mudstone
54 Sandstone
4 Mudstone

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 34 Sandstone

LOCALITY 11: MAGOMENI

Coordinates: Longitude 0506448, Latitude 9443606, Elevation 30M, Time 01:15 pm

There was weathering in carbonates found in Magomeni, this is due to acid rain (weak
carbonic acid). When carbon dioxide in the air combines with rain water to form weak
carbonic acid, this acid drops on the calcium carbonate and dissolves it slowly over period of
time, the dissolution of carbonate leaves limestone eaten.

Figure 13 weathered limestone

In some place the dissolution of carbonate leaves structures standing high they are known as
limestone karsts. These limestones were deposited during mid-Jurassic, from the Triassic to
early Jurassic there was no water coming to this area, so the marine water started coming to
the middle Jurassic and its how they were deposited from Magomeni to Pongwe.

The products of chemical weathering in limestone are stalagmite and stalactite. Some of them
are built from the top while other from the bottom. There are different types of limestones
depending on materials that made them such as sand limestone, mud limestone, colar
limestone, oolitic limestone.

Deep water condition result into low energy so the limestone form very fine particles (no
disturbance). In shallow water condition (marine) materials are moved from the surface and
form coarse grain materials example sand limestone. Transgressive and regressive events on

30
Magomeni area. Tansgressive pulls in the water results into thick deposit of limestone while
regressive removes out the water resulting into sand deposit of limestone.

Pongwe is the upper Jurassic while Magomeni is the middle Jurassic. Economic importance
of limestone includes the uses as building material. When limestone is heated it breaks into
calcium oxide (lime) and release carbon dioxide. The lime produced may be used to form
bricks or used to produce fertilizers.

Calcium carbonate was formed by marine organisms for example the sponges, oolites.
Calcium carbonates particles were suspended in marine water these particles were combined
to form calcium carbonates at an optimum temperature. Usually organisms that stays in
carbonate use carbonate as part of their shelter examples snails when they die the shells
remain in the carbonates another organism use carbonates to form their habitats.

Measurement of dip and strike

AREA STRIKE DIP
MAGOMENI 400 SW 080 SE
480 SW 120 SE
560 SW 360 SE
640 SW 180 SE
720 SW 100 SE

LOCALITY 12: LIMESTONE KARTS

Coordinates: Longitude 0506389, Latitude 9443514, Elevation 23M, Time 02:42 pm

Rain acid water eats or dissolves the limestone and forming structures known as karsts. Karst
is a product of limestone dissolution by weak carbonic acid.

Karst contains bioclastic, colariferous, oolitic, depending in the type of organic matter or
material that fromed the limestone. Oolitic limestone act as a good reservoir in the absence of
cement material (calcite) and they are formed at a relative high energy level. Regressive
event over a very long period of time helped in formation of mudstones when water was
reduced. The thick part above and at the bottom of limestone karst is due to transgressive
event. A gap in a limestone karst is a peculiar structure called band. The band was in form of
a gap. When there was carbonate deposition in marine environment, there was a time it was
shallow. An event where there is deep marine condition where all the solution of carbonate

31
 deposit at low energy then later activities are reduced to low energy again the water becomes
shallow and the regressive form bands , this event keeps repeating in a phenomena known as
cyclicity. Mud was created in form of mudstone bands which later on removed due to
different activities from organism that lived also water dropping and dissolving the mud.
Mudstone bands can be traced all over the Tanga limestone basin.

Figure 14 Limestone Karsts

LOCALITY 13: SIGI RIVER

Coordinates: Longitude 0505209, Latitude 9441706, Elevation 03M, Time 03:55 pm

Sigi River trends North North East. There are different types of limestone found at Sigi
River. The grey fossil ferrous contain colars and sponge that are attached on the surface and
not within. The limestone are very massive so it protect and prevent oil from migrating, it
acts as a seal (cap lock) if it were buried at the surface due to lack of oolith and fractures.
When a limestone contain abundant shell is called bioclastic limestone, abundant colar is
known as massive limestone, abundant oolites is known as oolitic limestone, abundant sand
is known as sand limestone and abundant colar and sponge is known as fossilferous
limestone.

Measurements of strike and dip

AREA STRIKE DIP

32
 SIGI RIVER 440 SE 160 SW
520 SE 280 SW
320 SE 180 SW
780 SE 160 SW
560 SE 080 SW

Measurements of Layer thickness

AREA LAYERS THICKNESS (cm)
SIGI RIVER Limestone 35
Mudstone 22
Limestone 30
Mudstone 18
Limestone 30
Mudstone 29
Limestone 18

Figure 15 Mud limestone

4.2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM RELATION TO TANGA BASIN

Petroleum system it comprises reservoir, seal (cap rock), source rock, trap as the elements of
sedimentary basin. The processes involved are maturation and migration that related to
events about space for accommodation and timing in case of geological time. The source
rock should compose organic matter in the shale or limestone. The reservoir rock must be
porous enough for hydrocarbon to be preserved which is due to digenesis for primary
porosity while secondary porosity due to chemical reaction example sandstone. Also
reservoir must be permeable enough. But for the case of clays stone have high porosity but
no interconnected pore while sandstone have low porosity but high interconnected pores
because of the way sediments compacted. Migration of hydrocarbon is the process of oil/gas
to shift from one place to another which can be primary migration as the hydrocarbon from
the source to the reservoir and secondary migration is about from the reservoir to the cap
rock. The good cap rock can be salt and anhydrite/clay stone due to more plastic formation.
33
 Trap is the element which can be of structure, stratigraphic or combination. As structural trap
is due to tectonic activities example fold to make anticline, and fault for deposition. While
stratigraphic is about syncline like salt domes. In Tanga basin the source rock found at
middle karoo where at Kakindu River composed of shale which contain animal and plants
remain has source rock and cap rock. The reservoir due to migration can be at lower division
of upper karoo which consists of sandstones while cap rock can be at upper division of upper
karoo, and the seal can be Jurassic period at Amboni which consist limestone.

4.3 PALEONTOLOGY OF TANGA BASIN

Refers to the study of fossils to determine the structure and evolution of extinct animals and
plants and the age and conditions of deposition of the rock strata in which they are found.
Paleontology is a rich science that can be divided into various sub disciplines such as
Ichnology the study of fossil tracks, trails, and footprints, micropaleontology the study of
fossils of microscopic organisms such as protists, algae, tiny crustaceans and pollen and
Palynology the study of pollen and spores, both living and fossil, produced by land plants
and protists. But during our field work at Tanga basin we encounter different types of fossil
which define above paleontology disciplines such fossil including oolitic at 0504989E,
9441749N, Coral, gastropods and Bivalve at 0505005E, 9441746N and plant imprint at
0490101E, 9449763N, but mostly of this fossil encounter at Tanga basin observed in Jurassic
Limestone of Tanga and their mostly important in petroleum industry for determine past
deposition environment, maturity of hydrocarbon, indication of reservoir, age of the rock,
strata identification and to study biostratigraphic correlation of the sediment. Bellows are
pictures of fossil encountered in Tanga basin.

4.4 DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTS ENERGY IN TANGA BASIN

Deposition of Tanga basin was characterized by deposited sequences and fining-upward

megacycles of coarse proximal, high and low energy fluvial, floodplain, deltaic and
lacustrine deposits with occasional marine incursions which vary of energy in different
direction and places. The deposition environment of Tanga basin is describes as follows; At
Kilulu the deposition environment was lacustrine with high energy level that’s why we
observed sandstone composed of coarse grains particles. Also we observed cyclists which
indicate the lower energy level. In Vijinga the deposition environment was lacustrine the
energy level was varying which resulted to dewatering fracture found in mud and siltstone,
also the drop stone where indicated as a result of high energy. At Kombe Bridge the energy
level was low due to presence of mud siltstone. The Ngole bridge was at upper upper Tanga
beds composed of high energy level which resulted to deposition of coarse grain sandstone,

34
 and changes in color on beds caused by weathering and ironoxic in the mineral. Amboni river
the deposition environment was marine and it had low energy level which resulted to
deposition of fine grained limestone composed of fossils such as corals, oolites, shells of
bivalves, due to transgressive movement cause the deposition of massive limestone at
Amboni. Also Kiomoni quarry composed of massive limestone which indicates transgressive
and the change of energy level resulting to a vein containing sandstone rich in Iron in the
limestone. Kakindu River contained lacustrine deposition sediments containing organic
matter and the energy level was low resulted to deposition of siltshale and shale, Also the
ripple marks were observed due to energy level. The Kivundo has shales which were
deposited at low energy level and contained organic matters.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION

There were some tectonic activities which resulted into tilting of the horizontal dolomitic
limestone to a certain angle of dip and they varied from surface to surface while giving a
direction of the beds. We came across sandstones pebbles, some mudstones, which were at
the river banks. The material in the river were specifically glacial deposits which had
greenish sandstones with pebbles and drop stones that were called Diamictites and tillites due
to their glacial deposit and some of them were coming from the basement (the angularity and
sphericity were observed). The old strata were overlaid by the younger strata, we started from
the oldest strata which were the basement, a referred basement karoo boundary, and we

35
 located a dolomitic limestone as the overlaying sediment on top of the basement. The
dolomitic limestone grains were merely marbles and they were cemented by calcite. In some
cases due to weathering the calcite had undergo dissolution integrated by sandstones the iron
was deposited between the fissures. The matrix was the dolomitic grains and the cement was
the calcite. The cement of the sand was silicate opposed to the calcite cement from the
dolomitic limestone.

The sandstone was also acted by tectonic activities due to some fractures which trends North
North East with the same characteristic of fractures that are found on the coastal basin. These
sediments are found in the Northern coastal basin which includes Tanga beds, Mesozoic
limestone and the Ruvu basins. The Umba river sediment are are initial strata which start
with coarse materials, high energy deposits very shorter time, deposited during glacial time.
This is also the lower part of the Lower Tanga beds. We finally moved up following the
sandstones or conglomeratic sandstone towards the mudstone in the river the fine layered
siltstones which later moved into the middle karoo beds. It is not very clear that some of the
matrix was merely dolomite or they were limestone in some parts. At the dolomitic outcrop
we saw lineaments which were fractures that defect some trends and some beds whereby
measurements of dip and strike were taken.
The provenance or deposition environment was marines due to Argo marks binding
dolomitic limestones and some sand forming a carpet. Some of the agro marks were formed
by the agro from the fresh water lakes, they existed above the basement, Photographs of the
basement and the rocks were taken to trace the fracture and joints.

5.1 RECOMMENDATION
The benefits of Tanga basin field practicals includes the followings;
To understand well and enable to differentiate or indicate observable petro physical
parameters in Tanga basin. To analyze the rock lithologies found in term of color, grains size
at Tanga basin. To study the paleontology of Tanga coastal basin and its depositions
environments. To study sequence stratigraphy of Tanga coastal basin. To know the
lithologies which are dominant in Tanga basin. To understand petroleum system of Tanga
coastal basin.
But in this field we had some challenges that brought difficult to accomplish it effectively
and when it will be once again conducted needs some improvements. These are challenges
includes

36
 Poor timetable preparations, we faced difficulties in preparing to go to Tanga because the
field timetable came suddenly, Some of us had to travel and consume alot of money so as to
reach Tanga. Inadequate field chemicals like Hydrochloric acid, we failed to test carbonates
rocks due to lack of acid which when used it release carbondioxide in the air.Communication
or information should be sent early as possible to the local administrative Quarrels from local
administratives and villagers, Some of the people with low education did not accept us
completely because they thought we were thieves and we wanted to steal their wealth.
Poor health services at the field, we had no insurances to help us when we got sick despite
the fact we paid, instead we used our own money of which we will never be refunded

5.2 REFERENCE
Philip A. Allen, John R. Allen Basin Analysis. Principles and Applications 2005
(chapter 1, 4.2-4.6)
Levorsen,A.I.,(1985) Geology of Petroleum, First Edition, CBSPublishersand
Distributors, Shahdara,Delhi.
Bjørlykke, K., 2010. Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to
Rock Physics. Oslo: Norway
AAPG. (2016, 3 3). Production problems. Retrieved 10 11, 2018, from AAPG:
http://wiki.aapg.org/Production_problems
EDUARD, E. (2011). Basin Stratigraphic Analysis of Tanga Basin in Tanzania .
Dodoma: Slideshare.

37
ISHIMWE, D. (2014, 9 29). Reservoir rock properties. Retrieved 10 11, 2018, from
Society of Petroleum Engineers: https://connect.spe.org/blogs/donatien-
ishimwe/2014/09/29/reservoir-rock-properties
Levorsen, A.I.,2004. Geology of Petroleum. 2d ed. Nazia printers: India
Gluyas, J, Swarbrick, R., 2012. 2d ed. Petroleum geosciences. Blackwell Publishing
co: Australia
Boggs, S. R. Jr. (2001) Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Third
Edition, New York.
Reading, H.G., 1996. Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and
Stratigraphy, Third Edition, Blackwell Publication Company
Blatt. H., Middleton, G.V. & Murray, R.C., 1980. Origin of Sedimentary Rocks,
Second Edition, Prentice – Hall.
Levorsen,A.I.,1985. Geology of Petroleum, First Edition,CBS Publishers and
Distributors, Shahdara,Delhi.
Nayak, S., Zlatanova, S., 2008. Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies for Monitoring
and Prediction of Disasters. Environmental Science and Engineering Subseries:
Environmental Science. Springer: Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
Weng, Q., 2010. Remote Sensing and GIS Integration Theories, Methods, and
Applications. McGraw Hill: New York.
Knödel, K., Lange, G., Voigt, H.-J., 2007. Environmental Geology Handbook of Field
Methods and Case Studies. Springer: Berlin.
Ogola, P.F.A., 2007. Environmental impact assessment; General procedures.
Presented at short course on surface exploration for geothermal resources, organized
by UNU-GTP and KenGen, at Lake Naivasha, Kenya, 2-17 November, 2007.

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