Fluid Lec4. (1) 0000000000000000000000000000 PDF

Mechatronics Engineering
Department
Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Eng. Ahmed Mostafa
Assistant professor – Mech. Power eng. Dep.
Faculty of eng. Mattria
Helwan university
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Fluid Mechanics-1 CONTENTS
(1): Introduction
(2): Properties of Fluid
(3): Pressure and Fluid Statics
(4): Fluid Kinematics
(5): Bernoulli and Energy Equations
(6): Momentum analysis of Flow Systems
(7): Internal Flow
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Fluid Mechanics-1 Introduction
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies
under the influence of forces.
The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics. while the branch that
deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of
fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with
solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
What is A fluid?
You will recall from physics that a substance exists in three primary phases:
1. solid,
2. Liquid and
3. gas.
Which of this phases called fluid?
The substance which moves and deforms continuously as long as the shear
stress is applied called a fluid.
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Fluid Mechanics-1 Introduction
A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a liquid and gas deforms
continuously under the influence of a shear stress
Because of the small distances between molecules in a solid, the attractive forces of
molecules on each other are large and keep the molecules at fixed positions. The molecular
spacing in the liquid phase is not much different from that of the solid phase, except the
molecules are no longer at fixed positions relative to each other and they can rotate and
translate freely. In a liquid, the intermolecular forces are weaker relative to solids, but still
strong compared with gases.
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Fluid Mechanics-1 Properties of Fluid
The broad subject of fluid mechanics can be generally subdivided into fluid statics and fluid
dynamics. In the following chapters we will consider both of these areas in detail. Before we
can proceed, however, it will be necessary to define and discuss certain fluid properties that
are intimately related to fluid behavior. Such as:
1. Density and specific gravity
2. Vapor pressure and cavitations
3. Energy and specific heats
4. Compressibility and speed of sound
5. Viscosity
6. Surface tension and capillary effect
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DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density is defined as mass per unit volume
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit mass.
That is, v (V/m).
The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and pressure. The density
of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature.
Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible substances, and the
variation of their density with pressure is usually negligible.
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Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-known
substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of
the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4°C, 1000 kg/m3).
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Density of Ideal Gases
Property tables provide very accurate and precise information about the properties, but
sometimes it is convenient to have some simple relations among the properties that are
sufficiently general and reasonably accurate. Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and density (or specific volume) of a substance is called an equation of state.
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is the
ideal-gas equation of state, expressed as:
where P is the absolute pressure, v is the specific volume, T is the thermodynamic

(absolute) temperature, ρ is the density, and R is the gas constant. The gas constant R is
different for each gas and is determined from R=Ru/M, where Ru is the universal gas
constant whose value is R= 8.314 kJ/kmol·K, and M is the molar mass (also called
molecular weight) of the gas.
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The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale, and the temperature unit
on this scale is the Kelvin, designated by K. In the English system, it is the Rankin scale, and
the temperature unit on this scale is the Rankin, R. Various temperature scales are related to
each other by:
For an ideal gas of volume V, mass m, and number of moles N 5 m/M, the ideal-gas equation
of state can also be written as PV=mRT or PV =NRuT. For a fixed mass m, writing the ideal-gas
relation twice and simplifying, the properties of an ideal gas at two different states are
related to each other by P1V1/T1 =P2V2/T2.
Prob. Determine the density, specific gravity, and mass of the air in a room whose
dimensions are 4 m 35 m 36 m at 100 kPa and 25oC
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VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION
It is well-established that temperature and pressure are dependent properties for pure
substances during phase-change processes, and there is one-to-one correspondence
between temperature and pressure. At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat. Likewise, at a given
temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase is called the saturation
pressure Psat. At an absolute pressure of 1 standard atmosphere (1 atm or 101.325 kPa), for
example, the saturation temperature of water is 100°C. Conversely, at a temperature of
100°C, the saturation pressure of water is 1 atm.
The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by its vapor in
phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. Pv is a property of the pure
substance, and turns out to be identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv=Psat).
We must be careful not to confuse vapor pressure with partial pressure. Partial pressure is
defined as the pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture with other gases. For example,
atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, and atmospheric pressure is the sum
of the partial pressure of dry air and the partial pressure of water vapor.
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The reason for our interest in vapor pressure is the possibility of the liquid pressure in
liquid-flow systems dropping below the vapor pressure at some locations, and the resulting
unplanned vaporization. For example, water at 10°C may vaporize and form bubbles at
locations (such as the tip regions of impellers or suction sides of pumps) where the
pressure drops below 1.23 kPa. The vapor bubbles (called cavitation bubbles since they
form “cavities” in the liquid) collapse as they are swept away from the low-pressure
regions, generating highly destructive, extremely high-pressure waves. This phenomenon,
which is a common cause for drop in performance and even the erosion of impeller blades,
is called cavitation, and it is an important consideration in the design of hydraulic turbines
and pumps.
Cavitation must be avoided (or at least minimized) in most flow systems since it reduces
performance, generates annoying vibrations and noise, and causes damage to equipment.
Prob. In a water distribution system, the temperature of water is observed to be as high

as 30oC. Determine the minimum pressure allowed in the system to avoid cavitations.
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ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEATS
The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity are referred to as the microscopic energy. The sum of all microscopic
forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system, and is denoted by U (or u on a unit
mass basis).
The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion and the influence of some external
effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface tension.
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion is called kinetic energy. When
all parts of a system move with the same velocity, the kinetic energy per unit mass is
expressed as ke=V2/2 where V denotes the velocity of the system relative to some fixed
reference frame.
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field is called
potential energy and is expressed on a per unit mass basis as pe=gz where g is the
gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of the center of gravity of the system relative
to some arbitrarily selected reference plane.
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In daily life, we frequently refer to the sensible and latent forms of internal energy as heat,
and we talk about the heat content of bodies. In engineering, however, those forms of
energy are usually referred to as thermal energy to prevent any confusion with heat
transfer.
The international unit of energy is the joule (J) or kilojoule (1 kJ = 1000 J). A joule is 1 N
times 1 m. In the English system, the unit of energy is the British thermal unit (Btu), which is
defined as the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68°F by 1°F. The
magnitudes of kJ and Btu are almost identical (1 Btu 5 1.0551 kJ). Another well-known unit
of energy is the calorie (1 cal = 4.1868 J), which is defined as the energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C.
In the analysis of systems that involve fluid flow, we frequently encounter the combination
of properties u and Pv. For convenience, this combination is called enthalpy h. That is,
where P/ρ is the flow energy, also called the flow work, which is the energy per unit mass
needed to move the fluid and maintain flow.
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The total energy of a simple compressible system
consists of three parts: internal, kinetic, and potential
energies on a unit-mass basis, it is expressed as
e=u+ke+pe. The fluid entering or leaving a control
volume possesses an additional form of energy flow
energy P/ρ. Then the total energy of a flowing fluid on a
unit-mass basis becomes.
The differential and finite changes in the internal energy and enthalpy of an ideal gas can be
expressed in terms of the specific heats as:
where cv and cp are the constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats of the ideal
gas. Using specific heat values at the average temperature, the finite changes in internal
energy and enthalpy can be expressed approximately as
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COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND
It is a common observation that a fluid contracts when more pressure is applied on it and
expands when the pressure acting on it is reduced. That is, fluids act like elastic solids with
respect to pressure. Therefore, in an analogous manner to Young’s modulus of elasticity for
solids, it is appropriate to define a coefficient of compressibility (k) (also called the bulk
modulus of compressibility or bulk modulus of elasticity) for fluids as:
Noting that Δv/v or Δρ/ρ is dimensionless, k must have the dimension of pressure (Pa or
psi). Also, the coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure
corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid while the
temperature remains constant. Then it follows that the coefficient of compressibility of a
incompressible substance (v = constant) is infinity.
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A large value of k indicates that a large change in pressure is needed to cause a small
fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid with a large k is essentially incompressible.
This is typical for liquids, and explains why liquids are usually considered to be
incompressible. For example, the pressure of water at normal atmospheric conditions must
be raised to 210 atm to compress it 1 percent, corresponding to a coefficient of
compressibility value of k=21,000atm.
Small density changes in liquids can still cause
interesting phenomena in piping systems such
as the water hammer—characterized by a
sound that resembles the sound produced
when a pipe is “hammered.” This occurs when
a liquid in a piping network encounters an
abrupt flow restriction (such as a closing valve)
and is locally compressed.
For large pipes, a vertical tube called a surge
tower often is used. A surge tower has a free
air surface at the top.
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Speed of Sound and Mach Number
An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the speed of sound (or the
sonic speed), defined as the speed at which an infinitesimally small pressure wave travels
through a medium. The pressure wave may be caused by a small disturbance, which creates
a slight rise in local pressure.
Consider a control volume that encloses the wave front
and moves with it, as shown in figure. To an observer
traveling with the wave front, the fluid to the right
appears to be moving toward the wave front with a speed
of (c) and the fluid to the left to be moving away from the
wave front with a speed of c-dV. Of course, the observer
sees the control volume that encloses the wave front (and
herself or himself) as stationary, and the observer is
witnessing a steady-flow process. The mass balance for
this single-stream, steady-flow process is expressed as
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When the fluid is an ideal gas (P=ρRT) the speed of sound yields to:
=√
Where K=cp/cv is the specific heat ratio of the fluid. Note that the speed of sound in a fluid
is a function of the thermodynamic properties of that fluid.
Noting that the gas constant R has a fixed value for a specified ideal gas and the specific heat
ratio k of an ideal gas is, at most, a function of temperature, we see that the speed of sound
in a specified ideal gas is a function of temperature alone
A second important parameter in the analysis of compressible fluid flow is the Mach
number (Ma), It is the ratio of the actual speed of the fluid to the speed of sound in the
same fluid at the same state:
Prob. Air enters a diffuser shown in figure with a speed of 200

m/s. Determine (a) the speed of sound and (b) the Mach
number at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is 30oC.
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VISCOSITY
When two solid bodies in contact move relative to each other, a friction force develops at
the contact surface in the direction opposite to motion. To move a table on the floor, for
example, we have to apply a force to the table in the horizontal direction large enough to
overcome the friction force.
The situation is similar when a fluid moves relative to a solid or when two fluids move
relative to each other. We move with relative ease in air, but not so in water.
It appears that there is a property that represents the

internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the “fluidity,” and
that property is the viscosity. The force a flowing fluid
exerts on a body in the flow direction is called the drag
force, and the magnitude of this force depends, in part, on
viscosity
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To obtain a relation for viscosity, consider a fluid layer between two very large parallel
plates (or equivalently, two parallel plates immersed in a large body of a fluid) separated by
a distance. Now a constant parallel force F is applied to the upper plate while the lower
plate is held fixed. After the initial transients, it is observed that the upper plate moves
continuously under the influence of this force at a constant speed V. The fluid in contact
with the upper plate sticks to the plate surface and moves with it at the same speed, and
the shear stress τ acting on this fluid layer is:
where A is the contact area between the plate

and the fluid. Note that the fluid layer deforms
continuously under the influence of shear
stress.
The fluid in contact with the lower plate assumes
the velocity of that plate, which is zero. In steady
laminar flow, the fluid velocity between the
plates varies linearly between 0 and V, and thus
the velocity profile and the velocity gradient are:
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where y is the vertical distance from the lower plate.
During a differential time interval dt, the sides of fluid particles along
a vertical line MN rotate through a differential angle dβ while the
upper plate moves a differential distance da=Vdt. The angular
displacement or deformation (or shear strain) can be expressed as:
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Thus we conclude that the rate of deformation of a fluid element is equivalent to the velocity
gradient du/dy. Further, it can be verified experimentally that for most fluids the rate of
deformation (and thus the velocity gradient) is directly proportional to the shear stress τ.
Fluids for which the rate of deformation is linearly proportional to the shear stress are
called Newtonian fluids after Sir Isaac Newton, who expressed it first in 1687. Most common
fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids. Blood and liquid plastics are
examples of non-Newtonian fluids.
In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be expressed by the
linear relationship
where the constant of proportionality μ is called the coefficient of viscosity or the dynamic
(or absolute) viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m·s, or equivalently, N·s/m2 (or Pa.s
where Pa is the pressure unit pascal).
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A plot of shear stress versus the rate of deformation (velocity gradient) for a Newtonian fluid
is a straight line whose slope is the viscosity of the fluid. Note that viscosity is independent
of the rate of deformation for Newtonian fluids. Since the rate of deformation is
proportional to the strain rate reveals that viscosity is actually a coefficient in a stress–strain
relationship.
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In fluid mechanics and heat transfer, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density appears
frequently. For convenience, this ratio is given the name kinematic viscosity ν and is
expressed as ν=μ/ρ (m2/s)
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the

molecules in liquids and by the molecular collisions in
gases, and it varies greatly with temperature. The
viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature, whereas
the viscosity of gases increases with temperature. This is
because in a liquid the molecules possess more energy at
higher temperatures, and they can oppose the large
cohesive intermolecular forces more strongly. As a result,
the energized liquid molecules can move more freely. In a
gas, on the other hand, the intermolecular forces are
negligible, and the gas molecules at high temperatures
move randomly at higher velocities. This results in more
molecular collisions per unit volume per unit time and
therefore in greater resistance to flow.
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The viscosity of gases is expressed as a function of temperature as follow:
where T is absolute temperature and a and b are experimentally determined constants.

Note that measuring viscosity at two different temperatures is sufficient to determine
these constants.
For liquids, the viscosity is approximated as
where T is absolute temperature and a, b, and c are experimentally determined constants.
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Problems
1. A cylindrical tank of methanol has a mass of 40 kg and a volume of 51 L. Determine the
methanol’s weight, density, and specific gravity. Take the gravitational acceleration to be
9.81 m/s2. Also, estimate how much force is needed to accelerate this tank linearly at
0.25m/s2.
2. The analysis of a propeller that operates in water at 20°C shows that the pressure at the
tips of the propeller drops to 2 kPa at high speeds. Determine if there is a danger of
cavitation for this propeller.
3. Saturated water vapor at 150°C (enthalpy h=2745.9 kJ/kg) flows in a pipe at 50 m/s at
an elevation of z=10 m. Determine the total energy of vapor in J/kg relative to the ground
level.
4. It is observed that the density of an ideal gas increases by 10 percent when compressed
isothermally from 10 atm to 11 atm. Determine the percent increase in density of the gas
if it is compressed isothermally from 1000 atm to 1001 atm.
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5. The density of seawater at a free surface where the pressure is 98 kPa is approximately
1030 kg/m3. Taking the bulk modulus of elasticity of seawater to be 2.34×109 N/m2and
expressing variation of pressure with depth z as dP=ρgdz determine the density and
pressure at a depth of 2500 m. Disregard the effect of temperature.
6.
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7. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 10 kg of water at 20°C at atmospheric
pressure. An external force F is then applied on the piston until the pressure inside the
cylinder increases to 100 atm. Assuming the coefficient of compressibility of water remains
unchanged during the compression; estimate the energy needed to compress the water
isothermally.
8. Carbon dioxide enters an adiabatic nozzle at 1200 K with a velocity of 50 m/s and leaves
at 400 K. Assuming constant specific heats at room temperature, determine the Mach
number (a) at the inlet and (b) at the exit of the nozzle. Assess the accuracy of the constant
specific heat approximation.
9. Nitrogen enters a steady-flow heat exchanger at 150 kPa, 10°C, and 100 m/s, and it
receives heat in the amount of 120 kJ/kg as it flows through it. Nitrogen leaves the heat
exchanger at 100 kPa with a velocity of 200 m/s. Determine the Mach number of the
nitrogen at the inlet and the exit of the heat exchanger.
10. A 50-cm × 30-cm × 20-cm block weighing 150 N is to be moved at a constant velocity of
0.80 m/s on an inclined surface (φ=20o) with a friction coefficient of 0.27. (a) Determine the
force F that needs to be applied in the horizontal direction.(b) If a 0.40-mm-thick oil film with
a dynamic viscosity of 0.012 Pa.s is applied between the block and inclined surface,
determine the percent reduction in the required force.
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Fluid Mechanics-1 Pressure and Fluid statics
PRESSURE
is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only when
we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress. Since
pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter
(N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa). That is,
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called
the gage pressure. Pgage can be positive or negative, but pressures below atmospheric
pressure are sometimes called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that
indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related to each other by
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Pressure at a Point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the
impression of being a vector. However, pressure at any point in a
fluid is the same in all directions. That is, it has magnitude but not
a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.
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Pressure and Fluid statics

Department
Fluid Mechanics-1
Variation of Pressure with Depth

To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth,
consider a rectangular fluid element of height Δz, length Δx, and unit
depth (Δy=1 into the page) in equilibrium. Assuming the density of
the fluid ρ to be constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction
gives
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PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
1. The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to
as the barometric pressure.
2. The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate
pressure differences. A manometer consists of a glass or
plastic U-tube containing one or more fluids such as
mercury, Water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the
manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large pressure differences are
anticipated.
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Measuring the pressure drop across a flow section or a flow device
by a differential manometer.
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Prob. The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the
pressure is measured by a multi-fluid manometer as shown
in Figure. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude
of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6kPa.
Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1=0.1m, h2=0.2m,
and h3=0.35m. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury
to be 1000kg/m3, 850kg/m3 and 13,600kg/m3, respectively.
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FLUID STATICS
Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest. The fluid can be either
gaseous or liquid. Fluid statics is generally referred to as hydrostatics when the fluid is a
liquid and as aerostatics when the fluid is a gas.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there are
no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it. The only stress we deal with in
fluid statics is the normal stress, which is the pressure, and the variation of pressure is due
only to the weight of the fluid.
Fluid statics is used to determine the forces acting on floating or submerged bodies and the
forces developed by devices like hydraulic presses and car jacks. The design of many
engineering systems such as water dams and liquid storage tanks requires the
determination of the forces acting on their surfaces using fluid statics.
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Fluid Mechanics-1
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE

SURFACES
A plate (such as a gate valve in a dam, the wall of a liquid
storage tank, or the hull of a ship at rest) is subjected to
fluid pressure distributed over its surface when exposed to
a liquid
On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of
parallel forces, and we often need to determine the
magnitude of the force and its point of application, which
is called the center of pressure.
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The absolute pressure at any point on the plate is
The resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on the surface is determined by integrating the
force P dA acting on a differential area dA over the entire surface area,
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PC is the pressure at the centroid of the surface,

which is equivalent to the average pressure Pavg
on the surface, and hC is the vertical distance of
the centroid from the free surface of the liquid
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Fluid Mechanics-1
Center of pressure
Where Ixx,C is the second moment of area (also

called the area moment of inertia) about the x-
axis. The second moments of area are widely
available for common shapes in engineering
handbooks, but they are usually given about the
axes passing through the centroid of the area.
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Special Case:
1. Submerged Rectangular Plate
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Prob. heavy car plunges into a lake during an accident and

lands at the bottom of the lake on its wheels. The door is 1.2
m high and 1 m wide, and the top edge of the door is 8 m
below the free surface of the water. Determine the
hydrostatic force on the door and the location of the
pressure center, and discuss if the driver can open the door.
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Fluid Mechanics-1
SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACES
The easiest way to determine the resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on a two-dimensional
curved surface is to determine the horizontal and vertical components FH and FV separately
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The magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the curved surface is
2 2
= +
The tangent of the angle it makes with the horizontal is tan
tan =
the hydrostatic force acting on a plane or curved surface submerged in a multilayered fluid
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Prob. A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m hinged at point A is

used as an automatic gate, as shown in Figure. When the water
level reaches 5 m, the gate opens by turning about the hinge at
point A. Determine the hydrostatic force acting on the cylinder
and its line of action when the gate opens and
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BUOYANCY AND STABILITY
It is a common experience that an object feels lighter and weighs less in a liquid than it does
in air. This can be demonstrated easily by weighing a heavy object in water by a waterproof
spring scale. Also, objects made of wood or other light materials float on water. These and
other observations suggest that a fluid exerts an upward force on a body immersed in it. This
force that tends to lift the body is called the buoyant force and is denoted by FB.
Where V =hA is the volume of the plate. But the relation

ρfgV is simply the weight of the liquid whose volume is
equal to the volume of the plate. Thus, we conclude that
The buoyant force acting on a body of uniform density
immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the
centroid of the displaced volume.
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For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be
equal to the buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid
whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged
portion of the floating body. That is,
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Prob. If you have a seawater aquarium, you have probably used a small
cylindrical glass tube with a lead-weight at its bottom to measure the
salinity of the water by simply watching how deep the tube sinks. Such
a device that floats in a vertical position and is used to measure the
specific gravity of a liquid is called a hydrometer. The top part of the
hydrometer extends above the liquid surface, and the divisions on it
allow one to read the specific gravity directly. The hydrometer is
calibrated such that in pure water it reads exactly 1.0 at the air-water
interface. (a) Obtain a relation for the specific gravity of a liquid as a
function of distance Dz from the mark corresponding to pure water
and (b) determine the mass of lead that must be poured into a 1-cm-
diameter, 20-cm-long hydrometer if it is to float halfway (the 10cm
mark) in pure water.
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Problems
1. The absolute pressure in water at a depth of 8 m is read to be 175 kPa. Determine (a) the
local atmospheric pressure, and (b) the absolute pressure at a depth of 8 m in a liquid whose
specific gravity is 0.78 at the same location.
2. A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 45 kPa at a location where the barometric
reading is 755 mmHg. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank.
3. Water from a reservoir is raised in a vertical tube of
internal diameter D=30 cm under the influence of the
pulling force F of a piston. Determine the force needed to
raise the water to a height of h=1.5 m above the free
surface. What would your response be for h=3 m? Also,
taking the atmospheric pressure to be 96 kPa, plot the
absolute water pressure at the piston face as h varies from
0 to 3m.
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4. A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston–cylinder
device. The piston has a mass of 4 kg and a cross sectional area of
35cm2. A compressed spring above the piston exerts a force of
60N on the piston. If the atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa,
determine the pressure inside the cylinder.
5. A mercury manometer is connected to an air duct to measure

the pressure inside. The difference in the manometer levels is
10 mm, and the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. (a) Judging
from Figure, determine if the pressure in the duct is above or
below the atmospheric pressure. (b) Determine the absolute
pressure in the duct.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
5. Blood pressure is usually measured by wrapping a closed
air-filled jacket equipped with a pressure gage around the
upper arm of a person at the level of the heart. Using a
mercury manometer and a stethoscope, the systolic
pressure (the maximum pressure when the heart is
pumping) and the diastolic pressure (the minimum pressure
when the heart is resting) are measured in mmHg. The
systolic and diastolic pressures of a healthy person are
about 120 mmHg and 80 mmHg, respectively, and are
indicated as 120/80. Express both of these gage pressures in
kPa, psi, and meter water column.
6. The gage pressure of the air in the tank shown in

Figure is measured to be 65 kPa. Determine the
differential height h of the mercury column.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
7. Consider a hydraulic jack being used in a car repair shop, as in
Figure. The pistons have an area of A1=0.8 cm2 and A2=0.04 cm2.
Hydraulic oil with a specific gravity of 0.870 is pumped in as the
small piston on the left side is pushed up and down, slowly
raising the larger piston on the right side. A car that weighs
13,000 N is to be jacked up. (a) At the beginning, when both
pistons are at the same elevation (h=0), calculate the force F in
newtons required to hold the weight of the car. (b) Repeat the
calculation after the car has been lifted two meters (h=2 m).
Compare and discuss.
8. Consider a heavy car submerged in water in a lake with a flat bottom. The driver’s side door
of the car is 1.1 m high and 0.9 m wide, and the top edge of the door is 10 m below the water
surface. Determine the net force acting on the door (normal to its surface) and the location of
the pressure center if (a) the car is well-sealed and it contains air at atmospheric pressure and
(b) the car is filled with water.
9. Consider a 8-m-long, 8-m-wide, and 2-m-high above ground swimming pool that is filled
with water to the rim. (a) Determine the hydrostatic force on each wall and the distance of the
line of action of this force from the ground. (b) If the height of the walls of the pool is doubled
and the pool is filled, will the hydrostatic force on each wall double or quadruple? Why?
2018, Cairo, Egypt
Department
10. A room in the lower level of a cruise ship has a 30-cm-diameter circular window. If the
midpoint of the window is 4 m below the water surface, determine the hydrostatic force
acting on the window, and the pressure center. Take the specific gravity of seawater to
be1.025.
11. The water side of the wall of a 70-m-long dam is a quarter circle with a radius of 7 m.
Determine the hydro static force on the dam and its line of action when the dam is filled to
the rim.
12. A cylindrical tank is fully filled with water. In
order to increase the flow from the tank, an
additional pressure is applied to the water surface
by a compressor. For P0=0, P0=3 and P0=10 bar,
calculate the hydrostatic force on the surface A
exerted by water.
13. The volume and the average density of an irregularly shaped body are to be determined by
using a spring scale. The body weighs 7200 N in air and 4790 N in water. Determine the
volume and the density of the body. State your assumptions.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
14. Consider a large cubic ice block floating in seawater.
The specific gravities of ice and seawater are 0.92 and
1.025, respectively. If a 25-cm-high portion of the ice
block extends above the surface of the water, determine
the height of the ice block below the surface.
15. It is said that Archimedes discovered his principle during a bath while thinking about
how he could determine if King Hiero’s crown was actually made of pure gold. While in the
bathtub, he conceived the idea that he could determine the average density of an irregularly
shaped object by weighing it in air and also in water. If the crown weighed 534.8 N in air and
531.9 N in water, determine if the crown is made of pure gold. The density of gold is 19,300
kg/m3. Discuss how you can solve this problem without weighing the crown in water but by
using an ordinary bucket with no calibration for volume. You may weigh anything in air.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Fluid Mechanics-1 Fluid Kinematics
Fluid kinematics deals with describing the motion of fluids without necessarily considering
the forces and moments that cause the motion.
Newton’s laws are used to describe the motion of such objects, and we can accurately
predict where they go and how momentum and kinetic energy are exchanged from one
object to another. The kinematics of such experiments involves keeping track of the position
vector of each object, and the velocity vector of each object,
as functions of time. When this method is applied to a flowing fluid, we call it the Lagrangian
description of fluid motion after the Italian mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-
1813). The Lagrangian description requires us to track the position and velocity of each
individual fluid parcel, which we refer to as a fluid particle.
As you can imagine, this method of describing motion is much
more difficult for fluids. First of all we cannot easily define and
identify fluid particles as they move around. Secondly, a fluid is a
continuum (from a macroscopic point of view), so interactions
between fluid particles are not as easy to describe as are
interactions between distinct objects. Furthermore, the fluid
particles continually deform as they move in the flow.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
A more common method of describing fluid flow is the Eulerian description of fluid motion,
named after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783). In the Eulerian
description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow domain or control volume is defined,
through which fluid flows in and out. Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define
field variables, functions of space and time, within the control volume.
The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the value of the variable for
whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that time. For example, the
pressure field is a scalar field variable; for general unsteady three-dimensional fluid flow in
Cartesian coordinates,
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Collectively, these (and other) field variables define the flow field.
The velocity field is expanded in Cartesian coordinates
A similar expansion can be performed for the acceleration field
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Path-line
A path-line is the actual path traveled by an
individual fluid particle over some time period.
Stream-line
A stream-line is a curve that is everywhere
tangent to the instantaneous local velocity
vector.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Streak-line
A streak-line is the locus of fluid particles that
have passed sequentially through a prescribed
point in the flow.
Vector Plots
A vector plot is an array of arrows indicating
the magnitude and direction of a vector
property at an instant in time.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Fluid Kinematics
Fluid Mechanics-1
Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements

In fluid mechanics, as in solid mechanics, an element may undergo four fundamental types of
motion or deformation:
(a)translation,
(b) rotation,
(c) linear strain (sometimes called extensional strain), and
(d) shear strain.
In particular, we discuss velocity (rate of

translation), angular velocity (rate of rotation),
linear strain rate (rate of linear strain), and
shear strain rate (rate of shear strain).
1. The rate of translation vector is described
mathematically as the velocity vector. In
Cartesian coordinates,
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
2. The rate of rotation vector is equal to the angular velocity vector and
is expressed in Cartesian coordinates as:
3. The linear strain rate is defined as the rate of increase in length per unit length.
4. The Shear strain rate at a point is defined as half of the rate of decrease of the
angle between two initially perpendicular lines that intersect at the point.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Consider the steady, two-dimensional velocity field
where lengths are in units of m, time in s, and velocities in m/s. There is a stagnation point at
(20.625, 1.875). Calculate the rate of translation, rate of rotation, linear strain rate, shear
strain rate.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Fluid Mechanics-1 Bernoulli and energy equations
Mass and Volume Flow Rates

The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the mass flow
rate and is denoted by m̊. The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate of change.
Note that both δ and d are used to indicate differential quantities, but δ is typically used for
quantities (such as heat, work, and mass transfer) that are path functions and have inexact
differentials, while d is used for quantities (such as properties) that are point functions and
have exact differentials.
Where Vavg denotes the average velocity in the flow

direction. Also, Ac denotes the cross-sectional area
normal to the flow direction
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the volume
flow rate
Conservation of Mass Principle
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
MECHANICAL ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY

Many fluid systems are designed to transport a fluid
from one location to another at a specified flow rate,
velocity, and elevation difference, and the system
may generate mechanical work in a turbine or it may
consume mechanical work in a pump or fan during
this process. Therefore, the mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid can be expressed on a unit-mass basis
as;
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Prob. The water in a large lake is to be used to
generate electricity by the installation of a hydraulic
turbine generator. The elevation difference between
the free surfaces upstream and downstream of the
dam is 50 m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000
kg/s. If the electric power generated is measured to
be 1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95%,
determine (a) the overall efficiency of the turbine
generator, (b) the mechanical efficiency of the
turbine, and (C) the shaft power supplied by the
turbine to the generator.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces
are negligible
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant
along a streamline during steady flow when compressibility and frictional
effects are negligible.
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the flow, kinetic, and potential energies of a
fluid particle along a streamline is constant. Therefore, the kinetic and potential energies of
the fluid can be converted to flow energy (and vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure
to change. This phenomenon can be made more visible by multiplying the Bernoulli
equation by the density ρ,
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term represents some kind of
pressure:
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
The stagnation pressure represents the

pressure at a point where the fluid is
brought to a complete stop isentropically.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Bernoulli and energy equations
Fluid Mechanics-1
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
2016, Cairo, Egypt

Department
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Prob. The pump of a water distribution system is powered by a
15-kW electric motor whose efficiency is 90 percent. The water
flow rate through the pump is 50 L/s. The diameters of the inlet
and outlet pipes are the same, and the elevation difference
across the pump is negligible. If the absolute pressures at the
inlet and outlet of the pump are measured to be 100 kPa and
300 kPa, respectively, determine (a) the mechanical efficiency
of the pump and (b) the temperature rise of water as it flows
through the pump due to mechanical inefficiencies.
2016, Cairo, Egypt

Department
Prob. A submersible pump with a shaft power of 5 kW and an efficiency
of 72 percent is used to pump water from a lake to a pool through a
constant diameter pipe. The free surface of the pool is 25 m above the
free surface of the lake. If the irreversible head loss in the piping system
is 4 m, determine the discharge rate of water and the pressure
difference across the pump.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
1. A pressurized tank of water has a 10-cm-diameter orifice at the
bottom, where water discharges to the atmosphere. The water level is
2.5 m above the outlet. The tank air pressure above the water level is
250 kPa (absolute) while the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
Neglecting frictional effects, determine the initial discharge rate of
water from the tank.
2. Air at 105 kPa and 37°C flows upward through a 6-cm-diameter

inclined duct at a rate of 65 L/s. The duct diameter is then reduced
to 4 cm through a reducer. The pressure change across the reducer
is measured by a water manometer. The elevation difference
between the two points on the pipe where the two arms of the
manometer are attached is 0.20 m. Determine the differential
height between the fluid levels of the two arms of the manometer.
3. A Pitot-static probe connected to a water manometer is used to
measure the velocity of air. If the deflection (the vertical distance
between the fluid levels in the two arms) is 5.5 cm, determine the
air velocity. Take the density of air to be 1.16 kg/m3.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
4. Water flows at a rate of 20 L/s through a horizontal pipe
whose diameter is constant at 3 cm. The pressure drop across a
valve in the pipe is measured to be 2 kPa, as shown in figure.
Determine the irreversible head loss of the valve, and the useful
pumping power needed to overcome the resulting pressure
drop.
5. Water enters a hydraulic turbine through a 30-cmdiameter
pipe at a rate of 0.6 m3/s and exits through a 25-cmdiameter
pipe. The pressure drop in the turbine is measured by a
mercury manometer to be 1.2 m. For a combined turbine–
generator efficiency of 83 percent, determine the net electric
power output.
6. Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir
by a pump that provides 20 kW of useful mechanical power to
the water. The free surface of the upper reservoir is 45 m higher
than the surface of the lower reservoir. If the flow rate of water
is measured to be 0.03 m3/s, determine the irreversible head
loss of the system and the lost mechanical power during this
process.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

Department
7. A fireboat is to fight fires at coastal areas by drawing seawater with a density of 1030
kg/m3 through a 10 cm diameter pipe at a rate of 0.04 m3/s and discharging it through a hose
nozzle with an exit diameter of 5 cm. The total irreversible head loss of the system is 3 m,
and the position of the nozzle is 3 m above sea level. For a pump efficiency of 70 percent,
determine the required shaft power input to the pump and the water discharge velocity.
2018, Cairo, Egypt

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Mechatronics Engineering

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

where P is the absolute pressure, v is the specific volume, T is the thermodynamic

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

Prob. In a water distribution system, the temperature of water is observed to be as high

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

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Prob. Air enters a diffuser shown in figure with a speed of 200

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It appears that there is a property that represents the

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where A is the contact area between the plate

2018, Cairo, Egypt

where y is the vertical distance from the lower plate.

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the

2018, Cairo, Egypt

where T is absolute temperature and a and b are experimentally determined constants.

For liquids, the viscosity is approximated as

where T is absolute temperature and a, b, and c are experimentally determined constants.

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

Pressure and Fluid statics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

Pressure and Fluid statics

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE

2018, Cairo, Egypt

The absolute pressure at any point on the plate is

2018, Cairo, Egypt

PC is the pressure at the centroid of the surface,

2018, Cairo, Egypt

Pressure and Fluid statics

Where Ixx,C is the second moment of area (also

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

2018, Cairo, Egypt

Prob. heavy car plunges into a lake during an accident and