EPRI - Life Cycle Management Volume 4 Large Power Transformer

Life Cycle Management
Planning Sourcebooks
Volume 4: Large Power Transformers
Technical Report
Other
Emergency
9%
Diesel Generator
Start
16% Scram
Loss of Off-site 43%
Power
8%
Shutdown
Down Power
12%
12%
Consequences of Main Transformer Events
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Life Cycle Management
Planning Sourcebooks
Volume 4: Large Power Transformers
1007422
Final Report, March 2003
EPRI Project Manager

G. Sliter
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
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DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
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Copyright © 2003 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Sargent & Lundy LLC

55 East Monroe Street
Chicago, IL 60603
Principal Investigators
B. Rao
G. Mavropoulos
B. Gogineni
B. Lewis
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Life Cycle Management Sourcebook: Volume 4: Large Power Transformers, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2003. 1007422.
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REPORT SUMMARY
EPRI is producing a series of “Life Cycle Management Planning Sourcebooks,” each containing
a compilation of industry experience information and data on aging degradation and historical
performance for a specific type of system, structure, or component (SSC). This sourcebook
provides information and guidance for implementing cost-effective life cycle management
(LCM) planning for large transformers.
Background
As explained in the LCM Sourcebook Overview Report (1003058), the industry cost for
producing LCM plans for the many important SSCs in operating plants can be reduced if LCM
planners have an LCM sourcebook of generic industry performance data for each SSC they
address. The general objective of EPRI’s LCM sourcebook effort is to provide system engineers
with generic information, data, and guidance they can use to generate long-term equipment
reliability plans for plant-specific SSCs (aging and obsolescence management plans optimized in
terms of plant performance and financial risk). The equipment reliability plan or “LCM plan” for
a plant SSC combines industry experience and plant-specific performance data to provide an
optimum maintenance plan, schedule, and cost profile throughout the plant’s remaining
operating life.
Objective
To provide plant engineers (or their expert consultants) with a compilation of the generic
information, data, and guidance typically needed to produce a plant-specific LCM plan for large
transformers.
Approach
Experts in the maintenance and aging management of large transformer systems followed the
LCM process developed in EPRI’s LCM Implementation Demonstration Project (1000806). The
scope of the physical system and of component types included in the study was defined.
Information and data on historical industry performance of selected types of large transformers
within this scope were compiled. EPRI LCM utility advisors reviewed the sourcebook prior to its
publication.
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Results
This sourcebook contains information on large transformers such as Generator Step-Up (GSU),
Unit Auxiliary Transformer (UAT), and Startup Auxiliary or Reserve Auxiliary Transformers
(RATs/SATs). It also contains information on transformer accessories and monitoring devices
for transformer protection and performance. Information includes performance monitoring
issues, component aging mechanisms, aging management maintenance activities, equipment
upgrades, and replacements. Based on this information, alternative LCM plan strategy guidance
has been developed, along with recommendations. The plan strategy guidance provides
information for implementing cost-effective LCM planning for large transformers. The
sourcebook includes an extensive list of references, many of which are EPRI reports related to
the maintenance and reliability of large power transformers.
EPRI Perspective
Using this report as a starting point should enable the preparation of plant-specific plans for large
transformers with substantially less effort and cost than if planners had to start from scratch. The
sourcebook captures both industry experience and the expertise of the sourcebook authors. Using
this sourcebook, plant engineers need only add plant-specific data and information to complete
an economic evaluation and LCM plan for the plant’s large transformers. EPRI plans to sponsor
additional LCM sourcebooks for as many important SSC types as may be useful to operating
plants (perhaps 30 to 40) and as are allowed by industry-wide resources. The process of using
sourcebooks as an aid in preparing LCM plans will improve as the industry gains experience.
EPRI welcomes constructive feedback from users and plans to incorporate lessons learned in
future revisions of LCM sourcebooks.
Keywords
Life cycle management
Nuclear asset management
System reliability
Component reliability
Large transformer
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CONTENTS
1 MANAGEMENT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................1-1
2 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................2-1
2.1 Purpose of LCM Sourcebooks .......................................................................................2-1
2.2 Relationship of Sourcebook to LCM Process.................................................................2-1
2.3 Basis for Selection of the Large Transformers for LCM Sourcebook .............................2-1
3 BASIC INFORMATION ON LARGE TRANSFORMERS .......................................................3-1

3.1 Safety and Operational Significance ..............................................................................3-1
3.2 Large Transformer Functions .........................................................................................3-2
3.3 System and Component Boundaries..............................................................................3-3
3.3.1 Transformer Components.......................................................................................3-3
3.3.1.1 Tank and Oil Preservation ..............................................................................3-3
3.3.1.2 Magnetic Core.................................................................................................3-5
3.3.1.3 Windings .........................................................................................................3-5
3.3.1.4 Insulation System ...........................................................................................3-6
3.3.1.5 Insulating Liquid ..............................................................................................3-6
3.3.1.6 Transformer Accessories ................................................................................3-6
3.4 Scope and Equipment Covered by the Sourcebook ......................................................3-9
4 INDUSTRY OPERATING EXPERIENCE AND PERFORMANCE HISTORY ........................4-1

4.1 Nuclear Industry Experience ..........................................................................................4-1
4.1.1 Qualitative Data ......................................................................................................4-1
4.1.2 Quantitative Data....................................................................................................4-2
4.1.2.1 Relative Magnitude of Large Transformer Failure Frequency .........................4-5
4.1.3 Maintenance Rule...................................................................................................4-7
4.1.4 EPRI PM Basis Templates .....................................................................................4-8
4.1.5 Current PM Activities and Candidate PM Tasks...................................................4-17
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4.2 NRC Generic Communications and Other Reports......................................................4-18
4.2.1 NRC Communications ..........................................................................................4-18
4.2.2 Other Nuclear Industry Data.................................................................................4-18
4.3 Experience in Fossil Power Generation and Industrial Facilities...................................4-20
5 GUIDANCE FOR PLANT-SPECIFIC SSC CONDITION AND PERFORMANCE

ASSESSMENT ..........................................................................................................................5-1
5.1 Compiling SSC Operating and Performance History .....................................................5-1
5.1.1 SSC Condition Reviews ..........................................................................................5-2
5.1.2 Periodic Visual Transformer Inspections ................................................................5-2
5.1.2.1 Inspection Frequency......................................................................................5-3
5.1.2.2 Typical Inspections .........................................................................................5-3
5.1.3 Review of Diagnostic Tests and Monitoring Devices..............................................5-4
5.2 Review of Current Maintenance Plans ...........................................................................5-7
5.2.1 Compiling Maintenance History..............................................................................5-7
5.2.2 Inventory of Current Maintenance Activities ...........................................................5-7
5.2.2.1 Pumps.............................................................................................................5-8
5.2.2.2 Bushings .........................................................................................................5-9
5.2.2.3 Control and Protective Devices.......................................................................5-9
5.2.2.4 Gas Cushion Oil Preservation.......................................................................5-10
5.3 Conducting the Condition and Performance Assessment............................................5-10
5.4 Condition Monitoring Technologies ..............................................................................5-12
5.4.1 Recommended Test Sequences ..........................................................................5-12
5.4.2 Gas-In-Oil Analysis...............................................................................................5-13
5.4.3 Dielectric Strength Guidelines ..............................................................................5-14
5.4.4 Dielectric Tests .....................................................................................................5-14
5.4.5 Water In Oil Tests.................................................................................................5-15
5.4.6 Water Content of Paper Insulation .......................................................................5-15
5.4.7 Oil Power Factor...................................................................................................5-16
5.4.8 Oil Interfacial Tension...........................................................................................5-17
5.4.9 Condition Monitoring Systems..............................................................................5-18
5.4.9.1 Gas-In-Oil Sensors .......................................................................................5-18
5.4.9.2 Temperature Sensors ...................................................................................5-18
5.4.9.3 Oil Level Gauges ..........................................................................................5-19
5.4.9.4 Rate-of-Rise Relays......................................................................................5-19
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5.4.9.5 Gas Collector Relay ......................................................................................5-19
5.4.9.6 Oil Pump Performance Sensors ...................................................................5-20
5.4.9.7 Load Tap Changer (LTC) Monitors ...............................................................5-20
5.4.9.8 Infrared Thermography .................................................................................5-21
5.4.9.9 Water-In-Oil Sensors ....................................................................................5-21
5.4.9.10 Partial Discharge Detection ........................................................................5-21
5.4.9.11 Acoustic Emission Devices .........................................................................5-21
5.4.9.12 Acoustic Sensors ........................................................................................5-22
5.4.9.13 Internal Sensors..........................................................................................5-22
6 GENERIC AGING AND OBSOLESCENCE ASSESSMENT .................................................6-1

6.1 Aging Mechanism Review ..............................................................................................6-1
6.1.1 Other Sources of Generic Failure Data ..................................................................6-4
6.2 Expected Lifetimes of Major Components....................................................................6-14
6.3 Technical Obsolescence ..............................................................................................6-14
7 GENERIC ALTERNATIVE LCM PLANS ...............................................................................7-1

7.1 Plant Operating Strategies and Types of LCM Planning Alternatives ............................7-1
7.1.1 Plant Strategy 1: Operate the plant for the currently licensed period of 40
years.................................................................................................................................7-1
7.1.2 Plant Strategy 2: Operate the plant for 60 years under a License Renewal
Program............................................................................................................................7-2
7.2 Development of Detailed Alternative LCM Plans ..........................................................7-2
7.3 Hypothetical Illustration of Assembling LCM Planning Alternatives ...............................7-3
8 GUIDANCE FOR ESTIMATING FUTURE FAILURE RATES................................................8-1
9 PLANT-SPECIFIC GUIDANCE FOR ECONOMIC MODELING ............................................9-1
10 INFORMATION SOURCES AND REFERENCES .............................................................10-1
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1a LCM Planning Flowchart – SSC Categorization and Selection ..............................2-2
Figure 2-1b LCM Planning Flowchart – Technical and Economic Evaluation............................2-3
Figure 2-1c LCM Planning Flowchart – Implementation ...........................................................2-4
Figure 3-1 Typical Generating Station One-Line Diagram .........................................................3-4
Figure 4-1 Number of Transformer Events Per Year .................................................................4-2
Figure 4-2 Transformer Events ..................................................................................................4-4
Figure 4-3 Causes of Transformer Events.................................................................................4-4
Figure 4-4 Results of Transformer Events .................................................................................4-6
Figure 4-5 Transformer Failure Rate Per Plant and Per Year....................................................4-7
Figure 4-6 Number of Transformer Failures by Year ...............................................................4-22
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1 Transformer Events 1991 – 2001 ..............................................................................4-3

Table 4-2 Failure Rates Calculated from EPIX (SOER 02-3) Data............................................4-5
Table 4-3 Transformers (Station-Type, Oil-Immersed) ..............................................................4-9
Table 4-4 PM Tasks and Degradation Mechanisms (from EPRI TR-106857, V. 38)...............4-11
Table 4-5 Maintenance Tests, Routine Maintenance, Inspections and Frequency .................4-17
Table 4-6 European Nuclear Power Plant Failure Data...........................................................4-21
Table 4-7 Analysis of Power Transformer Failures for 1975, 1988, and 1998.........................4-21
Table 4-8 Transformer Component Failures ............................................................................4-23
Table 5-1 Dissolved Gas Concentration ....................................................................................5-6
Table 5-2 Recommended Test Sequences .............................................................................5-12
Table 5-3 Typical Maintenance Oil Test Frequency ................................................................5-13
Table 5-4 Dielectric Strength Guidelines .................................................................................5-14
Table 5-5 Maximum Water-in-Oil Test .....................................................................................5-15
Table 5-6 Maximum Water Content .........................................................................................5-16
Table 5-7 Maximum Acceptable Percent Power Factors of Oil ...............................................5-16
Table 5-8 Oil Interfacial Test....................................................................................................5-17
Table 6-1 Common Maintenance Issues and Surveillance Techniques ....................................6-2
Table 6-2 Degradation Mechanisms ..........................................................................................6-5
Table 6-3 Application of Obsolescence Evaluation Criteria for a Cooling Fan.........................6-15
Table 7-1 Guide for Staging of Pumps on Forced-Oil-Air (FOA) Transformers ........................7-3
Table 7-2 Hypothetical Example for Single Tank, Single Unit, 3-Phase Transformer................7-5
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1
MANAGEMENT SUMMARY
This Life Cycle Management (LCM) Planning Sourcebook for large transformers will help guide
plant engineers or expert consultants in preparing a life cycle management plan (long-term
reliability plan) for large transformers at their plants. The generic information and guidance
presented in this sourcebook is expected to help plant engineers focus on areas where there may
be significant opportunities for cost-effective improvements. Use of the sourcebook will reduce
the cost of preparing a plant-specific LCM plan by approximately a third compared to starting
from scratch.
The sourcebook identifies component aging mechanisms together with the maintenance activities
to manage them, as well as obsolescence issues and available management options. It provides
hypothetical LCM plan alternatives to serve as starting points for plant-specific applications.
Guidance consists mainly of generic industry-wide information and references on large
transformers and their components. Guidance is provided on how to build alternative LCM
plans that can be considered during long-term planning for the critical components. Depending
on the level of detail desired for the plant-specific LCM plan, the generic data in this sourcebook
may allow engineers to identify areas where significant cost-effective improvements or reduction
in maintenance activity can be realized and where long term planning for emerging obsolescence
issues can be developed.
Important reasons for covering large power transformers in a sourcebook are:

• High reliability of large transformers is important to economic plant operation.
• At some plants, inspection and maintenance of large power transformers is not given a high
priority.
• Some of the large power transformers and their components may become obsolete in the near
future, requiring replacement, substitution, or upgrades, particularly for plants contemplating
license renewal or power uprate.
• Increased load on the main transformer due to power uprate and increased electrical loads on
the auxiliary transformers have reduced transformer life.
Large transformer industry reliability issues addressed by this study are:

• Monitoring of the oil and insulation quality is paramount to preserving the life of a
transformer.
• Although transformers are designed and built for 30 to 40 year service life, operating and
maintenance practices can affect their service life span.
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Management Summary
The potential alternative LCM plans considered include:

• Implementing diagnostic maintenance, which includes programs such as thermography, oil
analysis, etc.
• Establishing/revising Preventive Maintenance (PM)/Predictive Maintenance (PdM) tasks and
schedules.
• Establishing refurbishment program.
• Maintaining a spare in the same fashion as the operating transformers.
• Establishing other options for spare transformers on a pre-negotiated basis with vendors or
other plants.
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2
INTRODUCTION
2.1 Purpose of LCM Sourcebooks
As indicated in the Life Cycle Management (LCM) Sourcebook Overview Report [1], an LCM
sourcebook is a compilation of generic information, data, and guidance an engineer typically
needs to produce a plant-specific LCM plan for a System, Structure or Component (SSC). This
sourcebook will enable plant engineers or outside experts to develop a plant-specific LCM plan
for large transformers with substantially less effort than if they had to start from scratch. The
engineer need only add plant-specific data and information to complete an economic evaluation
and LCM plan for large transformers.
It must be recognized that not all generic information in a sourcebook applies to every plant.
Some of the data can serve for comparison or benchmarking when preparing plant-specific LCM
plans. Other data may show indicators or precursors to problems not yet experienced at a given
plant. Therefore, caution and guidance is provided in the plant-specific guidance sections
(Sections 5, 8, and 9 of the sourcebook) for the use and application of the generic information.
These sections also contain useful tips and lessons-learned from the EPRI LCM Plant
Implementation Demonstration Program [2].
2.2 Relationship of Sourcebook to LCM Process

The process steps for LCM planning are described in detail in the EPRI LCM Report [2]. The
LCM planning flowchart (Figures 2-1a, b, c of this large transformer sourcebook) is essentially
the same as Figure 1-1 of the LCM Sourcebook Overview Report [1]. The chart is segmented
into the four elements of the LCM planning process: SSC categorization/selection, technical
evaluation, economic evaluation, and implementation. Process step numbering has been
maintained consistent with the LCM report.
2.3 Basis for Selection of the Large Transformers for LCM Sourcebook
An LCM Sourcebook for large transformers has been prepared because the component met the
following important objectives of the SSC selection process:
• Applicability to both BWRs and PWRs
• Importance to safety risk and regulatory concern
• Importance to power production
• Subjected to significant degradation and obsolescence
• Have a history of chronic maintenance problems
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Introduction
Figure 2-1a
LCM Planning Flowchart – SSC Categorization and Selection
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Introduction
Figure 2-1b
LCM Planning Flowchart – Technical and Economic Evaluation
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Introduction
Figure 2-1c
LCM Planning Flowchart – Implementation
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3
BASIC INFORMATION ON LARGE TRANSFORMERS
This section addresses step number 7 in Figure 2-1a. Large transformers are used in power plants
to connect the main generator to the high-voltage (HV) transmission system. Large transformers
are also used to connect the plant and off-site sources to the plant’s distribution system for
operation of auxiliary equipment at medium and low voltages. The large transformers of
particular interest to the power plants range in size from 2.5 MVA to 1500 MVA with a voltage
range of 4.16 kV to 765 kV and are typically installed outdoors. The characteristics of large
transformers do not depend on whether the plant is a PWR or a BWR, but on the size of the
transformer (i.e., MVA rating). Larger MVA range transformers are custom designed to meet
the parameters such as voltages, short circuit currents, etc., specified by the plant requirements.
This sourcebook will focus on Generator Step-Up (GSU) or Unit Transformers (UT), Unit
Auxiliary Transformers (UAT), Startup Auxiliary Transformers (SAT), also called Reserve
Auxiliary Transformers (RAT). EPRI’s “Power Transformer Application and Maintenance
Guide” [5], provides a list of the subject transformers in nuclear plants located in the US and
Canada. The list indicates the manufacturers, ratings, and types.
3.1 Safety and Operational Significance
The GSU transformer is used to step-up plant generated voltage (18 to 26 kV) to the required
grid voltage (115 to 765 kV). In contrast, the reserve and auxiliary transformers step-down the
voltage to the desired plant system voltages (4.16 to 13 kV). The GSU transformers are non-
safety-related but the loss of a main transformer could cause scrams, and/or transients, with the
resulting loss of power production. The auxiliary transformers are typically non-safety-related,
but they are “important to safety” as they supply power to the safety-related buses and also serve
as an off-site power source for plant operation and shutdown. These transformers, along with
the offsite power system, are designed to meet the nuclear plant general design criteria as stated
in the FSAR and Technical Specifications. These transformers are the preferred source of power
to supply the safety-related auxiliary buses under accident and post-accident conditions. Safety-
related auxiliary buses are essential for safe shutdown or in preventing significant release of
radioactive material to the environment. The safety-related buses are supported by diesel backup
power; however, the loss of these transformers has major implications for plant safety and causes
undesirable challenges to the plant safety systems.
The functions of large transformers are as follows:

• The GSU is used to connect the generator to the high voltage transmission system or to the
grid. These are built as three-phase units in one tank or three single-phase units in separate
tanks. Failure of the GSU will cause a plant trip.
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Basic Information on Large Transformers
• The UAT -- also called “normal station service transformer” -- is usually fed from the main
generator leads and supplies power to the unit auxiliaries. The UATs supply power to the unit
auxiliary equipment (4.16 or 13 kV) buses. Failure of a UAT causes the loss of one power
source and may result in a plant trip or reduced power operation.
• The RAT or SAT is used to provide a second source of power for the plant auxiliary
equipment from an off-site source. The RAT/SAT provides power to the station equipment
when the generating unit is off-line, and serves as a backup power supply when on-line. The
RAT/SAT feeds the plant auxiliary equipment through a segregated or non-segregated bus
duct. The primary side of this transformer (off-site source) is high voltage in the range of 69
kV to 765 kV. Some plants have on-site auxiliary power supplies (gas-powered combustion
turbine generators, auxiliary diesels, etc.), and therefore may not require an RAT or SAT.
Nuclear power plants are required by the NRC to have redundancy for their safety-related
auxiliary power buses. UATs, RATs/SATs, and diesel generators feed the safety-related buses.
Redundancy is provided to each safety-related bus by one or two UATs served by the generator
and one or two SATs served from reserve or an alternate source. This system, with the desired
breaker line-up, can bring power from another source to the plant distribution system. Another
method is to provide redundancy by the use of a normal and/or maintenance (swing) bus. In this
case, all loads are transferred to another bus fed from another source.
3.2 Large Transformer Functions
Large power transformers transmit bulk power for distribution and provide power for plant
auxiliary loads. All large US-made transformers are designed, manufactured, and operated in
accordance with IEEE/ANSI Standard C57.12.00, “General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed
Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers” [24]. The transformers considered in this
sourcebook are large units, located outdoors, and typically liquid-cooled. Detailed information
on large transformers can be found in textbooks and other publications such as the EPRI Power
Plant Electrical Series, Volume 2, [22] “Power Transformers,” and EPRI TR-1002913, “Power
Transformer Application and Maintenance Guide” [5].
The generator is connected to the high voltage system through isophase bus ducts and the
generator main transformer. The main transformer/GSU usually carries constant load. The
primary winding of the GSU is connected by flexible links to the isophase bus duct that connects
to the terminals of the generator.
The GSU normally requires no voltage regulating winding since the field of the generator
regulates the voltage. The secondary winding of the GSU is high voltage and requires large
internal clearances, which means the transformer tank is large. On large generator MVA output,
some utilities choose multiple, single-phase transformers or two half-MVA capacity three-phase
transformers.
The UAT is tapped off the isophase bus duct to feed the plant auxiliary equipment through a
segregated or non-segregated bus duct. The UAT load may vary during startup and shutdown
switching operations. The UAT primary and secondary voltages are medium range and the
transformer tank is normally smaller with small internal clearances.
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A second power supply for plant auxiliary equipment is provided from the preferred power
supply (off-site source) though the RAT or SAT. The RAT/SAT provides power to the station
equipment when the generating unit is off-line and serves as a backup power supply when the
unit is on-line. It feeds the plant auxiliary equipment through a segregated or non-segregated bus
duct. The primary side of this transformer (off-site source) is high voltage and requires large
internal clearances.
Figure 3-1 is a typical generating station one-line diagram that illustrates the use of large
transformers.
3.3 System and Component Boundaries
This LCM sourcebook includes the GSU, RAT, SAT, UAT, and their components. The detail
and depth of evaluation for the individual components are commensurate with their importance
and reliability.
The following subsections discuss the individual components and their respective functions and
importance.
3.3.1 Transformer Components
The principal parts of a transformer include:

• tank and oil preservation
• magnetic core
• windings
• insulation system
• insulating liquid
• accessories
3.3.1.1 Tank and Oil Preservation
The transformer case or tank that houses the core and coil provides mechanical protection for the
core and coil assembly and contains transformer cooling oil. Gaskets made of neoprene, cork-
nitrile, nitrile, or viton are used throughout the transformer to prevent leakage of oil from pumps,
manways, and accessory devices.
Sealed-Tank System. The sealed-tank type has a space above the oil in the transformer tank, which is filled with an
inert gas such as nitrogen under pressure. The gas pressure is such that it does not cause high differential pressure
between the inside and outside of the tank. The transformer tank and other components are tightly sealed, thereby
preventing moisture entering the tank. Transformers utilizing this type of oil preservation system are equipped with
a pressure/vacuum bleeder to allow the nitrogen to be expelled if the internal pressure gets too high, and allows
outside air to enter if the internal pressure gets too low, thereby protecting the main tank from possible damage.
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Figure 3-1
Typical Generating Station One-Line Diagram
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Inert-Gas-Pressure System. The inert gas system uses a blanket of nitrogen to pressurize the
void space above the oil volume to a pressure slightly greater than atmospheric. The nitrogen is
supplied from storage bottles located near the transformer; a regulating valve maintains a slight
positive pressure on the void space. During periods of expansion, another valve controls the
venting of excess gas, thereby preventing over-pressurization. The regulating valves are
calibrated to prevent simultaneous venting and charging of gas. Periodically, the gas bottle
inventory is verified, and empty bottles are replaced or recharged.
Sealed Conservator System. In the sealed conservator, the entire volume of the tank is kept
continually filled with fluid from a surge tank (conservator) mounted above the main tank. As
the volume of the fluid decreases or increases, the surge is made up by or exhausted to the
conservator tank. The void space (open to atmosphere) and fluid volume in the conservator are
separated by a diaphragm (air cell or bladder) which prevents the contamination of the oil by
moisture, gases, or other contaminants. The cycling of the air to the bladder may pass through an
air dryer filled with desiccant. Oil level in the conservator tank is measured via a float-type level
sensor; the main tank is always completely filled.
Free-Breathing Conservator System. This system is identical to the Sealed Conservator System
except that there is no diaphragm or bladder. In this system, the surface of the oil in the
conservator tank is exposed to the outside air. The cycling of the air in and out of the
conservator passes through an air dryer filled with desiccant in order to keep moisture from
entering the transformer. Transformers utilizing this system usually have a high oxygen content.
3.3.1.2 Magnetic Core
The core is that part of a transformer in which the alternating magnetic field flows. It provides a
low-reluctance path for the flux linking primary and secondary coils. The core is made of a very
high grade iron with a small percentage of silicon. The core is formed of thin sheets, and each
side of each sheet is coated with an insulating material. The laminating and insulating thin
sheets form a high resistance path to the eddy-current. This material prevents currents from
circulating in the core with the resultant heat and loss of power.
Core laminations are properly secured by a clamping structure. The whole core assembly is
clamped together by steel frames to hold the transformer windings together to withstand
mechanical forces generated during normal operation or under fault conditions.
3.3.1.3 Windings
Transformer winding coils are designed and wound around the core according to the transformer
ratio, i.e., the number of turns. An individual winding turn may consist of many copper strands
that are insulated individually. The entire turn is usually wrapped in paper insulation. A turn
usually consists of several individually insulated copper conductor strands. Some turns are
constructed from continuously transposed conductor (CTC). The individual strands within the
CTC occupy a different position in the turn as it is wound. This system is used to reduce leakage
flux and thus has a higher short circuit strength. The windings are constructed by winding the
turns over a winding cylinder, which is mounted on a winding mandrel.
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Some of the basic types of transformer winding are disk, layer, pancake and helical. A disk
winding consists of physically parallel winding sections, which are connected electrically in
series. Each section of the winding contains one or more turns. Radial and axial spacers are
placed between each section to provide insulation between sections and to allow oil to cool the
copper conductors. Radial and axial spacers are also placed between turns of a helical winding
for insulation and cooling purposes. Layer windings are composed of complete layers of turns
spanning the length of the winding and separated by insulation and axial spacers for cooling.
Pancake windings are used on shell-form transformers and are composed of individual
rectangular washers stacked together to form the complete winding.
3.3.1.4 Insulation System
The most widely used winding insulation material is paper. When dried and impregnated with
good quality oil, electrical grade paper has high dielectric strength. Besides winding insulation,
insulating barriers are used between parts of the winding and between windings. As the paper
ages, it becomes brittle. Other types of insulation, such as enamels, are used to insulate the
copper strands that comprise a winding turn.
3.3.1.5 Insulating Liquid
The primary functions of the insulating oil are to insulate the primary from the secondary
windings and ground, and to transfer the heat from the windings to external cooling equipment.
The oil used in transformers is a highly refined mineral oil. Oil penetrates the paper insulation
and fills the spaces between the core and coils, thus maintaining the properties of paper and other
cellulose-based insulation material.
Transformer oil will maintain its maximum dielectric properties if the water content is kept low
(the dielectric properties break down with increased water content). Some quantity of water is
locked in the transformer cellulose insulation. Although a new transformer has gone through the
drying process, insulation such as paper, pressboard, or other material is not water-free. When a
new transformer is placed in-service, some of this water comes out of the insulation and mixes
with the oil. In addition, moisture may be present in newly refined oil. External moisture from
the atmosphere is another source of water.
Failures are minimal if oil and paper are kept dry, the oxygen content is nominal, and the hot-
spot temperatures are not above the nameplate ratings.
Particle contamination also reduces the dielectric properties of transformer oil. Additives such as
oxidation inhibitors and anti-sludging additives are used in the oil to improve its long-term
characteristics
3.3.1.6 Transformer Accessories
Major accessories can contribute to transformer failures if not properly monitored and
maintained. Examples of failed accessories that can contribute to transformer failures are
bushings, load tap changers, and sudden pressure relays.
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Oil Level Indicator. The oil level indicator is used to indicate the level of the insulating oil in
liquid-immersed transformers. A common design of indicator uses a pivoted float arm located in
the tank and magnetically coupled to a shaft and pointer arrangement outside of the tank, thereby
allowing a completely sealed interface. When the position of the float changes, the magnetic
coupling is rotated which moves the pointer a proportionate amount. The indicator also includes
alarm switches for monitoring functions.
Oil Temperature Indicator. The oil temperature indicator consists of a temperature sensing bulb,
indicating device, and a switch. The switch can be used to control fans, pumps, annunciator
circuits. The indicator has switches for automatic control of one or two stages of cooling fans
and an alarm switch.
Winding Temperature Indicator. For the most common type of winding temperature indicators,
a simulated winding temperature is obtained by adding to the top oil temperature a temperature
increment that results from the heat produced by a current proportional to the load current
flowing through a heating element. Earlier versions of these devices used a physical resistance,
located in a well near the top of the tank, to create the additional heat, but new types can do this
through software. Electronic devices are also available and provide high accuracy.
Gas Detector Relay. A gas detector relay is used on transformers with a conservator tank. The
relay is mounted on top of the transformer and is connected to a gas accumulator with tubing.
The gas accumulator is under the top cover of the transformer. Under normal conditions, the gas
accumulator is filled with oil. During abnormal conditions in the transformer tank, gases are
generated from the deterioration of insulation or decomposition of oil around hot spots. Gases
rise to the gas accumulator and the gas relay. If a significant amount of gas is generated, an
alarm will be actuated. Another type of gas relay is known as the “Bucholtz relay,” and is
mounted in the pipe connection between the main tank and the conservator. Accumulations of
gas in this relay will signal an alarm or trip the transformer.
Pressure Relief Valve. The tank design pressure (approximately 10 psig) is not sufficient to
withstand pressures resulting from large internal faults and therefore, the pressure relief valve is
used to relieve the pressure from the tank.
Sudden Pressure Relay (Rapid Pressure Rise Relay). The sudden pressure or fault pressure relay
detects sudden pressure transients produced within the transformer tank during operation. If the
internal pressure exceeds the safe limits, the relay will activate the tripping scheme to de-
energize the transformer.
The sudden pressure relays are usually temperature compensated to allow relatively stable
pressurization rate detection in the design ambient temperature range. Sudden pressure relays
experience spurious actuations due to age (switch, spring, and diaphragm), vibration, installation
error. Such spurious activity can be prevented by periodic functional tests and/or replacement.
Deluge/Fire Protection. Large power transformers can fail from either an internal or external
electrical fault that results in over pressure of the tank. In cases where an internal pressure is
rapid, the pressure relief device may not be adequate to prevent tank failure. Tank failure may
release substantial quantities of insulating liquid and may initiate a fire.
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NFPA 70, National Electric Code and NFPA 850, Fire Protection for Fossil Fueled Steam
Electric Generating Plants, specify the type of protection required for oil-filled outdoor
transformers. Protection includes the following:
• Separation
• Fire Barriers
• Detection and a water spray system
• Containment
Nitrogen Regulation System. The nitrogen regulation system is used to maintain positive
pressure of nitrogen gas in the tank from an external gas cylinder. It prevents the oil from coming
into direct contact with the surrounding atmosphere.
The gas regulation system consists of the gas cylinder, high and low pressure valves, by-pass
valve, pressure bleeder, hoses, alarm contacts and gauges. An alarm is activated when the
pressure in the external cylinder drops below 300 psi to warn personnel that a new gas cylinder is
needed.
Fans and Radiators. For oil filled transformers, fans and radiators are mounted at various
locations around the transformer for cooling. The fans are usually mounted on the radiators. The
fans, motors, cables and conduit boxes are of weatherproof design and are suitable for outdoor
use. Radiators that are difficult to clean are replaced with coolers having different design fins
that do not clog easily and are easier to clean.
Oil Pumps. The oil pump circulates oil from the transformer tank through the oil coolers. The
pump is controlled by the winding temperature detector. Bearing failure may occur on the oil
pumps and motors.
Tap Changers. Transformers are usually provided with a mechanical switching device to adjust
the voltage ratio by means of adding or removing turns from the winding. The change is
achieved either manually when the transformer is de-energized, or automatically at load.
De-Energized Tap Changers (DETC). DETCs employ manually-operated switching equipment

that changes the turns ratio of the three phases simultaneously and by the same amount. In the
case of single-phase transformers, each has its own manually-operated DETC switching device.
The DETC switching device is located in the main tank along with the core and coils, and the
operating handle is normally located externally on the side of the transformer tank.
The DETC can be operated only when the transformer is de-energized.
Load Tap Changers (LTC). An LTC provides the mechanism to change taps without interruption
of the load current. They are often used in distribution substations, but are relatively uncommon
in power plants. The LTC compartment is periodically drained and the mechanism is flushed
and cleaned, contacts cleaned; and the mechanism adjusted and timed. Internal wiring is
sometimes replaced if worn. All gaskets are replaced when the tank is filled with new oil.
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Lightning Arresters Lightning arresters play a vital role in the protection of transformers against
transient over-voltages resulting from lightning surges and system switching transients. An
arrester consists of an air gap in series with a resister element. A common type of arrester in use
is the valve type, which consists of one or more gaps in series with a dielectric element serving
as a high resistance. Another type is the gapless metal oxide arrester, which consists of a varistor
embedded in a ceramic insulator. In an overvoltage condition, the non-linear resistance of the
metal oxide reduces and causes excessive voltage to be shunted to ground.
Bushings Bushings provide a means of connection between the internal windings and the
external circuit and insulate the primary and secondary windings from the tank. For power
transformer high voltage applications, capacitor-type oil filled bushings are standard equipment.
A limited number of utilities replace all bushings if the transformer is more than 20 years old or
if the power factor is high. Several utilities are replacing a certain type of bushing, which has a
record of failures over the years.
Potential Transformers (PTs). Potential transformers are used in the isophase bus duct to reduce
the bus voltage to a lower voltage for input to the metering and relaying protective scheme.
Current Transformers (CTs). Current transformers are used to reduce primary current to a
proportionally lower value suitable for metering, monitoring and protective schemes.
Control Cabinet. The control cabinet is a weatherproof metal enclosure designed to house all
auxiliary devices except those that must be located directly on the transformer. Auxiliary
devices in the control cabinet include fuses, breakers, control devices (relays and starters), alarm
relays, and associated terminals for wiring and testing.
The control cabinet also houses the AC auxiliary power for pumps and fans, and DC control
power. The AC auxiliary power normally has two sources of power and an automatic throwover
scheme in case the normal feed fails to allow the emergency source to close in after a momentary
interruption.
3.4 Scope and Equipment Covered by the Sourcebook
Large transformers addressed in this sourcebook are the main and the auxiliary transformers.
Most of the large transformers used at nuclear power plants were manufactured by
Westinghouse, General Electric, McGraw Edison, and ABB. The size range addressed in this
sourcebook is 2.5 to 1500 MVA at a high voltage range of 115 to 765 kV and a lower voltage of
4.16 to 13 kV. This sourcebook focuses on the following principal parts and associated
accessories considered critical for the continued operation of a transformer.
• Transformer tank and oil preservation
• Magnetic core and windings
• Cooling systems (including, pumps, fans, piping and the associated valves and
instrumentation)
• Insulation system
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• Electrical connections, terminals

• Lightning arresters
• Taps and tap changers
• Local instrumentation and monitoring equipment
• Current and potential transformers
• Bushings and insulators
• Radiators
• Control panel
The following items, even though important to the function of the transformer, fall under specific
plant programs or are considered commodity items and, therefore, are not included in the scope
of this sourcebook:
• Transformer foundations
• Structural supports
• Electrical buses and cables
• Missile and fire barriers
• Fire protection
• Transformer protective relays (with the exception of sudden pressure relays)
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4
INDUSTRY OPERATING EXPERIENCE AND
PERFORMANCE HISTORY
This section addresses step number 9 in the LCM planning flowchart in Figure 2-1b. The
information compiled in this section is to be used for a comparison or benchmarking to plant-
specific conditions and operating experience. The qualitative data is intended as a checklist of
potential conditions affecting plant-specific performance, while the quantitative failure data may
provide insight into the potential for plant-specific enhancements and help identify where
improvements can best be made.
For example, if the plant-specific component failure rates are much less than what the generic
data indicates, one might conclude that the existing maintenance plan is effective and further
improvements will be difficult to achieve. On the other hand, equipment performance may be
attributed to an excessive maintenance program that would require an overall adjustment of the
maintenance practices. Similarly, if the plant-specific component failure rates are substantially
higher than the generic failure rates presented here, or if the contribution of large power
transformers to lost power production significantly exceeds the generic (PWR or BWR specific)
values, equipment replacement or major changes to maintenance practices may be required.
Implied here is the notion that if the reliability performance of an SSC falls below a certain level,
major maintenance efforts will be required to satisfy Maintenance Rule performance criteria.
Ultimately, replacement may be considered if plant operation cannot be sustained.
It should be noted that this section addresses failure and failure data rather than repair practices
and data. In general, repair times will be available from plant records and will depend on plant-
specific maintenance practices. The mean time to repair (MTTR) will have an impact on the
system availability.
4.1 Nuclear Industry Experience
A review of the available industry operating experience and events has been performed to extract
the salient information and to present the data such that the plant engineer can assess the plant-
specific performance of large transformers.
4.1.1 Qualitative Data
A comprehensive review and evaluation of large transformer problems can be found in SOER
02-3, “Large Power Transformer Reliability” [21]. This document shows that despite the
industry’s increased attention to transformer maintenance after SOER 90-1, “Ground Faults on
AC Electrical Distribution Systems” [20] was issued, transformer events are on a general
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Industry Operating Experience and Performance History
increase, as shown in Figure 4-1. After SOER 90-1 was issued, many nuclear plants in the early
1990s reviewed their AC distribution system, offsite system, and large power transformer
maintenance programs. Documents such as SOER 90-1 emphasized the importance of good
preventive maintenance programs and training.
Industry experts have identified the following as the major contributors to transformer problems:
• Because of downsizing measures, not enough experienced personnel are available at the
stations to monitor or maintain equipment such as large transformers and therefore, some
stations have become too dependent on vendors to perform their monitoring and
maintenance.
• Many original equipment manufacturers are no longer in business; therefore, many stations
are depending on others for service and technical support.
• Many stations have not retained the special technical knowledge related to high voltage
equipment necessary to determine the condition of large power transformers and supporting
equipment.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01
Year
Figure 4-1
Number of Transformer Events Per Year
4.1.2 Quantitative Data
Quantitative failure data for large transformers and their accessories are available from a number
of sources. Since 1996, there have been over 70 events associated with large main power
transformers, according to SOER 02-3. Data from SOER 02-3 shown in Table 4.1 indicates the
number of main power and auxiliary transformers involved in the event, the cause of the event,
and the impact on the plant. There were over 30 reactor scrams, numerous plant shutdowns,
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several power reductions, and diesel challenges associated with the transformer events. Figures
4-2 and 4-3 graphically illustrate the magnitude of the transformer events and their causes.
Table 4-1
Transformer Events 1991 – 2001
Failure Rate/
1991-1995 1996-2001 Year
Type of Transformer Involved in the Event
Main station transformer 30 41 0.062063
Unit transformer 4 11 0.013112
Start up transformer 9 24 0.028846
Total Events: 43 76 0.104021
Type of Event that Occurred
Transformer Trip 22 40 0.054196
Fire/Explosion 7 9 0.013986
Overheat 1 7 0.006993
Oil Leak 1 3 0.003497
Gas accumulation in oil 0 2 0.001748
Internal failure 7 1 0.006993
Others 2 2 0.003497
Most Likely Cause of the Event
Bushing Failure 5 9 0.012238
Ground fault 3 8 0.009615
Insulation failure/short circuit 3 7 0.008741
External event 4 7 0.009615
Pressure relay failure 1 7 0.006993
Cooling system failure 1 6 0.006119
Maintenance 4 5 0.007867
Engineering 2 4 0.005245
Other 4 7 0.009615
Unknown 16 16 0.027972
Effect of the Event on the Plant
Automatic Scram 25 25 0.043706
Manual Scram or shutdown 5 4 0.007867
Power reduction 1 7 0.006993
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4-4
Figure 4-3
Figure 4-2
Number of Events Number of Event
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Transformer Events
Bushing
Failure Transformer
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Ground Fault
Causes of Transformer Events

Fire/Explosion
Insulation/Short
Circuit
External Event Overheat

Pressure Relay
Oil Leak
Cooling
System
Type of Event
Cause of Event
Gas
Maintenance Accumulation
Engineering
Internal
Failure
Other
Others
Unknown
4.1.2.1 Relative Magnitude of Large Transformer Failure Frequency
INPO SOER 02-3 provides industry benchmarking for large transformer failure data. The failure
rate per year is tabulated in Table 4.2. This table was generated by using failures per year
divided by the number of plants operating during that year (NUREG 1350, Table 7) [23].
Table 4-2
Failure Rates Calculated from EPIX (SOER 02-3) Data
No. of Failure
Failures/Year No. of Rate
Year From SOER 02-3 Units Operating (per unit per year)
1991 7 111 0.063
1992 8 110 0.073
1993 6 109 0.055
1994 8 109 0.135
1995 8 109 0.073
1996 11 110 0.100
1997 13 104 0.125
1998 14 104 0.135
1999 15 104 0.144
2000 17 104 0.163
2001 15 104 0.144
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EPIX and NPRDS are collections of failure data for equipment and systems, as well as
engineering and operational issues, taken from US INPO member plants and are available
through the INPO website to INPO members. Besides the failure event data, the INPO database
also contains reports, which describe the cause of the failure. The results of transformer events,
as reported by SOER 02-3, are shown in Figure 4-4.
Other
Emergency
9%
Diesel Generator
Start
16% Scram
Loss of Off-site 43%
Power
8%
Shutdown
Down Power
12%
12%
Figure 4-4
Results of Transformer Events
The failure rate trend per year up to 2001 was then projected (Figure 4-5) to predict the failure
rate for the next 10 years (year 2011). If continued, this failure trend could increase from a
current value of approximately 0.15 to a value of 0.2 by 2011. This factor can be used in Net
Present Value (NPV) loss calculations to determine the impact on large transformer failures and
economic impact.
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The failure rates are calculated assuming the failures presented in Table 4.1 represent all failures
that occur in a population of operating plants over a 10-year period, 1991-2001. The resulting
failure rate per unit per year is presented in Table 4.2 and the failure rate is graphically show in
Figure 4-5.
Failure Rate/Year
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03
Figure 4-5
Transformer Failure Rate Per Plant and Per Year
4.1.3 Maintenance Rule
Maintenance Rule Section 50.65, “Requirements for Monitoring the Effectiveness of

Maintenance at Nuclear Plants,” states the following requirements:
“Each holder of a license to operate a nuclear power plant shall monitor the performance
or condition of structures, systems, or components, against licensee-established goals, in
a manner sufficient to provide reasonable assurance that such structures, systems, and
components are capable of fulfilling their intended functions. Such goals shall be
established commensurate with safety and, where practical, take into account industry-
wide operating experience. When the performance or condition of a structure, system or
component does not meet established goals, appropriate corrective action shall be taken.”
Though large transformers are non-safety-related, they are included in the scope of the
Maintenance Rule (10CFR50.65), which poses the following question: “ Has failure of the non-
safety-related SSCs caused a reactor scram or actuation of safety-related system at your plant or
a plant of similar design?” As such, reliability and availability criteria are applied and data are
gathered to monitor the equipment performance against these criteria. Accordingly, plant-
specific data gathered for Maintenance Rule purposes should also be useful for LCM planning
purposes. Additionally, plant-level performance addressing the number of plant trips, capacity
loss, and the number of safety actuations may also apply. For most plants the main and auxiliary
transformers are considered risk significant (they feature prominently in the station blackout
analyses) and would, therefore, require system-specific availability or reliability performance
monitoring under the Maintenance Rule.
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The EPRI “SYSMON” software program [10] contains recommendations for performance
monitoring for 37 systems, but large power transformers are not among the systems addressed.
4.1.4 EPRI PM Basis Templates
EPRI TR-106857-V38, “Preventive Maintenance Basis for Transformers (Station-Type, Oil-

Immersed)” [3] provides a preventive maintenance (PM) template (Table 4.3) and a strategy for
preventive maintenance to address degradation mechanisms. It also provides the tasks identified
in these templates, including the subtasks discussed in the PM task descriptions, which are listed
in PM Strategies Table 4.4. The expert group has identified the most common failure locations
(mechanisms for transformer accessories and components) as shown below:
• Bushing faults
• Cooler problems, especially oil leaks and fan failures
• Oil leaks
• Oil quality problems
• Load tap changer problems, especially contact misalignment, coking, and oil leaks
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Table 4-3
Transformers (Station-Type, Oil-Immersed)
Critical Non-Critical
High Duty High Duty Low Duty Low Duty High Duty High Duty Low Duty Low Duty
Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle
Severe Mild Severe Mild Severe Mild Severe Mild
Service Service Service Service Service Service Service Service
Condition Condition Condition Condition Condition Condition Condition Condition
Critical Yes X X X X
No X X X X
Duty High X X X X
Cycle
Low X X X X
Service Severe X X X X
PM Task Condition Mild X X X X
Calibration and Testing 4Y 5Y 4Y 5Y 5Y
Vibration/Acoustic/Sound 1Y NR 1Y NR NR
Level
Thermography 6M 1Y 6M 1Y 1Y
Dissolved Gas Analysis 3M 1Y 6M 1Y 1Y
(DGA)
Oil Screening 1Y 1Y 1Y 1Y 1Y
Lightning Arrester AR AR AR AR AR
Leakage Monitoring
Motor Current Monitoring 1Y NR 1Y NR NR
Tap Changer 2Y NR 4Y NR NR
Maintenance (load only)
Cooler Maintenance 2Y 5Y 4Y 5Y 5Y
Bushing Cleaning AR AR AR AR AR
Maintenance Inspection 4Y 5Y 4Y 5Y 5Y
Engineering Walkdown 3M 3M 3M 3M 3M
Notes: The template does not apply to the run-to-failure components; non-critical here means not critical but important enough to require
some PM tasks.
The shaded area indicates that no examples of station-type, oil-immersed transformers could be identified for these template conditions. If a utility were
to identify a station-type, oil-immersed transformer that corresponded to a column in the shaded area it would be necessary to develop a PM program,
probably similar to those stated. The shaded area does not mean run-to-failure.
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Definitions:
• Critical-Yes: Functionally important, e.g., risk significant, required for power production, safety-related, or other regulatory requirements.
• Critical-No: Functionally not important, but economically important.
• Duty Cycle-High: Frequently cycled.
• Duty Cycle-Low: Continuous operation.
• Service Condition-High: High or excessive humidity, excessive temperatures (high or low) or temperature variations, excessive environmental conditions
(e.g., salt, corrosive, airborne contaminants), loaded near to or above nameplate capacity, or operated in a backfeed mode.
• Service Condition-Mild: Absence of the above conditions.
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Table 4-4
PM Tasks and Degradation Mechanisms (from EPRI TR-106857, V. 38)
PM Task Cal & Vibration/ Thermo- Dissolved Oil Screen Lightning Motor Tap Cooler Bushing Maint . Operator Engineer
Test Acoustics/ graphy Gas Arrester Current Changer Maint.. Cleaning Inspect. Rounds Walkdown
Sound Analysis Monitor Maint..
Level
Interval 4-5Y NR-1Y 6M-1Y 3M-1Y 1Y AR NR-1Y NR-4Y 2-5Y AR 4-5Y Shift 3M
Failure Failure Degradation
Location Timing Mechanism
Transformer Random on a Loss of X X X
Oil (mineral) scale of years dielectric
strength
Windings Random on a Insulation X X X X X
scale of years breakdown
Gaskets Expected to be Leakage X X
failure free for
~20 years,
some random
Tank Random on a Corrosion
scale of about
5 years, if tank
is
contaminated
Core Expect to be Loose X X
failure free for
40 years,
assuming oil is
degassed as
needed
Expect to be Loss of core X
failure free for ground
40 years,
assuming oil is
degassed as
needed
Expect to be Multiple core X
failure free for grounds
40 years,
assuming oil is
degassed as
needed
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Table 4-4 (continued)

PM Task Cal & Test Vibration/ Thermo- Dissolved Oil Screen Lightning Motor Tap Cooler Bushing Maint Operator Engineer
Acoustics/ graphy Gas Arrester Current Changer Maint. Cleaning Inspect. Rounds Walkdown
Sound Analysis Monitor Maint.
Level
Core (cont.) Random, on Shorted X X
a scale of laminations
years
Oil Filled Expect to be Leakage X X X X
Bushings error free for
at least 15
years, some
random
Expect to be External X X X X X X
failure free contamination
for 2-5 years,
depending
on severity of
conditions
Random Loss of BIL X X
Solid Random Loss of BIL X X
Bushings
Lightning Random Thermal X X
Arresters: runaway
(Metal Oxide
Varistor type)
No-Load Tap Random Misalignment X X
Changer
Random Sheared gear
pin, Contact
Coking, etc.
Load Tap Random Misalignment, X X X X
Changer Contact
Coking, etc.
Random Damaged X X X X X
contacts
Expect to be Leaks: gasket, X X X X
failure free piping, and
for 20 years valves
Random, on Motor operator X X
a scale of failure
years
Fins and Random Airside fouling X X X
Tube Coolers
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Level
Expect to be Loss of heat X X X
failure free transfer
for 15 to 40
years
Fins and Random, on Leaks: tube to X X X
Tube Coolers a scale of 20 header
(cont.) years
Expect to be Leaking X X X
failure free gaskets
for about 20
years, some
random
Random, can Dresser X X X
be immediate Coupling leaks
Radiators/ Oil Random Airside fouling X X X
Coolers
Expect to be X X X X
failure free
for 40 years,
some
random
Fans and Expect to be Bearing wear X X X X
Motors failure free
for 7 to 10
years, some
random
Expect to be Winding
failure free insulation
for 40 years, failure
some
random
Expect to be Fan blade X
failure free cracks
for 40 years,
some
random
Expect to be Motor power X
failure free cable
for 10-15 deterioration
years
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Level
Pump and Expect to be Bearing wear X X X
Motor failure free
for 40 years
Expect to be Impeller and X X X X
failure free volute wear
for 40 years
Pump and Expect to be Winding
Motor (cont.) failure free insulation
for 40 years, failure
some
random
Expect to be Motor power X
failure free cable
for 10-15 deterioration
years
Valves Expect to be Stem leaks X X
failure free
for 10 years
Random Disk
detachment
Random, on Bound or
a scale of 10 struck
years
Expect to be Air in-leakage X X
failure free
for 10 years
Sudden Expect to be Mis-operation X
Pressure failure free
Relay for 40 years,
some
random
Buckholtz Random Mis-operation X
Gas Volume
Relay
Level Alarms Random Mis-operation X
Pressure Expect to be Drift X
Gauge failure free
for 5-7 years
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Level
Temperature Expect to be Drift X
Gauge failure free
for 4-6 years
Conservator Expect to be Bladder failure X X
Tank failure free
for 40 years
Expect to be Fittings and X X X
failure free connection
for 40 years, leaks
some
random leaks
Desiccant Expect to be Outlet breather X
failure free valve fails to
for 40 years seal
Expect to be Depletion X
failure free
for a few
years
Gas Blanket Expect to be Regulator X X
Systems failure free failure
for 10 years
Random Leaking: X X
pipes, tubing,
fittings,
gaskets, and
valves
Pressure Random Improper X X
Relief Device Operation
Electrical Random Loose X X
Connections
Control Relay See EPRI
Report TR
10687, Vol. 30,
Relays-Control
Timing Relay See EPRI
Report TR
10687, Vol. 31,
Relays-Timing
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Level
Motor See EPRI
Starters, Report TR
Breakers, and 106857, Vol. 8,
Transfer Low Voltage
Contactors: Electric Motors
Wiring, (600V and
Fuses, and below)
Lights
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4.1.5 Current PM Activities and Candidate PM Tasks
The EPRI PM templates provide an optimum set of maintenance activities for a select number of
important components. However, a cost-effective maintenance program may use simple tests to
determine if more extensive testing should be performed. Internal and external maintenance
operations are then performed when the test results so indicate. Based on a review of the
industry best practices, the recommended tests are indicated in “Recommended Maintenance
Tests” described in EPRI report 1000031 “Guidelines for the Life Extension of Substations” [4]
and are summarized in Table 4.5. Table 4.5 provides minimum inspection maintenance
frequencies. Table 4.3 provides PM tasks for transformer accessories along with the
recommended frequencies, depending on the duty cycle and service condition of the transformer.
Table 4-5
Maintenance Tests, Routine Maintenance, Inspections and Frequency
Recommended Minimum
Maintenance Frequency
Maintenance Task
Condition Assessment Tests:
Oil dielectric strength and moisture content 1 year
Oil interfacial tension and acidity 2 years
Dissolved gasses in oil 1 year
Winding insulation and bushing power factor 5 to 7 years
Infrared thermography 6 months to 1 year
Routine Maintenance and Inspections:
External inspection 3 months
Bushing cleaning Determined by visual inspection
Heat exchanger maintenance 1 to 2 years
Calibrate gauges and relays 5 years
Functional tests 5 years
Load tap changer 2 to 4 years
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4.2 NRC Generic Communications and Other Reports
4.2.1 NRC Communications
A review of generic communications issued by the NRC identified the following documents to
be significant for their impact on large transformers and on the plant.
Information Notice 2000-14: Non-Vital Bus Fault Leads to Fire and Loss of Offsite Power-
Information Notice 2000-14 addresses the undetected damage from the failure of a bus duct, a
passive component known for high reliability and often receives little preventive maintenance or
attention. The phase-to-phase fault occurred in a 12 kV, non-Class 1E electrical bus duct from
the unit auxiliary transformer to the switchgear that supplied power to the reactor coolant pump
motors and the circulation water pump motors. The initial fault and the resultant arcing and
smoke caused another fault in the 4 kV bus duct directly above the initial fault. An auxiliary
transformer explosion in 1995, subsequent repairs, and inadequate fastener torques were the
probable cause, resulting in a heated joint and leading to failure.
Information Notice 97-037: Main Transformer Fault With Ensuing Oil Spill Into Turbine
Building addresses the main transformer low voltage bushing failure that caused an oil spill into
the turbine building via the isolated bus duct. This notice presents a case in which a large amount
of transformer insulating oil could bypass fire hazard control features, such as oil impoundment
pits, and spill into the turbine building and other areas of a nuclear power plant.
Information Notice 82-053: This notice discusses the “Main Transformer Failures at the North
Anna Nuclear Power Station,” and describes seven main transformer failures, including one that
resulted in a fire and one that caused extensive damage to the main generator.
4.2.2 Other Nuclear Industry Data
Select nuclear plant experience records are summarized here to identify the types of failures
occurring with large power transformers.
SER 1-96, Transformer Explosion and Loss of Off-Site Power: On October 21, 1995, during
a refueling outage, an explosion and fire occurred on one of the PWR unit auxiliary transformers.
As a result, Unit 1 lost off-site power. During the restoration, a temporary grounding breaker
located in one cubicle of the non-vital bus was accidentally left in place on the bus. When the
feeder breaker from the auxiliary transformer was closed to energize the bus, a direct electrical
path to ground was created causing a current surge that ruptured the transformer and initiated the
explosion and fire.
SER 47-85, Loss of Off-Site Power: On August 16, 1985, at a BWR, a transformer fault and
subsequent failures in the automatic transferring of loads resulted in a loss of off-site power to
one unit. Due to a failed insulating board, a fault occurred on the secondary side of the
transformer supplying Unit 1 loads, causing a short across the bus duct housing.
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SER 52-85, Loss of AC Power and Feedwater Line Water Hammer: On November 11,
1985, at a PWR, a transformer trip led to a reactor trip and temporary loss of AC power.
SEN 128, Transformer Explosion and Loss of Off-Site Power: On October 21, 1995, at a
PWR, an explosion and fire occurred on one of the Unit 1 auxiliary transformers. Investigations
indicated that the auxiliary transformer was unintentionally grounded through a grounding
breaker installed on an associated 12 kV bus.
OE14036 and Event Number: 374-020304-1- Main Power Transformer Insulating Oil Low
Dielectric Value: On March 4, 2002, at a BWR, the results of a routine main power transformer
dissolved gas oil analysis showed a dielectric value of 18 kV, which is below the Nuclear
Equipment Insurance Limited (NEIL) lower limit of 26 kV. Three additional samples taken
during the next five weeks showed dielectric values to be above the NEIL limit. The low values
were ultimately attributed to particulates in the transformer oil after detailed evaluations
eliminated sampling techniques and water as causes. A filtering system was subsequently
installed to remove and analyze particulates.
OE11645, OE 11418, Fire in Unit 2 "B" Main Transformer: On September 22, 2000 at a
BWR, "B" phase main power transformer (2B MPT) caught fire, which was limited to the top
portions of the transformer.
OE13116, OE12778, OE12564, Event Number: 265-010802-1 Scram Due to Lightning

Strike and Fire in Main Power Transformer: On August 2, 2001, at a BWR, a lightning
strike on a transmission line two miles from the station resulted in a failure of the main power
transformer and an automatic reactor scram. The resultant transformer fire was extinguished in
approximately 30 minutes by actuation of the transformer's fire protection deluge system, the
site's fire brigade, and an offsite fire department. The root causes of the transformer failure were
design and construction errors that resulted in mechanical failure of the bus bar clamps. The bus
bars and bus bar fiber bolting material were undersized. These conditions led to increased
heating, bus bar motion, and stress on the clamps. Other factors included the vulnerability of the
affected transmission line to lightning strikes, exposure of the transformer to a large number of
electrical faults, and the failure to increase inspection and monitoring following these faults.
OE9613, Transformer Tap Changer Causes Diesel Generator Start: On December 22, 1998,
at a PWR, during heat-up from a forced outage, a malfunction of the safeguards transformer
automatic tap changer resulted in an undervoltage condition on plant 2400 VAC safety-related
buses. The safeguards transformer is the normal power supply for the safety-related buses. A
contactor, which causes the tap changer motor to move to lower positions, developed a three to
four second delay in opening. This delay apparently resulted from the effects of cold weather
acting on the contactors, which had been in service for nine years.
OE3289, Main Power Transformer: On March 23, 1989, at a PWR, the plant was taken out of
service due to a high accumulation of combustible gases in Phase A of the main power
transformer. The gassing had been attributed to the heating of "T" beam, low voltage short series
leads, and corona shield.
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OE12677, Event No. 272-010613-1, Event No. 272-010708-1, Power Reductions Due To
The Loss of No. 1 Station Power Transformer: On June 13, 2001, the No.1 station power
transformer (SPT) protective relay circuit actuated, tripping one section of the station 500 kV
ring bus. Investigation of the event found that the No. 1 SPT phase-B regular differential relay
target (DHR) actuated. The cause of the event was aging. Discussions with the original
equipment manufacturers (OEM) established that there is no effective way to determine
remaining service life, and no effective way to monitor surge arrester performance. The OEM
recommendation for surge arresters is to implement a replacement program for those arresters 20
years of age or older. Long-term corrective action is to test each surge arrester periodically.
OE2150, RX SCRAM By Actuation Of Transformer Sudden Pressure Relay: On June 26,

l987, at a BWR, unit tripped during startup by actuation of a sudden pressure relay located on an
auxiliary power transformer. The cause of sudden pressure relay actuation was the opening of a
test (poppet) valve located on the relay.
OE9670, Transformer Fault due to Cracked Bus Bar Insulator on One Phase of
Transformer's Secondary: On December 27 at a BWR, a cracked bus bar insulator on one
phase of the transformer's secondary permitted electrical "tracking" to ground and consequently
actuated overcurrent relays to automatically open the breaker to isolate the fault.
OE9082, Hot Connection Found In Unit Two Main Power Transformer: On June 2, 1998,
at a BWR, a hot connection was found in the Unit 2 main power transformer local control
cabinet while performing thermography.
OE2186, Auxiliary Power Transformer Failure: On June 6, 1986 at a PWR, a transformer

failed and physical entry into the transformer and visual observations found debris of paper
insulation and small amounts of copper particles. The cause of the failure was an overheating
problem in the leads.
OE9246, Main Transformer Sudden Pressure Device Failure: On August 17, 1998, at a
PWR, a main power transformer sudden pressure device actuated.
OE5127, Automatic Scram Due to Main Power Transformer Failure: On January 4, 1992,
at a BWR, a sudden pressure relay actuated which caused both switchyard breakers to open and
de-energize the three main power transformers.
SOER 02-3: From a review of SOER 02-3, which documents events from 1991 to 2001,
sufficient information on the operating performance of large transformers is at hand to draw a
reasonable conclusion on the performance of large transformers. The conclusions are presented
in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 of this sourcebook.
4.3 Experience in Fossil Power Generation and Industrial Facilities
The subject transformers are also used in fossil plants and in other industries. This section
discusses the experience with large power transformers in applications in other industries.
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The failure data for transformers shown in Table 4.6 was extracted from the German Nuclear
Utility Association represented by VGB [12] and European Reliability Data [13] for the relevant
components. The former represents both BWR and PWR units and the latter represents PWR
units.
Table 4-6
European Nuclear Power Plant Failure Data
FAILURE
RATE
DATA
(1/HR of SOURCE
COMPONENT TYPE/SIZE operation)
Transformers 2.8-4.2 MVA 5.09 E-7 VGB
Main Transformer 24KV 2.2 E-6 EDF
Hartford Steam Boiler (HSB) analyzed the transformer failures that occurred in 1975, 1988, and
1998 [14] for various industries such as power plants, commercial buildings, manufacturing and
metal processing facilities. The transformers analyzed included various applications. HSB
concluded that the monetary losses arising from power transformer failures are the largest of the
monetary losses arising from all transformer failures. Table 4.7 provides failure data for each
failure cause as a percentage of the total failures. These failures are graphically shown in
Figure 4-6.
Table 4-7
Analysis of Power Transformer Failures for 1975, 1988, and 1998
1975 1988 1998

Lightning Surges 32.3% 30.2% 12.4%
Line Surges/External Short 13.6% 18.6% 21.5%
Circuit
Poor Workmanship of 10.6% 7.2% 2.9%
Manufacture
Deterioration of Insulation 10.4% 8.7% 13.0%
Overloading 7.7% 3.2% 2.4%
Moisture 7.2% 6.9% 6.3%
Inadequate Maintenance 6.6% 13.1% 11.3%
Sabotage, Malicious Mischief 2.6% 1.7% 0.0%
Loose Connections 2.1% 2.0% 6.0%
All Others 6.9% 8.4% 24.2%
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35.00%
30.00%
Percentage Contribution
25.00%
20.00% 197 5
198 8
15.00%
199 8
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
ce
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Figure 4-6
Number of Transformer Failures by Year
The HSB study concludes that line surges are the number one cause of all types of transformer
failures. The second leading cause of failures is insulation deterioration. The average age of the
transformers that failed due to insulation deterioration is 17.8 years, appreciably less than the
expected life of 35 to 40 years. Inadequate maintenance is the next leading cause of transformer
failures. This category included improper controls, loss of coolant, accumulation of oil and dirt,
and corrosion. The study concluded that a planned maintenance, inspection and testing would
significantly reduce the number of transformer failures and the unexpected interruption of power.
The Canadian Electricity Forum, Electricity Today, Issue 1, 2002 [15] published an article on
transformer maintenance. The article includes dry type, oil-filled, and fluid-filled transformers.
Causes of transformer failures are summarized in Table 4.8 and include failures for all three
types of transformers. Although this data is for all three types of transformers large and small, it
indicates that 73% of transformer failures are caused by insulation breakdown. The insulation
breakdown is attributed to insulating liquid and/or winding coil failure.
Section 6.1 discusses applicable aging mechanisms and effects on transformer components.
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Table 4-8
Transformer Component Failures
Percentage
Transformer Contribution to
Total Failures
Part Failures
High Voltage Windings* 48.00%
Low Voltage Windings* 23.00%
Bushings* 2.00%
Leads 6.00%
Tap Changers 0.00%
Gaskets 2.00%
Others 19.00%
Total 100.00%
* Components of Insulation System
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5
GUIDANCE FOR PLANT-SPECIFIC SSC CONDITION
AND PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
This section addresses steps number 8, 10 and 11A in the LCM planning flow chart (Figure
2-1b) and provides guidance for the plant-specific LCM planning for large transformers. Also
included in this section (Section 5.4) is a compilation and description of available and useful
condition or performance monitoring programs.
• In Step 8, the plant-specific operating and performance history is compiled, as discussed in
Section 5.1 below.
• Step 10 comprises a compilation and review of the plant-specific maintenance program for
large transformers, leading to the establishment of a complete inventory of the current
maintenance tasks and providing a basis of determining if enhancements or changes are
desirable.
• In Step 11A, the intent is to characterize the present plant-specific physical condition and
performance of the large transformers and the implementation of effective preventive
maintenance procedures, diagnostics and component condition monitoring. The assessment
of the maintenance tasks should pay close attention to whether and how the tasks address any
deviations identified in this SSC performance assessment and the SSC condition review. The
deviations may be positive in that plant-specific SSC performance and conditions are
superior to the industry average, in which case unnecessary or too frequent PM may be
performed, or the deviations may be negative, indicating a need or opportunity for
improvement. Details of the condition and performance assessments are discussed in
Section 5.3.
5.1 Compiling SSC Operating and Performance History
The current condition and age of large transformers have a major bearing on the LCM planning
choices. In conjunction with performance reviews, a thorough assessment of the existing
equipment is of paramount importance in making realistic decisions as to what maintenance
options or strategies are feasible. Several elements are needed to complete the SSC condition
review. These include reviewing records of the periodic visual inspections, reviewing diagnostic
test and monitoring device data, test results which have been performed on the equipment,
predictive technologies employed and results, modifications, work orders, and refurbishment
data.
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Guidance for Plant-Specific SSC Condition and Performance Assessment
5.1.1 SSC Condition Reviews
The performance review of plant transformers is important in determining the options and
includes:
• Assembling the maintenance history for transformers, particularly the corrective maintenance
actions from the last five years (as a minimum). The maintenance history may also provide
evidence of performance concerns or failures of other critical components, such as bushings,
surge arresters, coolers, gaskets, fans, and load tap changers.
• Trending the failure rates to identify any specific type of transformer components that may
exhibit unusual performance challenges or high failure incidents.
• Reviewing the inspection reports and condition monitoring reports to see if the current
maintenance is effective in maintaining the equipment.
• Reviewing the Maintenance Rule (MR) performance parameters and trends, the system
health reports, MR periodic assessments and the effectiveness of corrective actions
implemented.
• Reviewing plant scrams and trip history to determine the events attributable to the large
transformers and their components. For those events caused by the large power transformers,
the lost power generation due to forced or unforced plant trips, scrams, extended outages,
partial power operation or hot standby conditions is evaluated to determine the historical cost
of the transformer failures. The results provide a basis for projecting future trends for LCM
planning.
• A review of design changes and technology upgrades that have been instituted for
replacement and equipment upgrades.
• Thermography, acoustics, oil analysis, regular walkdowns, and condition monitoring are
some of the more effective tools for condition assessment and trending.
5.1.2 Periodic Visual Transformer Inspections
A condition assessment entails a visual inspection of the external condition of a transformer to

look for abnormalities such as:
• Oil spills
• Paint deterioration, discoloration, peeling
• Evidence of corrosion, rust
• Staining from water or oil leaks
• Foundation crumbling, cracking (indicates abnormal thermal expansion)
• Loose and missing parts
• Deformation, vibration of tubing, coils, fans, conduit
• Audible corona discharge
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• High sound level, humming

• Burning smell, ozone smell
• Damaged or chipped/cracked bushings, or lightning arresters
• High or low oil levels
• Loose grounding or terminal connections
• Other signs of abnormal conditions
5.1.2.1 Inspection Frequency
A periodic transformer inspection is an effective maintenance tool for locating situations and
problems that are not indicated by sensors or other means. The problems are usually noted early
so that corrective action can be taken before a more serious condition occurs. Transformers with
a history of problems should be inspected frequently.
5.1.2.2 Typical Inspections
The following is a list of typical transformer inspection tasks and are applicable to most outdoor
power transformers. It should be noted that the items inspected would depend on the equipment
installed on the transformer and the record of performance in service. Those plants that perform
inspections more frequently do not necessarily check all the following items during each
inspection.
• Check transformer and auxiliaries such as tap changers and bushings for oil leaks. Record the
location of the leak and the degree of leaking.
• Check operation of fans and pumps.
• Check to see that the proper cooling equipment is in operation. This procedure involves
checking the oil temperature gauges to determine whether the cooling should be in operation.
• If the cooling equipment is in operation, note whether the appropriate fans and pumps are
operating. Record any equipment not in operation. Check flow gauges on pumps.
• If the cooling equipment is not in operation, some utilities manually turn the equipment on to
ensure that all fans and pumps are operative. Check flow gauges on pumps. Record any
equipment not operating properly.
• Check for any abnormal noises, including pumps and load tap changers.
• Check the temperature of the load tap changer compartments with the infrared scanner for
any abnormal temperature conditions.
• Check the temperature of the radiators with an infrared scanner. Investigate both high and
low-temperature areas.
• Check all liquid level gauges for proper level including main tank, tap changer
compartments, oil expansion tanks, and bushings.
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• Check the bushings for chipped or broken sheds. At intervals, check the terminals for hot
spots using the infrared scanner. Report any abnormal terminal temperatures immediately
since bushing damage can result.
• Inspect all temperature devices. Record temperatures. Reset all maximum temperature
indicators on the gauges.
• Check the pressure relief device to ensure that the device has not operated.
• Inspect all dehydrating breathers. Report any that indicate saturation with water.
• Check the nitrogen system including the bottle on transformers having nitrogen blanket oil
preservation systems:
– Report any increased usage of nitrogen.
– Replace or have the bottle replaced if the pressure is below 300 psi.
• Inspect the paint and report any rust spots.
• Check all control devices such as gas collector and sudden pressure relays.
Open the control cabinet door and inspect the devices:

– Is the space heater operative?
– Has water collected on the bottom of the cabinet?
– Is the wiring in good condition?
– Visually inspect the transformers and the auxiliaries. Report any unusual conditions.
• Inspect the lightning arresters.
• Check the heat exchangers:
– Are the radiators and coolers clean?
– Are the radiators and coolers warm at the bottom indicating that they are operating
satisfactorily?
– Does the airflow from the fans through the radiators and coolers appear to be normal?
Is the air hotter than the surrounding air?
• Check the operations counter for the load tap changers. Report any usually high or low
number of operations.
5.1.3 Review of Diagnostic Tests and Monitoring Devices
Review all available diagnostic tests and monitoring devices such as:
• Gas-in-oil-analysis
• Oil condition and dielectric strength
• Operational monitoring
• Original factory test report
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• Insulation resistance and power factor

• Turns ratio
• Winding resistance
• Other monitoring and test results as described in Section 5.4, Condition Monitoring
Technologies.
Gas-in-oil analysis is the primary method for determining the nature of problems within the
transformer.
• High CO and CO2 accompanied by H2 without the presence of hydrocarbon gases such as
CH4 (methane), C2H6 (ethane), and C2H4 (ethylene) are indicators of deterioration of paper
caused by high oxygen and water contents in the system.
• High CO and CO2 with the presence of CH4, C2H6, and C2H4 are indications that there is
overheating in an insulated part of the transformer.
• Significant amounts of CH4 with similar amounts of C2H4 with lesser amounts of C2H6 are
indications of hot metal gases.
• Significant amounts of H2 with smaller amounts of other gases are an indication of partial
discharges in the system. H2 can also be generated by free water in contact with the
electrical steel of the core or by an overheated core.
• Acetylene (C2H2) is usually an indicator of arcing.
The water content of the oil and the paper can be estimated using the water content of the oil and
the temperature of the oil when the sample was taken. The power factor and interfacial tension of
the oil are indicators of contaminants in the system. The dielectric strength of the oil gives a
general indication of the dielectric strength of the insulation system since oil is the weak link in
the system.
In many cases, tests on oil samples taken while the transformer is in service provide the first
clues of the internal condition of the transformer. Shown below is a list of “key gases” in
relationship to the transformer insulation condition. Analysis of the key gases, depending on the
level and quantity, i.e., parts per million (ppm), provides the internal transformer condition and
gas activity.
• High concentration of carbon monoxide – thermal damage to cellulose
• High acetylene – internal arcing
• Carbon particles in the oil – probable internal electrical breakdown
If test results are available, the transformer condition assessment is made easier as shown below:
• Low oil dielectric strength – moisture or particle contamination
• Low insulation resistance – moisture contamination or damaged insulation
• Abnormal turns ratio – short turns in the windings
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Table 5.1 [4] can be used to assess the overall condition of the transformer based on the results
of the dissolved gas tests. Trending of the parameters based on the test results of the key gas
concentration will provide the transformer condition and operational limits. Once it is
determined that the concentration of certain gases is above normal, individual gas ratios can give
further indication of the type of fault causing the high levels. Rogers ratios are a common tool for
assisting with this determination.
Since all normally operating transformers will have some levels of the above-mentioned gases
dissolved in oil, with the exception of acetylene, it is important to identify concentration levels
for which the user should have concern. IEEE Std. C57.104, “Guide for the Interpretation of
Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers” [25] provides the guidance. Table 5.1 presents
the key gas concentration levels and conditions that may require further action.
Table 5-1
Dissolved Gas Concentration
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5.2 Review of Current Maintenance Plans
5.2.1 Compiling Maintenance History
To develop a clear picture of past equipment performance from which projections can be
generated, a thorough review of the maintenance history is needed. This maintenance history is
captured by most plants in Work Orders (WO), often managed by the plant computerized
maintenance management system (CMMS). Work orders are written to execute preventive
maintenance or corrective maintenance and to implement other activities, such as design
changes, replacements, or upgrades.
The most important WOs are those implementing corrective actions as a result of equipment
failures, performance enhancements, and design changes. They often contain information
concerning the root cause of the failure to assure that the corrective action is effective, whether
repetitive failures were involved, the cost and man-hours spent in the corrective action, and the
reason why the failure was not detected in the incipient stages. This information is used to
identify additional preventive maintenance (PM) or predictive maintenance (PdM) activities;
potential enhancements to the current maintenance program; and/or the need for replacement,
redesign, or upgrades. The basic premise is that the performance can only be improved by
preventing failures; therefore, it is critical to identify the historical failure causes and to
determine the action that could have prevented the failure.
The work order review also provides detailed information as to the component failure rates
presently experienced by the large transformers. These rates can be compared with the generic
data presented in Section 4 to ascertain whether there is the potential for significant reductions in
failure rates. These actual failure rates are also used in the economic modeling of LCM plans to
calculate the cost of corrective maintenance and the consequences of component failure (lost
power production, regulatory cost, the costs of monitoring under the Maintenance Rule, EPIX
reporting, etc.).
The work order review can also be used to trend the annual corrective maintenance activities
over past years to see if the equipment failures are increasing or decreasing, and what additional
corrective actions may be justified to effect a positive change.
Lastly and most importantly, a review should be conducted of all the plant transients, power
reduction events, and scrams since plant operation began. This review should focus on the cause
of the event, the principal systems or components involved, and whether the large transformer
was a direct or indirect contributor to the event.
5.2.2 Inventory of Current Maintenance Activities
Once the plant-specific maintenance history has been compiled, the current maintenance
activities need to be identified. When using the word “maintenance” in LCM planning, the
activities associated with the system include preventive, predictive, and corrective actions,
whether required by regulations (testing, inspection, surveillance, walkdown, monitoring,
sampling), by applicable codes (ASME, NFPA, state requirements, local requirements); by the
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insurance carrier, or by plant procedures, programs, or policies. Collecting the associated activity
parameters, such as the annual frequency of the task, the number of components involved, labor
hours required, indirect labor associated with the activity, and the material costs, will provide the
key input to developing a base case for LCM planning. This base case is not only important to
create an inventory of the current activities and the total annual maintenance cost for the system,
but it provides a benchmark for comparison to industry practice and a basis from which the need
for additional activities, enhancements, or task reduction opportunities can be judged.
Intervals should be determined and adjusted by each utility based on individual plant experience,
OEM information notices, and insurance and regulatory requirements. Intervals provided in the
EPRI PM template are suggested starting points for this process, although in general, where these
tasks are already being performed, the existing intervals could be used as the starting point
providing a basis exists. Such a basis could be constructed from diagnostic data, past inspection
data and failure history, and from information in this document. A key point is that it is prudent
to change time-directed intervals so that intervals are short enough to protect against
unacceptable equipment deterioration, but not so short as to waste maintenance resources or to
introduce unnecessary sources of maintenance error.
When selecting time intervals for intrusive PM tasks, it is not necessarily conservative to select
shorter rather than longer time intervals in a possible range. Shorter intervals expose the
equipment to more opportunities for maintenance error and to the potential for non-optimal
setup. Furthermore, reliability data for other complex plant component types suggest that
components receiving a higher proportion of intrusive preventive maintenance tasks may
experience more failures than those, which receive predominantly non-intrusive maintenance.
The following information should be considered when an inspection, maintenance, or a condition

assessment is performed.
5.2.2.1 Pumps
Bearing wear and other mechanical failures in oil pumps are believed to be the cause of failure in
some major power transformers. The particles generated can get into high stressed electrical
areas causing failure. At the present time, there is no effective way to test pumps in service for
such conditions; however the acoustic signature of the pump in operation could give an
indication of problems, but this requires a baseline acoustic signature for comparison. It is
recommended that the following actions be considered.
Some utilities recommend change-out of the oil pumps on a regular basis. The time interval
depends on the time that the pumps are in operation and the experience with each pump design.
All bearings, either sleeve or ball, will eventually become worn and require replacement.
• Industry experience shows that some pumps have a history of problems in service. It is
recommended that these pumps be replaced when they have been in service for a long period
of time. Replacement time depends on the maintenance program and the condition of the
pumps.
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• When pumps are replaced on operating transformers or on repaired units, it is recommended

that the pumps either be replaced with new pumps that are reliable or be rebuilt with
improved bearing systems.
• For large generator GSUs, it is recommended that consideration be given to the installation
of pumps with bearing monitoring systems so that any problems can be detected before
dangerous particles get into the transformer system.
The operating of pumps (and fans) on coolers should be rotated on a regular basis. They are
usually arranged in groups that are activated by the cooler temperature controls. Rotating the
groups will assist in balancing the wear on the pumps. Some utilities have automatic controls that
rotate the groups that come on first each time that the cooling equipment is deactivated.
5.2.2.2 Bushings
High voltage bushings must be maintained free of any external contamination and should be
examined on a regular basis. The porcelain insulation should be examined for chips, cracks, and
oil leakage. The main objective is to prevent flashover that could lead to catastrophic failure.
External contamination builds continuously and might become severe enough to cause electrical
breakdown after two to three years on non-coated bushings depending on conditions. It should
be noted that bushing faults of various kinds are relatively common failure causes for oil-filled
transformers. Inspection will be required more often in atmospheres where salts and dust
deposits collect on bushings.
• Some utilities replace all bushings if the transformer is 20 years or older and life extension
work is undertaken.
• Most utilities replace the bushings if the power factor is high. A common metric used for oil-
filled bushings to indicate high power factor, is either a doubling of the initial value
(nameplate) or a value greater than 1%, whichever is the lowest.
• Several utilities have replaced one type of bushing that has had a record of failures over the
years with bushings having new and improved design features.
5.2.2.3 Control and Protective Devices
Some utilities replace all control and protective devices if a transformer life extension program is
initiated. Such devices are low cost, and the risk is great enough on older transformers to justify
the cost.
Such devices are sometimes tested and replaced if they are defective. Critical protective devices,
such as sudden pressure relays, are quite often replaced if the transformer is approximately 20
years old. The control wiring is replaced if it shows signs of severe deterioration, which may be
the case for older transformers.
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5.2.2.4 Gas Cushion Oil Preservation
Super-saturation of the oil with nitrogen may result when the temperature of loaded transformers
with gas cushion oil preservation system is decreased rapidly (by dropping the load in cold
weather and/or rain). This problem is well known, and most utilities have replaced the pressure
controls that allowed the pressure to increase up to 6 psig (41 kPa) before the system started to
release the nitrogen to the atmosphere. The controls have been changed to release nitrogen at
around 3 to 3.5 psig (20.5 to 24.1 kPa). For some important EHV transformers, the nitrogen
system has been replaced with expansion tanks with rubber bags.
If the nitrogen cushion designs are not properly maintained, failure of transformers can result. If
the bottle becomes empty and is not replaced, the pressure in the gas space can become negative
causing gas bubbles to evolve from the saturated oil.
The cost to maintain such systems can be high (particularly for transformers with varying loads)
such that the system releases nitrogen to the atmosphere at a high rate. The bottles of dry
nitrogen have to be replaced frequently. In some cases, the overall cost can be reduced if the
nitrogen system is replaced with an expansion tank. The replacement of the gas system with the
expansion tank should be considered for life extension of transformers. If this decision is made,
it is important to specify a non-gas permeable material be used as the membrane.
5.3 Conducting the Condition and Performance Assessment
The generic performance data and information presented in the preceding sections can be used
for plant-specific LCM planning in many ways. In particular, for plants not having a large data
basis of experience, the generic data provides a basis for a sound component-specific PM
program. Furthermore, the data may be used for comparison trending or projecting performance
or failure data into the future when attempting long-term LCM planning. If the plant is of recent
vintage, the failure data provides an indication of the types of failures to be expected as the plant
ages and shows potential precursors of problems to be anticipated. Lastly and most importantly,
the benchmarking of plant-specific data against generic (or industry) performance data for large
transformers provides LCM planners with information with which to focus on areas in which
there are significant opportunities to achieve economic and technical improvements. The steps
involved in plant-specific performance and condition assessment (including benchmarking) can
be summarized as follows:
Transformer life is shortened by a number of events. In addition to these failures, controlling the
characteristics of the internal transformer system, such as oxygen and water content, will extend
transformer life.
Based on a review of the generic data on plant trips due to transformers, the most frequent trips
occur due to:
• Bushing failures
• Spurious Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR) activation
• Lightning strikes
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• Loss of cooling
• Inadvertent actuation of FP deluge system
• Gas-in-oil generation
• LTC failures
• Human errors
Although the above events are not in the order of frequency or significance, the information from
reported events can be used to compare plant-specific performance data to generic (or industry)
performance data for large transformers. In Section 4, Table 4.1 and Figure 4-3 show the cause
of transformer events and failures due to transformer internal failures, external causes, and other
causes. These events are based on INPO’s gathering of information for the last 10 years. The
benchmarking of plant-specific data against generic (or industry) performance data for large
power transformers provides LCM planners with the information needed to focus on areas where
significant opportunities to achieve economic and technical improvements exist. The steps
involved in benchmarking can be summarized as follows:
• At the system level, benchmark the contribution of large power transformers to the total plant
lost power generation against the industry PWR/BWR specific average (Table 4.2). This will
provide a preliminary assessment as to the current and past plant system health and indicate
if the large power transformers in the unit perform at, above or below industry averages with
respect to lost power generation and associated impact on plant safety.
• At the component level, compare plant-specific transformer component failure rates with
those discussed in Section 4.1 and Tables 4.1 and 4.6 (European data) to diagnose and
identify potentially unacceptable component performance.
• Compare the plant-specific transformer maintenance tasks against the industry
recommendations (Tables 4.3 to 4.5) to identify opportunities for addition or deletion of PM
or PdM activities and adjustments to the associated task intervals. If the performance of the
transformers has been exceeding the industry standards and failure rates are below average,
changes to the transformer PdM/PM program should be implemented cautiously and with
good reason. On the other hand, if the performance of the transformers measurably lags
industry average and the plant transformer PdM/PM program significantly deviates from the
industry recommendations, the deviations should be reviewed critically to identify the causes
and any opportunities for enhancement.
• Review operating and loading practices to ensure transformer performance and operation are
within rated values specified in the design and nameplate data provided by the manufacturer.
• Review the corrective work orders and root cause evaluations of transformer failures to
determine if the failure causes are commensurate with the industry experience.
• Similarly, from the corrective work order review, tabulate the failure detection modes for the
failed transformers to determine if the plant’s preventive and predictive maintenance
program is capable of detecting transformer degradation and incipient failures.
• To assure that the long term maintenance plans include a thorough and critical review of
aging and obsolescence concerns, establish the plant transformer failure rates, projected spare
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parts use, potential replacement models or refurbishment kits, current spare parts inventory,
exchange or reuse opportunities and reliable suppliers of parts, services and replacements.
• Large transformers are usually custom made and it can take up to one year to obtain a new
one. Rewinding also can take from six to twelve months. Therefore, the plant should
identify alternate procurement methods such as identifying available spare transformers and
possibly establishing supply agreements.
5.4 Condition Monitoring Technologies
A review of transformer inspection results and data from monitoring devices may require that
further tests be performed. Analysis of the test results will provide information regarding the
internal condition of the transformer, the next steps for further sampling, and the recommended
test sequences.
5.4.1 Recommended Test Sequences
It is recommended that tests be performed in sequence as shown in Table 5.2, which is based on
the principle of using oil testing to determine when further testing is required, depending on the
condition of the dissolved gas concentration from Table 5.1.
Table 5-2
Recommended Test Sequences
Gas-in-Oil Tests • Sampling ASTM D 3613

• Analysis ASTM D3612
• IEE Std. C57.104
Dielectric Tests • ASTM D 1816 for the main tank oil
• ASTM D 1816 and ASTM D877 for load tap
changer compartments
Water-in-Oil Test • ASTM D 1533
Oil Power Factor Test • ASTM D 924
General Oil Tests • Interfacial Tension (IFT) ASTM D 971
• Color ASTM D 1500
• Some utilities also make other tests such as
acidity, viscosity, and oxidation stability.
However, these tests are not usually
recommended unless an extensive study is
being made to determine if the oil should be
replaced.
Insulation Power Factor Test • IEEE Std. C57.12.90 Part 10.10 [6]
Other Possible Tests When • Detailed oil tests
Required
• Particle count and identification
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Table 5.3 [4] shows the recommended test intervals for the general and gas-in-oil tests. These
intervals can be varied depending on the condition of the transformer, the history of the
transformer, and the history of the transformer accessories. The frequencies shown are typical
guidelines. If the transformers have a history of good operation with no problems, the time
interval between tests can be increased. If there is indication of some abnormality, the time
interval needs to be shortened.
The manufacturer’s requirements should be followed for oil testing during the warranty period. If
there are no such recommendations or requirements, it is recommended that all tests be made at
the end of the first year in service and prior to warranty expiration. Subsequent testing should
follow Table 5.2 if there are no other manufacturer requirements.
Table 5-3
Typical Maintenance Oil Test Frequency
General Oil Tests Dielectric & Water Gas-in-Oil

Less than 100 MA 1-3 years 1-3 years 1-3 years
three phase and 230
kV or less
Greater than 100 MVA 1-2 years 1-2 years 1-2 years
three phase 230 kV or
less
Greater than 100 MVA 1-2 years 1 year 1 year

three phase, greater
than 230 kV
All generator step-up 1-2 years 1 year 1 year
5.4.2 Gas-In-Oil Analysis
One of the most useful and widely used condition assessment techniques involves sampling and
analysis of gases dissolved in the oil of operating transformers. Sampling intervals are typically
from one to three years depending on the size and voltage of the transformer, with more frequent
sampling for large, critical units and less frequent sampling for smaller, less critical units. There
are three standards that address condition assessment sampling: ASTM D 3613 for analysis,
ASTM D 3612 for interpretation, and IEEE Std C57.104-1991, “General Requirements for
Liquid Immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating Transformers” [25].
The goal of the sampling process is to collect a representative sample, while avoiding entrance of
contaminants, and to preserve the integrity of the sample until it is analyzed.
It is recommended that samples be taken from a convenient valve at the bottom of the tank,
which may be equipped with a sampling adapter; the use of a syringe for sampling is preferred.
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It is expected that dissolved gas content is well equilibrated within the tank as a result of thermal
convection of the oil, but water content may be greater at the bottom. Normally the same
samples are used for dissolved water and dissolved gas analyses. Samples may be taken from
energized apparatus provided it is certain that a positive pressure exists at the sampling point. It
could be disastrous if the pressure was negative and air bubbles were drawn into the equipment.
5.4.3 Dielectric Strength Guidelines
ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.106-1991, “Guidelines for Acceptance of Insulating Oil in

Equipment” [7] has guidelines for the dielectric strength of oil in operating transformers, which
are shown in Table 5.4. The recommended test limits are for oil in service and are suggested
limits for continued use of service-aged insulating oil by voltage class. Standard C57.106-1991
[4] Section 5, provides additional information when tests do not meet the suggested limits. The
values shown in the standard are approximately 7-15% lower than the recommended values for
new oil in equipment after filling but before energizing.
Table 5-4
Dielectric Strength Guidelines
Minimum Dielectric Strength (kV)

Test & Method < 69 kV 69-288 kV > 345 kV
ASTM D 1816:
• 0.040-in. (1-mm) gap 23 26 26
• 0.080-in. (2-mm) gap 34 45 45
ASTM D 877:
• 0.100-in. (2.5-mm) gap 26 26 26
5.4.4 Dielectric Tests
Although the dielectric strength and water-in-oil tests are separate tests, oil samples for both tests
are normally taken at the same time. There are two test methods available for determining the
dielectric strength of oil. In the main tank, the ASTM-D-1816 method is used. This standard
allows an electrode gap dimension of either 0.040 inches or 0.080 inches. Testing with the
0.040-inch gap is more widely used and recommended. Samples should be taken in accordance
with ASTM-D- 3613 and D-923.
If the transformer has a load tap changer, either the ASTM-D-877 or the ASTM-D-1816 test
method may be used. If the tap changer has sharp, uninsulated electrodes, the ASTM-D-877
method should be used. Generally, the ASTM-D-1816 method is more responsive to dissolved
water and particles in oil. If the tap changer has the selector and diverter switches in separate
compartments, samples should be taken from both compartments.
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The standards do not contain information on the recommended oil properties for load tap
changers. However, the following guidelines can be used for general application. It is
recommended that the manufacturer’s information be checked carefully for this information
before taking action since it may be critical to the operation and life of the tap changer.
Typical oil dielectric characteristics for load tap changers are as follows:
• Compartments with no insulated parts or well rounded electrodes:
ASTM D 877 minimum dielectric = 25 kV
• Compartments with insulated parts such as cables or all electrodes are well rounded:
ASTM D 1816 minimum dielectric = 20 kV
These conditions can be determined from internal inspections. If no inspections have been made,
well-rounded electrodes are usually used in diverter switches above 34 kV. The manufacturer
can also furnish such information.
5.4.5 Water In Oil Tests
There are a number of commercially available equipment to perform tests in accordance with
ASTM-D-1533. The results of these tests are used to determine the water content in the
transformers. The samples should be taken in accordance with ASTM-D-3613 requirements to
prevent contamination of the sample with atmospheric moisture.
Maximum recommended water contents for different voltage classes taken from IEEE Std. 637
and C57.106 are listed in Table 5.5.
Table 5-5
Maximum Water-in-Oil Test
Voltage Classes
Test < 69 kV 69 – 230 kV > 230 kV
Water content, ppm max. at 60°C 35 20 12
5.4.6 Water Content of Paper Insulation
Water reduces the dielectric strength of paper insulation. The amount of reduction depends on
the stress pattern (puncture or creepage), the thickness of the insulation, and other variables.
If excessive water exists in the insulation and the transformer is overloaded, bubbles can form at
the hot surfaces that are in contact with paper having high water content. The formation of
bubbles is risky if the transformer having wet insulation is overloaded and hot spot temperatures,
such as 150°C, exist. Wet insulation is also a factor in maintenance and life extension since the
insulation ages faster when it contains high levels of water. The water content of the paper can be
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estimated from the water in oil and the temperature of the oil as given in EPRI “Guidelines for
the Life Extension of Substations” [4].
Table 5.6 provides the EPRI guidelines for maximum water content in paper insulation.
Table 5-6
Maximum Water Content
kV of Highest Voltage Winding Maximum Water Content
525 and 800 kV 1%
230 and 345 kV 1%
115 up to 230 kV 1.5%
Less than 115 kV 2.0%
If the water content is in line with the above limits, no action is required. If the water content is
marginal, it is recommended that off-line insulation power factor tests be performed to obtain a
better estimate of the water content. If these values are exceeded, consideration should be given
to drying of the insulation.
Periodic tests to check the internal condition of the transformer are recommended at an interval
of three to seven years even if the results from other tests are found satisfactory. Insulation
power factor tests are not usually performed during these intervals unless problems with
bushings or other components make these tests desirable.
5.4.7 Oil Power Factor
This test is used as a check on the deterioration and contamination of insulating oil, due to its
sensitivity to ionic contaminants. The percentage maximum acceptable values for power factor
are taken from Reference 4 and are given in Table 5.7.
Table 5-7
Maximum Acceptable Percent Power Factors of Oil
Voltage Classes
Temperature < 69kV 69 – 288 kV > 345 kV
20° C 1.0 0.75 0.5
100° C 3.0 2.0 1.5
The power factor of oil is measured using ASTM D 924.
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Power factors above the acceptance levels usually indicate the following:
• Excessive water content in the insulation
• Contamination of the insulation
• Failure within the insulation structure, which has deposited carbon on the insulation
If the power factors are greater than the above typical limits, consideration should be given to
processing the oil using one of the procedures in IEEE Std 637, “Guide for the Reclamation of
Insulating Oil and Criteria for Its Use,” 1982 [8]. The use of activated clay to remove
contaminants from oil is the preferred method by many utilities. It is recommended that some
experimentation be performed before starting the processing. Some contaminants can be
removed by filtering the oil with clean, dry cellulose filters. More expensive clay filtering needs
to be used to remove other contaminants.
This test is a means for detecting oil-soluble polar contaminants and oxidation products in
insulating oils. Higher values than those in Table 5.7 are indicative of measurable dielectric loss
resulting in heat generation during transformer operation and insulation deterioration. It is
generally recommended that the oil be processed if the values are greater than those in Table 5.7.
5.4.8 Oil Interfacial Tension
Values of interfacial tension (IFT) below the minimum recommended acceptance values shown
in Table 5.8, taken from IEEE C57.106 [7], are normally the result of oxidation byproducts or
chemical contaminants. If all other oil parameters are normal, interfacial tension values below
those recommended are not of immediate concern. However, it is recommended that any
downward trends be followed since it may indicate a deteriorating situation. The interfacial
tension is measured in accordance with ASTM D 971. Table 5.8 shows normal recommended
test intervals for transformers with no signs of abnormal condition. Transformers with signs of
insulation deterioration would require sampling more often depending on the oil condition. In
such a case, trending is necessary to determine how often samples should be taken and what
other steps may be required such as load reduction or outage scheduling.
Table 5-8
Oil Interfacial Test
Voltage Classes
Test < 69kV 69 – 288 kV > 345 kV
Interfacial tension 24 26 30
If the oil interfacial values are below the acceptable levels given in Table 5.8 and there is a
downward trend, the oil can be processed using the procedures in IEEE Std 637, “Guide for the
Reclamation of Insulating Oil and Criteria for Its Use,” 1982 [8].
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5.4.9 Condition Monitoring Systems
Considering a large transformer system, the condition assessment process can be improved if
some characteristics and properties of the transformer system are monitored by additional on-line
sensors. Although transformers are a critical part of electrical generation and transmission
systems, there was not a major emphasis on improved monitoring until the 1990s.
The emphasis on reduced maintenance costs and life extension makes it desirable to have on-line
monitoring systems that provide information for determining when maintenance should be
performed.
On-line monitoring systems are becoming more common in recent years. In some cases, on-line
monitoring systems can provide continuous data without the requirement for oil samples and
analyses. Such systems can also provide trending data and charts for further evaluation and
assist in the decision-making process. The following sections cover transformer condition
monitoring methods and current technologies. Off line diagnostic tests and monitoring devices
are covered in Section 5.1.3.
5.4.9.1 Gas-In-Oil Sensors
The objective is to employ on-line gas-in-oil measurement methods that will determine the
amount of fault gases in the oil. These sensors are mounted so that they are exposed to the oil
and detect the following gases:
• Hydrogen • Ethylene
• Carbon Monoxide • Ethane
• Carbon Dioxide • Methane
• Acetylene • Oxygen
5.4.9.2 Temperature Sensors
Top oil thermometers are commonly used but some utilities use resistance temperature devices
(RTDs) for improved accuracy and reliability.
The so-called winding temperature devices are used on a large percentage of power transformers.
The sensor is a simulation device that responds to the top oil temperature and the heat generated
in a resistance element. A bushing current transformer provides current proportional to the load
current to the heating coil. The current adds an increment of temperature to the coil that is equal
to the winding temperature rise above the hot oil temperature. They have limitations in that the
setting depends on the hot-spot temperature calculated by the designer, which may or may not
represent the true hot-spot, and the time response of the winding may be different than that of the
device.
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Winding temperature devices that are commercially available at present no longer use a resistor
to determine the increment of temperature added to the top oil temperature. Instead, the
increment is calculated by software.
Direct measurement of hot-spot temperatures using fiber optic technology was investigated in an
EPRI Report No. 1000016, “Optical Fiber Acoustic Sensors for Inside Transformer On Line
Detection of Partial Discharges,” [9] and such sensors have been successfully installed in a
number of operating transformers. The sensors are located in an area that is either the hottest
spot location or is representative of the hottest spot temperature. The fiber optic cables are made
from an insulating material and are not suitable for installation in the higher voltage regions.
Therefore, sensors must be installed in a lower voltage area such as the low voltage windings or
in leads. They can also be installed in the winding oil ducts to determine the hottest oil
temperature since the winding oil duct temperature may be several degrees hotter than the bulk
top oil temperature. The fiber optic cables are taken through pass-through devices to the outside
of the tank where they are connected to read-out or recording equipment. The obvious
advantage is that the actual hot-spot temperature can be determined for life extension
considerations or for loading purposes.
5.4.9.3 Oil Level Gauges
Oil level gauges are used to determine the level under different temperature conditions and to
alarm if the level is below the minimum such that high-voltage parts might be exposed.
5.4.9.4 Rate-of-Rise Relays
The sudden pressure or fault pressure relay detects sudden pressure transients produced within
the transformer tank during operation. It senses the rate of change of pressure during internal
faults. If the internal pressure exceeds the safe limits, the relay will activate the tripping scheme
to de-energize the transformer. This relay does not act as a pressure relief device.
It should be noted that installation of rate-of-rise relays on older transformers may require some
study. For example, some older transformers may have loose windings that cause hydraulic
pumping of the oil under low-level short circuits or even during magnetizing in-rush, which can
activate the relay. In such instances, persons familiar with the transformer design and the relay
design should be contacted.
5.4.9.5 Gas Collector Relay
The relay collects free gas bubbles in the oil. The relay is connected at the top of the transformer
tank to collect the generated gas. If the gas is generated by partial discharges, excessive heating,
or arcs under the oil, an alarm is initiated by the relay. The relays will also respond to air
bubbles caused by leaks.
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5.4.9.6 Oil Pump Performance Sensors
There are three types of devices in use:

• Differential pressure oil flow indicators are used to determine when the pumps are in
operation.
• Vane-type oil flow indicators are also used to determine when the pumps are in operation.
• Pump bearing wear detectors are available for pumps having sleeved bearings. These
acoustic devices are used to determine any changes in the dimension of the gap between the
shaft and the bearing surface. Base readings are obtained when the pump is new. A read-out
device is then used periodically to determine if wear has occurred.
5.4.9.7 Load Tap Changer (LTC) Monitors
A number of load tap changer monitors have been installed on transformers. The basic principle
is that contacts that are nearing the end of their life or that are coking generate additional heat,
which raises the temperature of the oil in the compartment. The tap changer diverter
compartment usually runs cooler than the main tank, and the selector compartment runs cooler
than the diverter switch compartment. If the temperature of the diverter switch compartment
starts to increase in comparison to the main tank or the selector compartment, there is usually a
contact problem. If the selector and the diverter are in the same compartment, the temperature of
the tap changer compartment must be compared to the main tank.
Many LTC overheating problems have been detected with infrared scanning and on-line
monitors. The on-line monitors use temperature sensors located on the walls of the tap changer
compartments and the main tank. The output is connected to recording and analysis equipment.
Alarms can be activated if the temperature of the diverter compartment reaches a level indicating
that the contacts should be inspected or changed. Other monitors that are available for load tap
changers include:
• Timing circuits to determine if there has been a change in the operating time of the
mechanical system.
• Measurement of the motor current including the starting current. Broken shafts or changes in
the mechanical system might be detected.
Load tap changer monitors under emerging technologies include:

• Use of ethylene gas analysis to determine contact wear. It has been found that the change in
the ethylene is different when contact heating occurs compared to the other gases generated
when the tap changer operates. Some utilities are already experimenting with ethylene
detection using chromatograph data.
• Acoustic analysis is being used in much the same manner as is being applied to circuit
breaker monitoring.
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5.4.9.8 Infrared Thermography
Infrared thermography can be used on bushings and other connections to help detect problems.
Pumps and load tap changers running hot can also be identified. It is less effective on the overall
transformer tank due to the volume of oil and thickness of the steel. However, some hot spots
near the tank wall have been detected using this technique. It can also be used to verify correct
operation of the cooling radiators. A consistent thermal gradient from top to bottom of all
radiators should be observed. Internal blockages and valves in the wrong position have been
detected in this way. It is recommended that thermography be performed on the following
transformer components:
• Control cabinet internals and terminal blocks
• Tank
• Bushings and connections
• Surge arresters
• Load tap changers
• Coolers, pumps and motors
5.4.9.9 Water-In-Oil Sensors
The operation of water-in-oil sensors is based on thin-film capacitive element technology. The
capacitance measured will change proportionally to the change in the relative saturation of water
in the oil. The output of these devices is the percent relative saturation of the water in the oil,
which is dependent on the temperature of the oil and the amount of water in the oil. If the
temperature of the oil is known, the parts-per-million (ppm) of water can be determined. The
best sensors incorporate a temperature measurement device at the tip of the sensor, ensuring that
the correct ppm can be determined.
5.4.9.10 Partial Discharge Detection
Partial discharge detection is of great interest. If detected early, damaging conditions can be
remedied, thereby reducing repair costs and preventing catastrophic failures. Partial discharge
detection has been used in transformer manufacturing since the 1960s to determine the presence
of damaging discharges during factory tests. It is recognized that such detection has reduced the
number of field failures by detecting incipient problems and taking corrective action in the
factory.
5.4.9.11 Acoustic Emission Devices
Acoustic partial-discharge detection is used in factories for location of discharges, and this
technology has been developed for field detection. Acoustic signals are generated in the oil by
partial discharges so that this method involves sensing of the acoustic signals that are transmitted
through the oil. Acoustic signals are also generated by the formation of gas bubbles and can be
used to locate sources of overheating.
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Piezoelectric devices are used to detect acoustic emissions from the transformer internals and
have been installed on the transformer to obtain more data or as on-line monitors.
5.4.9.12 Acoustic Sensors
A number of acoustic sensors are attached at different locations on the wall of the transformer.
The output from the sensors can be taken to read out devices or recorders. Data may be recorded
and diagnosed using a computer system. If the signals appear in a transformer that has had no
signal or if there is an increase such that there is an upward trend, an alarm is initiated.
5.4.9.13 Internal Sensors
The piezoelectric sensor is attached to the end of a fiberglass rod and the rod installed in the oil.
The output of these sensors is transmitted to a computer system for recording and analysis.
Alarms are initiated when a signal originates in a transformer with no previous discharge history
or if there is an upward trend. EPRI is currently developing a fiber optic acoustic sensor for
mounting inside the transformer. Report number 1001943, “Development of a Prototype Fiber-
Optic Acoustic PD Sensor: For Inside Transformer Installation,” is available [26].
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6
GENERIC AGING AND OBSOLESCENCE
ASSESSMENT
This section addresses the steps numbered 11B and 11C in the LCM planning flowchart (Figure
2-1b). The intent is to help characterize the aging of passive SSCs, the wear of active
components, and the obsolescence of SSCs. This characterization will serve to address the need
for and timing of the replacement of large transformer equipment in the LCM planning process
and to identify potential environmental conditions that affect the rate of degradation or require
special plant-specific attention.
6.1 Aging Mechanism Review
An aging management review is an integral factor to LCM maintenance planning. The aging
management program (AMP) for large transformers was reviewed and two documents were
identified in the NRC NUREG-1801, Vol. II, Generic Aging Lessons Learned (GALL) Report
[16].
• VI.A, Electrical Cables and Connections Not Subject to 10 CFR 50.49 Environmental
Qualification Requirements
• VI.B, Equipment Subject to 10 CFR 50.49 Environmental Qualification Requirements
Sandia report SAND93-7068-UC-523 [19], “Aging Management Guidelines,” provides

important information on maintenance and surveillance of power transformers and specific
information to investigate for each transformer component. It also provides signs to look for
during inspection and analysis/interpretation of monitoring results. Visual inspection can be
performed during routine walkdowns or during scheduled maintenance. In addition to the Sandia
report, EPRI document TR106857, “Preventive Maintenance Basis Volume 38: Transformers
(Station-Type, Oil-Immersed)” [3] and EPRI 186-401 “User Guide - Long Term Reliability
Prediction of Nuclear Power Plant Systems, Structures and Components” [18] contain a wealth
of information on large transformer aging. Information contained in these documents can be
used to identify the effects of aging on various components of large transformers and appropriate
aging management programs.
The recommendations for aging management programs are derived from these three documents
and are presented here. This approach ensures that the results of the aging management review
can be readily used, and allows the plant staff to become familiar with and adopt the terminology
that has evolved in the industry with respect to aging management activities. The
recommendations from the above three documents are extracted and presented in Table 6.1.
6-1
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Generic Aging and Obsolescence Assessment
Table 6-1
Common Maintenance Issues and Surveillance Techniques
Component Aging Mechanisms Aging Effect Maintenance and Surveillance

Techniques
Metal Rust, corrosion Loss of wall Visual inspection of enclosure

Enclosure thickness, metal components and hardware; cleaning of
(Tank) and cracks exterior and interior enclosure surfaces
Cover(s) (where accessible); painting of rusted or
corroded portions of structure.
Deterioration of seals Oil leakage, moisture Visual inspection for embrittlement,

or organic components intrusion cracking, or signs of fluid leakage;
(gaskets, seals) replacement as necessary.
Metal fatigue Structural integrity Visual inspection for missing screws, nuts,
degradation washers, and other fastening components;
replacement as necessary.
Primary and Degradation of organic Loss of separation Visual inspection of spacers, supports,
Secondary supports and spacers between windings, and other insulating materials; insulation
Windings clogging, impurities resistance testing; power factor testing;
gas and oil evaluation.
Formation of localized Premature Monitoring of hot spot, top oil, and other
high temperature areas degradation of temperature indications; sampling and
(hot spots) surrounding materials analysis of transformer insulating fluid for
indication of decomposition byproducts
and gases.
Vibration, insulation Loosening of winding Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) test

degradation mounting systems, Visual inspection of winding mounting
movement of system for loose or damaged components;
windings in relation to measurement of critical winding
one another tolerances.
Magnetic Core Core material Weakening or failure Visual inspection for overheating or breaks
embrittlement of lamination, in insulation/conductor; resistance and
increased eddy continuity testing.
currents and core
losses, insulation
damage
Loosening of core Core dislocation, Visual inspection of core mounting; core-

mounting system from impact on fault to-ground test; measurement of critical
design defects current withstand, core/winding tolerances.
deterioration of
insulation
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Techniques
Insulation Dielectric breakdown Loss of dielectric Sampling and analysis for dielectric
System of insulating fluid strength, localized strength, power factor, water/impurity
high temperatures in content, and combustible/non-combustible
windings, gases, as well as other analyses as
combustible and non- applicable.
combustible gases
Particulate and/or Blockages, reduction Visual inspection of insulating fluid for

moisture contamination in localized heat signs of impurities or water; dielectric
dissipation, reduction strength and power factor testing;
in dielectric strength laboratory analysis for water content.
High acidity Deterioration and Sampling and laboratory analysis

decomposition of (neutralization number)
solid insulating
materials, insulation
degradation
Oxidation and sludge Reduced efficiency of Visual inspection of insulating fluid;

formation cooling system, laboratory analysis for sludge and inhibitor
increased acidity of content; maintenance of seals and airtight
insulating fluid integrity of tank and oil preservation
system components.
Bushings Degradation of organic Paper, gasket, and Power factor and capacitance testing.
materials seal degradation
Contamination or Formation of Visual inspection for dust, salt,

deterioration of conductive path contamination, cracking, streaking,
porcelain exterior (tracking) along discoloration, or chipping of porcelain
surfaces surface of rain insulator; cleaning, coating, or
shields, flashover replacement as necessary.
Dielectric breakdown, Deterioration and Visual inspection for indications of

bushing insulating fluid leakage of oil/inert leakage; verification of bushing oil level;
exposure to ambient gas replacement of gaskets/seals as required.
conditions
Improper strain on Electrical connection Verification of connection tightness and

connection or damage or loosening check for excessive strain (outage).
mechanical stress, Thermography
flashover
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Techniques
Cooling Motor, cooler fan, and Bearing wear Visual inspection of motors, fans, pumps.
System pump wear depends on type, Periodic maintenance. Winding insulation
frequency of resistance testing; replacement of motors
lubrication, and and/or leads as required.
service conditions.
Undue vibration,
friction, noise, loss of
shaft tolerances.
Radiator, fins, tubes Reduction of heat Visual inspection and cleaning of

clogging dissipation radiators, fins, tubes; verification of
adequate air flow. Thermography
Load Tap Wear of mechanical Increased friction and Visual inspection. Periodic adjustment
Changers components accelerated wear and parts replacement as necessary
based on inspection and maintenance.
Wear of electrical Friction and

components accelerated wear of
surface contacts
Thermal aging of Reduction of

insulating materials dielectric strength
Wear of main contacts

Deterioration of Tap changer Visual inspection for leakage or
contacts compartment leakage deteriorated gaskets; verification of proper
oil level.
Sudden Thermal aging Degradation of Visual inspection for signs of leakage,

Pressure Relay organic seals and cracking, or other gasket/seal degradation;
(liquid only) gaskets functional testing.
Bushing Thermal aging Degradation of Insulation inspection; insulation resistance

Current organic insulating testing.
Transformers materials
Pressure Relief Thermal aging Degradation of seals Periodic testing for functionality; visual
Devices inspection for seal degradation
Temperature Thermal aging Failure of hot spot Periodic verification of temperature sensor
Indicators heating oil element functionality and accuracy.
6.1.1 Other Sources of Generic Failure Data
Failure data for components used in large transformers is presented in Table 3.1 of EPRI TR-
106857-V38 [3], and is reproduced in Table 6.2. The data indicates specific transformer
components, the degradation mechanisms, failure timing, and PM required to prevent such an
event.
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Table 6-2
Degradation Mechanisms
Discovery/
Failure Degradation Degradation Degradation Failure Prevention PM
Location Mechanism Influence Progression Timing Opportunity Strategy
Transformer Oil Loss of dielectric Heat from Continuous Expect to be failure Temperature Oil screening
(mineral) strength normal free for ~20 years monitoring DGA
operation DGA Operator rounds
Expect to be failure Partial DGA
free for at least Oil dielectric test
several years Oil screening
Oil power factor
testing
Moisture Expect to be failure
Contamination free for at least
(particulate) several years
Low energy Expect to be failure
electrical free for ~20 years
discharge
Arcing Random Random on a scale
of months
Windings Insulation Abnormal Random Random, on a scale Electrical tests: Calibration and
breakdown temperature of 8 years at 90 C oil Power factor testing *
rise temperature or 110 Turns ratio test Oil screening
C winding hot-spot Insulation resistance DGA
temperature Oil analysis Thermography
Thermography Vibration/acoustic/
Vibration analysis sound testing
Acoustic monitoring
Gas blanket
monitoring
Oil testing for
furfural
Degree of
polymerization of
cellulose sample
Partial discharge
testing
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Discovery/
Moisture Continuous Expect to be failure
Windings (cont.) free for several
years
Arcing Random Random on a scale
of a month, can be
rapid
Aging: Continuous Expect to be failure
Heat of free for 40 years
operation
Corona
Partial Random Random on a scale
discharge of several years
Voltage surge Random, depending
on degree and
number of events
Oil quality Continuous Expect to be failure
free for 5-7 years
Mechanical Random Random
losses
Core Loose Assembly of Random and Expect to be failure DGA DGA
shipping error continuous free for 40 years, Vibration Vibration/acoustic/
Vibration Continuous assuming oil is Sound level sound
degassed as needed Testing
Loss of core ground Assembly or Random and Expect to be failure Core ground testing Calibration and testing
shipping error continuous free for 40 years,
Vibration Continuous assuming oil is
degassed as needed
Multiple core Assembly or Random and Expect to be failure DGA DGA
grounds shipping error continuous free for 40 years,
Vibration Continuous assuming oil is
degassed as needed
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Discovery/
Core (cont.) Shorted laminations Heat from over Random Random, on a scale DGA DGA
excitation or of years Turns ratio Calibration and testing
arcing Random Single phase
Poor excitation current
manufacturing
Shipping or
handling error
Gaskets Leakage Aging from Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
thermal cycling free for about 20 Engineering walkdown
and stray eddy years
currents
Improper Random Random
assembly
Overpressure
Tank Corrosion Sulfur Random Random on a scale Oil screening No task
contamination of ~5 years, if tank is Sulfur test
contaminated
Oil Filled Bushings Leakage O-ring failure Continuous Expect to be error Inspection Operator rounds
free for at least 15 Engineering walkdown
years
Over- Random Random Bushing cleaning
temperature Maintenance
chipped or inspection
cracked
porcelain
Improper
maintenance
techniques
External Environmental Continuous Expect to be failure Monitor a spare Thermography
contamination conditions free for 2 to 5 years, bushing Operator rounds
depending on Thermography Engineering walkdown
severity of Ultrasonic testing Vibration/acoustic/
conditions Audible noise sound testing
Inspection Bushing cleaning
Maintenance
inspection
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Discovery/
Oil Filled Bushings Loss of BIL Internal Random Random Electrical testing: Calibration and testing
(cont.) contamination Continuous Power factor Maintenance
Operation Random Capacitance inspection
above rating Inspection
Low oil level
Voltage surges
(e.g. lightning
strikes)
Manufacturing
techniques
Improper
maintenance
Chipped or
cracked
porcelain
Solid Bushings Loss of BIL Chipped or Random Random Inspection Maintenance
cracked Electrical testing: inspection
porcelain Power factor Calibration and testing
External Capacitance
contamination
Lightning Arresters: Thermal runaway Aging Continuous Random Electrical testing: Calibration and testing
(metal oxide varistor Power factor Lightning arrester
type) Leakage current leakage monitoring
No-Load Tap Misalignment, Wear and Continuous Random Electrical testing Calibration and testing
Changer Contact Coking, etc. binding of Turns ratio test DGA
mechanism DGA
Number of
operations
Sheared gear pin Binding of Continuous Random Operation No task
mechanism
Load Tap Changer Misalignment, Wear and Continuous Random Timing test Tap changer
Contact Coking, etc. binding of Turns ratio test maintenance
mechanism DGA Calibration and testing
Number of Thermography DGA
operations Thermography
Improper Random
maintenance
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Discovery/
Load Tap Changer Damaged contacts Normal wear Continuous Expect to be failure Timing test Tap changer
(cont.) free for > 100,000 Turns ratio test maintenance
cycles DGA Calibration and testing
Thermography DGA
Acoustic monitoring Thermography
Vibration/acoustic/
sound level
Lack of use Random, but could
be a small number
of cycles
Oil quality Random Random
Misalignment
Improper
maintenance
Leaks: gasket, Aging Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
piping and valves Wear free for 20 years DGA Engineering walkdown
Tap changer
maintenance
DGA
Motor operator Overload: Continuous Random Operator counter Tap changer
failure linkage binding Random Random, on a scale Inspection maintenance
Exceeding duty of years Engineering walkdown
cycle
Fins and Tube Airside fouling Air quality Continuous Random Inspection Operator rounds
Coolers (Oil Coolers Debris Random Random, can be Oil temperature Cooler maintenance
months monitoring Engineering walkdown
Loss of heat transfer Internal oil Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Cooler maintenance
sludging free for 40 years Oil temperature Operator rounds
monitoring Thermography
Thermography
External Expect to be failure
corrosion free for 15-20 years
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Discovery/
Fins and Tube Leaks: tube to Thermal Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
Coolers (cont.) header expansion free for 40 years Engineering walkdown
Vibration Cooler maintenance
Dissimilar
materials
Manufacturing
defect
Random Random, on a scale
of 20 years
Leaking gaskets Aging from thermal Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
cycling and stray free for about 20 Engineering walkdown
eddy current years Cooler maintenance
Improper assembly
Random Random
Dresser coupling Improper installation Random Random, can be Inspection Operator rounds
leaks Improper design immediate Engineering walkdown
Cooler maintenance
Radiators Airside fouling Debris Random Random Inspection Operator rounds
Oil temperature Cooler maintenance
monitoring Engineering walkdown
Loss of heat transfer Low oil level Random Random, could be Inspection Operator rounds
rapid Thermography Oil screening
Oil temperature Engineering walkdown
Oil analysis
Loss of oil flow
Oil sludging Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
free for 40 years Thermography Oil screening
Oil temperature Engineering walkdown
Oil analysis
Fans and Motors Bearing wear Age Continuous Expect to be failure Vibration monitoring Thermography
Excessive free for 7 to 10 years Motor current Vibration/acoustic/
lubrication Thermography sound testing
Lack of lubrication Acoustics monitoring Cooler maintenance
Lubrication Motor current
monitoring
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Discovery/
Fans and Motors Fan blade imbalance Random Random
(cont.)
Winding insulation Age Continuous Expect to be failure Insulation resistance No task
failure free for 40 years
Water ingress at Random Random
connections
Fan blade cracks Fatigue Continuous Expect to be failure NDE Cooler maintenance
Corrosion free for 40 years Inspection
Imbalance Random Random

Improper
maintenance
Motor power cable Age Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Cooler maintenance
deterioration Heat free for 10-15 years
Sunlight
Pump and Motor Bearing wear Age Continuous Expect to be failure Vibration monitoring
free for 40 years ** Motor current
Bearing wear
indicator
Acoustics monitoring
Ferrography
Impeller and volute Age Continuous Expect to be failure Vibration monitoring Vibration/acoustics/
wear free for 40 years Motor current sound testing
Acoustics monitoring Motor current
Ferrography monitoring
Flow indication Operator rounds
Engineering walkdown
Winding insulation Age Continuous Expect to be failure Insulation resistance No task
failure free for 40 years
Water ingress Random Random
connections
Motor power cable Age Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Cooler maintenance
determination Heat free for 10-15 years
Sunlight
Valves Stem leaks Aging Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
Heat free for 10 years Engineering walkdown
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Discovery/
Valves (cont.) Disk detachment Pin broken or Random Random Operation No task
dislodged
Bound or struck Lack of use Random Random, on a scale Operation No task
of 10 years
Air In-leakage Stem leak Continuous Expect to be failure Oil pressure gauge Operator rounds
free for 10 years Oil level DGA
DGA
Sudden Pressure Mis-operation Age (switch, spring, Continuous Expect to be failure Functional test Calibration and testing
Relay and diaphragm) free for 40 years Replacement
Vibrates loose Random Random
Installation error
Buckholtz Gas Mis-operation Installation error Random Random Functional test Calibration and testing
Volume Relay Maintenance error
Bound or broken Continuous
linkage
Level Alarms Mis-operation Installation Random Random Functional test Calibration and testing
Maintenance error
Bound or broken Continuous
linkage
Pressure Gauge Drift Age Continuous Expect to be failure Calibration Calibration and testing
free for 5-7 years
Temperature Gauge Draft Drift Continuous Expect to be failure Calibration Calibration and testing
free for 4-6 years
Conservator Tank Bladder failure Age Continuous Expect to be failure DGA DGA
free for 40 years Inspection Maintenance
inspection
Fittings and Installation error Random Random Inspection Operator rounds
connection leaks Vibration Continuous Expect to be failure Maintenance
free for 40 years inspection
Engineering walkdown
Stray eddy currents Random Random, on a scale
(at main tank of 2-3 years after
connection) occurrence
Desiccant Outlet breather valve Age Continuous Expect to be failure DGA DGA
fails to seal Environment free for 40 years
Depletion Moisture Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
free for a few years
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Discovery/
Gas Blanket Regulator failure Drift Continuous Expect to be failure Inspection Operator rounds
Systems Elastomer failure free for 10 years Alarm Engineering walkdown
Leaking: pipes, Age Continuous Random Inspection Operator rounds
tubing, fittings, Vibration Alarm Engineering walkdown
gaskets and valves
Relief Valve Improper operation Age Continuous Random Inspection Operator rounds
Corrosion Alarm Engineering walkdown
Electrical Loose Vibration Continuous Random Inspection Maintenance
Connections Thermal cycling Thermography inspection
Thermography
Control Relay See EPRI Report TR See EPRI Report TR
106857, Volume 30, 106857, Volume 30,
Relays-Control Relays-Control
Timing Relay See EPRI Report TR See EPRI Report TR
106857, Volume 31, 106857, Volume 31,
Relays-Timing Relays-Timing
Motor Starters, See EPRI Report TR See EPRI Report TR
Breakers, and 106857, Volume 8, 106857, Volume 8,
Transfer Contactors: Low Voltage Electric Low Voltage Electric
Wiring, Fuses, and Motors (600V and Motors (600V and
Lights below) below)
Note: The above Table 6.2 (Ref. 3) is reproduced from EPRI’s TR-100806 report. The following comments are offered to clarify items not clearly listed.
* Calibration refers to testing equipment.
** Pumps and motors are not expected to be failure free for 40 years. (See Section 5.2.2.1.)
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6.2 Expected Lifetimes of Major Components
In addition to long-term aging of passive components, active components of large transformers

are susceptible to wear or degradation. This degradation must be addressed by routine
preventive maintenance, including overhaul and component replacement. Typical failure timing
for active transformer components is presented in Table 6.2, together with information on
degradation influence and cause. It should also be noted that the maintenance (corrective or
preventive) entailed in replacing worn out components can be addressed through the
maintenance programs identified in Section 5.4, considering the failure rates discussed in Section
4.1.2.1 (Table 4.1).
6.3 Technical Obsolescence
Guidance is provided using the evaluation method provided in Table 2.2 of the Life Cycle
Management Sourcebook Overview Report [1].
Many systems in a nuclear power plant (and in particular those with electronic instrumentation)
are susceptible to technical obsolescence. Components may have to be replaced because of the
unavailability of spare parts. In these cases, the likelihood and timing of the need to perform
replacement of the system or components will be determined by the failure (or degradation) rate
of the part, and availability of spares from other sources. The feasibility and cost of reverse
engineering the obsolete components should also be considered.
To ascertain whether a given system is susceptible to technical obsolescence, the evaluation

method provided in the Life Cycle Management Sourcebook Overview report [1] (shown as
Table 6.3) can be applied as a first step. Using the criteria from this table emphasizes the
seriousness of technical obsolescence for the following reasons:
• There are very few transformer manufacturers left in the voltage class of 138 kV and higher.
• Tertiary winding loading demands a new design.
• UATs and RATs/SATs are two, three, and in some cases four winding type transformers
which require special design to accommodate the physical configuration of the windings in
the same tank. Some transformer manufacturers decline to build multiple winding
transformers and utilities often have no choice but to find overseas manufacturers and pay the
added shipping cost.
• The bushing arrangements for GSUs and UATs are unique because of isophase bus
connections.
• Bushings are long lead components and replacing them requires an outage. Therefore,
planning and scheduling is essential to avoid unnecessary plant shutdowns and loss of
revenue. In some cases, older bushings may not be available and additional engineering
tasks may be required.
• Special design is required to account for generator characteristics and sudden load drop
during a turbine trip.
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• Special insulation design is required for a delta connection on the HV side.
These characteristics do not lend themselves to an immediate delivery when required. It may be
worthwhile to quote SOER 02-3 (19) as follows:
• Many original equipment manufacturers are no longer in business and many stations are
depending on other transformer vendors for service and technical support.
• The unique design of each transformer contributes to difficulty in sharing and learning from
industry experience.
This aspect of obsolescence should be addressed in developing LCM alternatives. Table 6.3
identifies an example of the application of obsolescence evaluation for a cooling fan.
Table 6-3
Application of Obsolescence Evaluation Criteria for a Cooling Fan
Technical Obsolescence Evaluation Criteria Score Yes

1. Is the SSC still being manufactured and will it be 5.0
available for at least the next five years?
2. Is there more than one supplier for the SSC for the 3.0
foreseeable future?
3. Can the plant or outside suppliers manufacture the 3.0
SSC in a reasonable time (within a refueling
outage)?
4. Are there other sources or contingencies (from other 3.0 3.0
plants, shared inventory, stock-piled parts,
refurbishments, secondary suppliers, imitation parts,
commercial dedications, etc.) available in case of
emergency?
5. Is the SSC frequency of failure/year times the 3.0
number of the SSCs in the plant time the remaining
operating life (in years) equal or lower than the
number of stocked SSCs in the warehouse?
6. Can the spare part inventory be maintained for at 3.0
least the next five years?
7. Is the SSC immune to significant aging 1.0 1.0
degradation?
8. Can new designs, technology, concepts be readily 3.0 3.0
integrated with the existing configuration (hardware-
software, digital-analog, solid-state, miniaturized
electronics, smart components, etc.)?
9. Is technical upgrading desirable, commensurate 3.0
with safety and cost effective?
Total Obsolescence Score: 7.0
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Ranking Guidance for Table 6.3

• Total score is < 6.0, RED and the SSC obsolescence is serious. Potential options to deal with
obsolescence and contingency planning should be identified. Guidance on the modeling,
timing and costs of these contingencies, and the associated risks should be provided.
• Total score is between 6.0 and 10.0 YELLOW, and the SSC may have longer term concerns
for obsolescence. Contingency planning and options should be considered.
• Total score is > 10, GREEN and the SSC is not likely affected by obsolescence.
The score of 7.0 for the example component in Table 6-3 indicates that contingency planning and
obsolescence mitigation options should be addressed in one or more alternative LCM plans.
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7
GENERIC ALTERNATIVE LCM PLANS
This section addresses steps 12-17 in the LCM planning flowchart (Figure 2-1b) to provide
guidance for developing alternative plans. The EPRI LCM Demonstration Program Report [2]
summarizes alternative LCM plans as follows:
“Following the assessment of aging and reliability, potential alternative LCM plans
should be identified. The objective here should be to explore whether there are
potentially better ways of addressing the aging management of the SSC. These inputs can
come from plant staff but input should also be solicited from outside experts and industry
benchmarking projects.”
The following guidance for these steps includes the identification of possible plant operating life
strategies and the development of alternative LCM Plans that are compatible with or integral to
the strategies identified. Also provided is a hypothetical illustration of alternative LCM plans (for
large transformers) with the attendant discussions of the logic for building the alternatives and
the derivation of assumptions.
7.1 Plant Operating Strategies and Types of LCM Planning Alternatives
The determination of LCM planning alternatives will be driven mainly by the plant operating
strategies that, implicitly or explicitly, are being followed or evaluated and the current reliability
performance of large transformers and component parts. Accordingly, the LCM planning
alternatives that will be evaluated are very plant-specific. The typical plant operating strategies
and standard approaches to LCM planning alternatives are discussed below.
7.1.1 Plant Strategy 1: Operate the plant for the currently licensed period of 40
years.
This strategy requires minimizing risk during the remaining operating period until the plant’s
license expires and identifying limiting SSCs which could result in premature power reduction or
replacements forcing an economic decision regarding early decommissioning. LCM plan
alternatives that might be developed under this strategy include:
• LCM Plan Alternative 1A: A base case to determine the cost of the activities performed
under the current maintenance plan, and assuming that the activities will continue as-is until
the end of the licensed plant life. This case also assumes the continuation of the existing
maintenance program without any major capital investments, unless absolutely necessary.
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Generic Alternative LCM Plans
• LCM Plan Alternative 1B: An alternative plan in which the current maintenance plan is
optimized and an aggressive PM program is implemented to reduce equipment failures, lost
power production, and regulatory risk.
• LCM Plan Alternative 1C: An alternative in which the current maintenance plan is
optimized and older transformers are refurbished/replaced with more reliable equipment.
Variations to this alternative are schemes such as:
– Transformers with larger temperature rise boundaries
– Consideration of a three-phase unit in one tank against three-single-phase units in
three separate tanks, or three-phase half size, in two tanks
– Refurbishment of the transformer by retaining the core
– Additional radiator cooler banks or chilled water system
7.1.2 Plant Strategy 2: Operate the plant for 60 years under a License Renewal
Program
This strategy recognizes the potential for license renewal and extended operation of the plant.
Major investments will be required to achieve extended operation. These investments can only
be justified by additional revenue generated in the additional 20-year operating term. LCM
planning alternatives that might be considered under this strategy include:
• LCM Plan Alternative 2A: A rigorous preparation for license renewal with an aggressive
aging management program, system performance enhancements, and timely component
replacements or upgrades. This LCM plan recommends timely replacement of like-for-like
components such as pumps, fans, motors, level and temperature indicators, etc.
• LCM Plan Alternative 2B: Preparing for eventual license renewal with an aggressive PM
and PdM program, but delaying plans for major capital improvements until the actual
extended license is implemented (i.e., in year 35 of the plant life).
7.2 Development of Detailed Alternative LCM Plans
For each alternative LCM plan proposed, detailed maintenance activities and schedules need to
be identified. Each plan will involve some mix of the LCM approaches in steps 13 to l7 in Figure
2-1b. This section will provide guidance in developing the alternative LCM plans. The
following may be considered when developing the alternative LCM plans:
• Adjusting the frequency of time-directed maintenance activities to enhance the reliability of
the large transformers or reduce maintenance costs.
• Considering diagnostics (PdM) to convert from time-directed to condition-directed
maintenance.
• Performing preventive and non-invasive maintenance activities on-line, if feasible.
• Adding routine preventive and predictive maintenance activities that might enhance the
reliability of large transformers. A number of these activities are listed in Section 4.1.5.
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• Tasks that are specifically devoted to transformer aging. While many of the routine
maintenance tasks performed on or proposed for large transformers might broadly be
regarded as being intended to address aging, a number of tasks are identified in Table 6.1,
“Common Maintenance Issues and Surveillance Techniques,” of Section 6 that specifically
address the aging of passive components. The addition (or deletion) of these tasks should be
considered in alternative LCM plans.
• Tasks that address, facilitate or enable operating changes to minimize or equalize component
wear. For example, the flow of oil into the bottom of the winding can be modified and
optimized by changing the sequence of pump activation to avoid high flow into the bottom of
any phase. This reduces static electrification and increases reliability. By staging the pumps
as shown in Table 7.1, efficiency can be optimized. Installation of run-time meters and start
counters can help ensure pumps are run equally, thus avoiding excessive wear on any one
pump. Start counters also facilitate the scheduling of time-directed maintenance for active
stand-by equipment.
Table 7-1
Guide for Staging of Pumps on Forced-Oil-Air (FOA) Transformers
No. of
Pumps Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
3 1 1 1
4 1 1 2
5 1 2 2
6 2 2 2
7 2 2 3
8 2 3 3
7.3 Hypothetical Illustration of Assembling LCM Planning Alternatives
This section illustrates the process of creating LCM planning alternatives. A hypothetical case is
discussed with assumptions identified.
The recent improvements in the design of oil-filled transformers have been in the technology of
better insulation characteristics. New insulation has allowed transformers to be built to operate
at higher temperatures, voltages, and with larger tanks. The transformer life is guaranteed only if
the insulation is preserved in conjunction with the mechanical components like bushings, LTC,
accessories, and the cooling system. During the life of a transformer, all components undergo
wear and aging due to operating conditions. If the unit is operated within its nameplate ratings
with minimal tap change operations, transformers should operate for the design life.
Many of the components like LTCs, bushings, accessories, pumps, coolers, etc., can be replaced
once a faulty condition is detected. These are reversible life components which, when replaced in
a timely manner, will help to extend the life of the transformer. However, there is one major
component of the transformer that, once subjected to abnormal condition, cannot be restored to
its original condition -- it is the transformer solid insulation.
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The transformer solid insulation degradation is an irreversible event. Once aging begins, it is an
irreversible degradation process, which determines the life of the transformer. Therefore, the
preservation of the transformer insulation is of paramount importance for preserving the life of
the transformer. The oil that is used to remove the heat also serves as a part of the insulation
scheme.
All transformers undergo some kind of aging, but the older large transformers need special
attention. Replacement of these transformers is not easy because the original manufacturers may
no longer be in business, particularly in the voltage class 138 kV and higher. Therefore, this case
is not a hypothetical situation but a very real threat. Apart from requiring a higher voltage rating,
the large utility transformer requires special terminal arrangement, matching transformer and
generator characteristics, higher BIL, and customized reactance matching.
Based on this unique situation, alternatives must be in place for continuous plant operation.
When preparing the alternative LCM plans the following may be considered:
• Review original design with an objective of “fit-for-service” status (items such as BIL and
short circuit capability).
• Analyze the system disturbance, impact on the transformer (e.g. through-faults, lightning
strikes, frequency and voltage swings).
• Consider monitoring the loading very closely.
The following items may be considered as LCM planning progresses:

• A spare GSU, UAT or RAT/SAT is a prudent investment for plants that have one of each of
these transformers. Maintaining a spare for half-size GSUs in large power plants may not be
as critical since half of the generating load can be carried with one transformer. However,
considering the revenue losses for the time to repair or receive a new transformer, the cost for
maintaining a spare is small.
• Power plants with two auxiliary transformers per unit may have the flexibility to carry all the
station auxiliary power loads with one transformer if the other UAT is out of service. Of
course, the load carrying capacity depends on the size of the transformer. Some newer plants
have GSUs, UATs, and RATs/SATs with additional excess capacity.
• Table 7.2 provides a sample cost analysis and the process of creating LCM planning
alternatives. The inspection, maintenance, and repair frequencies as well as the cost
associated with these tasks are approximate numbers. The effort here is to provide a
hypothetical illustration that can be followed as an example when actual costs are known in
order to choose the best alternative.
• Labor hours used in the hypothetical illustration are different for daily and monthly
inspections. Monthly inspections involve more detailed tasks.
• Labor charges may be higher for outside contractors compared to in-house personnel.
Outside contractors may not be as well informed as in-house personnel regarding plant-
specific equipment.
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Table 7-2
Hypothetical Example for Single Tank, Single Unit, 3-Phase Transformer
Alternative B Alternative D
Labor Mat. Alt. A Partial Alternative C New
Cost ($) Upgrade & Transformer &
Item Activity No. of Labor Cost Frequency/ Existing Refurbishment &
Aggressive PM Aggressive PM
Comp. Maintenance Aggressive PM
# Description Hours ($) Year Program Program
Program Program
1.1 Inspection
1.1.1 Daily 1 1 60 365 21,900 21,900 21,900 21,900
1.1.2 Monthly 1 2 60 12 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440
1.1.3 Daily 1 1 60 365 21,900 21,900 21,900 21,900
1.1.4 Monthly 1 2 60 12 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440
1.2 Calibration (every 18 months)

1.2.1 Protective relays 10 8 60 0.5 2,400
1.2.2 Sudden pressure 1 4 60 0.5 120
1.2.3 Pressure relief 1 4 60 0.5 120
1.2.4 Indicators (temp. & level) 6 16 60 0.5 2,880
1.2.5 Gas accumulator 1 8 60 0.5 240
1.2.6 Protective relays 10 8 60 0.75 3,600 3,600 3,600
1.2.7 Sudden pressure 1 4 60 0.75 180 180 180
1.2.8 Pressure relief 1 4 60 0.75 180 180 180
1.2.9 Indicators (temp. & level) 6 16 60 0.75 4,320 4,320 4,320
1.2.10 Gas accumulator 1 8 60 0.75 360 360 360
1.3 Oil sampling

1.3.1 Oil sampling 1 4 60 200 1 440
1.3.2 Oil sampling 1 4 60 200 2 880 880 880
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Alt. A Partial Alternative C New
No. of Labor Labor Mat. Frequency/
Existing Upgrade & Refurbishment & Transformer &
Comp. Hours Cost ($) Cost Year
Item Activity Maintenance Aggressive PM Aggressive PM Aggressive PM
($)
# Description Program Program Program Program
1.4 Thermography
1.4.1 Thermography 1 4 60 100 1 340
1.4.2 Thermography 1 4 60 100 2 680 680 680
1.5 Maintenance
1.5.1 Radiators/coolers 16 8 60 500 1 8,180
1.5.2 Radiators/Coolers 16 8 60 500 2 16,360 16,360 16,360
1.5.3 Motor fans 24 8 60 500 1 12,020
1.5.4 Motor fans 24 8 60 500 2 24,040 24,040 24,040
1.5.5 Oil pumps 4 16 60 1000 1 4,840
1.5.6 Oil Pumps 4 16 60 1000 2 9,680 9,680 9,680
1.5.7 Conservator tank 1 16 60 1000 0.33 653
1.5.8 Conservator tank 1 16 60 1000 1 1,960 1,960 1,960
1.6 Repairs
1.6.1 Oil pumps 4 32 80 1000 1 11,240
1.6.2 Oil pumps 4 32 80 1000 0.5 5,620
1.6.3 Oil pumps 4 32 80 1000 0.25 2,810 2,810
1.6.4 Oil pump rebuild 4 40 80 10000 0.25 5,700
1.6.5 Oil pump rebuild 4 40 80 10000 0.1 2,280
1.6.6 Oil pump rebuild 4 40 80 10000 0.05 1,140 1,140
1.6.7 Fan motors 4 30 80 5000 0.25 3,650
1.6.8 Fan motors 4 30 80 5000 .1 1,460
1.6.9 Fan motors 4 30 80 5000 0.05 730 730
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($)
1.7
1.7.1 Pump replacement w/ 4 80 80 One time 90,000
efficient with minimum 15
year bearing life (cost
includes drain oil)
1.7.2 Fan motors 12 8 80 One time 8,000
1.7.3 Bushings (cost includes drain 6 160 80 One time 77,000
oil)
1.8
1.8.1 Repair old transformer on site 1 180 80 One time 95,000
1.8.2 Remove old transformer (cost One time 110,000 110,000
includes material &
equipment)
1.8.3 Repair old transformer at the One time 950,000
factory (includes
transportation)
1.8.4 Install old transformer One time 1,500,000
1.8.5 Install new transformer (cost 1 800 80 One time 5,300,000
includes transformer cost,
material & equipment)
2.1 Other
2.1.1 Lost Power generation 0.2 1,200,000
($250,000 per day) (Note 1)
2.1.2 Lost Power generation 0.1 600,000
($250,000 per day)
7-7
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($)
($250,000 per day)
($250,000 per day)
2.2 Regulatory Cost Per Year 25,000 10,000 4,000 2,000
Total Recurring Cost 1,314,503 728,280 417,600 295,000
Total One Time Cost 0.0 270,000 2,560,000 5,410,000
Note: A Lost Power Generation $250,000/day * 24 days (estimated replacement/repair time)*0.2=$1,200,000
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8
GUIDANCE FOR ESTIMATING FUTURE FAILURE
RATES
This section addresses a part of step number 18 of Figure 2-1b. Failure rates are a main driver of
the LCM planning process.
General guidance for estimating SSC future failure rates can be found in Section 2.6 of the LCM
Sourcebook Overview Report [1]. The following are some useful ideas for estimating failure
rates in the large power transformer LCM planning studies.
• Table 6.2, Degradation Mechanisms, provides the estimated “Useful Life of Components.”
This data may be used to estimate the expected remaining life of the transformer
components. If “in-kind” replacements are made, existing failure rates may be applied for the
future.
• Plants that have a transformer performance trending program can extract transformer failure
data and compute failure rates for the large transformers. Data can be plotted to determine
the effects of aging and if the current PM programs are effective.
• Large transformer failures likely to result in a plant trip or a reduction in power are due to
transmission system disturbances, LTC failure, transformer temperature escalation beyond
design temperature limit, and transformer accessory failures.
• In addition to the above, more than 30% of the EPIX reported failures were due to human or
maintenance errors. When evaluating and determining plant-specific failure rates, human
errors and maintenance errors need to be included in the basis.
• Corrective work orders provide a means of reconstructing the transformer failures and to
compute failure rates. The WO review should encompass at a minimum the last five years of
data to generate meaningful results.
• Failure rate reductions can be achieved by replacing accessories such as oil pumps, motors,
and fans that exhibit frequent breakdowns or failures. If the LCM plan considers such
accessory replacements, future failure rate projections must consider the effect of
replacement as discussed in the LCM Sourcebook Overview Report [1].
• When transformer accessories such as motors or pumps are replaced with a similar model
from a different vendor, the failure rates may be different. A reasonable projection is to use
the existing failure rate until a new failure rate can be determined (based on failure rate
trending), unless the vendor has reliable data to support a different rate.
• The subject transformers although non-safety-related, provide power to safety-related
equipment. Transformer failure may not trigger an immediate trip or scram, but will require
entry into a Limited Condition of Operation (LCO). Various time limits are established from
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Guidance for Estimating Future Failure Rates
a few hours to seven days based on the time estimated to repair the failed transformer or its
accessories. Failure to repair or replace the failed equipment and return to operational status
within the time limit requires steps for plant shutdown.
• Routine maintenance task tickets and corrective work orders provide failure cause
information of transformer components and accessories. Such information can be used to
establish the base case. Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) based failure rates may be used
in projecting future transformer failure rates and its components and accessories.
• The PRA based failure rates for transformers are likely expressed in demand failures (or
reliability), if the transformer is in stand-by service. These values can be converted to failure
rates, if the annual demands (actual and tests) are known. If the transformer is normally
operating, its performance is likely modeled as availability or the inverse unavailability,
expressed in hrs/hr of service. To convert this to a annual forced outage rate, multiply the
value by 8760 (hours per year) to obtain the expected (probable) annual out-of-service rate to
be used for lost power generation calculations.
• When the plant-specific PRA is used as a basis for the plant-specific system failure rates,
verification of the basis for the PRA input should be considered.
• If plant-specific transformer failure rates are not readily available from plant databases, the
plant-specific PRA may be a source of reliability values for use in LCM planning. See above
method to convert reliability values (demand failures) to annual failure rate. Establishing a
comprehensive transformer and accessory performance trending program is an important step
in LCM planning.
• Transformer failure rates from Section 4.0 (Table 4.1) can be used in the absence of a
performance trending program. If no plant specific failure data exists or is of questionable
accuracy, it would be reasonable to assume an average industry failure rate (over the last 11
years) of about 0.10 per year as a starting point in the LCM analysis. The absence of
transformer failures could be verified by reviewing the Trip/Scram reports for the plant.
Transformers that are more than 20 years old (>50% of their design life) will experience a
higher failure rate due to aging and the high end of the industry-wide failure rate would apply
(0.15 per year).
• Table 6.2 provides the failure timing of the major components for transformers. This
information can be used to project possible remaining life of a component or to plan for
transformer replacement.
In summary, failure rate predictions for plant-specific transformer components are made using
the above specific guidance and the generic guidance presented in Section 2.6 of the LCM
sourcebook overview report. PRA and Maintenance Rule records may be an important source of
information. The LCM planning process should be fairly complete with carefully defined
specific activities for each of the LCM alternative plans. In this way, the influence of new or
additional PM activities, implementation of replacements, and redesigns can be appropriately
considered in estimating future failure rates for input to LCM economic evaluations.
8-2
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9
PLANT-SPECIFIC GUIDANCE FOR ECONOMIC
MODELING
This section addresses the cost prediction portion of step number 19 in the LCM planning
flowchart (Figure 2-1b).
In this large transformer LCM sourcebook, generic cost data is presented below from the INPO
data and should be corrected for the individual plants, given the variations in equipment types
and sizes and plant-specific accounting practices.
Table 4.1 shows a total of 119 transformer failures in U.S. plants over a period of 10 years (1991
to 2001). With 104 operating plants, this averages to about 0.11 failures per year per plant, 40 of
the events (or about 33.6%) caused a plant shutdown for an average of 9 days (for a 1000 MW
plant this equates to 10 million dollars).
Therefore, for an individual plant, the potential annual cost in lost power production from a
transformer failure based on the industry average (at $50 per megawatt hour) is:
0.11 x 0.336 x $ 10,000,000 = $ 400K
This value may be of use when considering implementation or corrective actions capable of
reducing the failure probability.
When developing alternatives, it is best to formulate plans that are relatively simple and do not
include massive changes at one time. A step-wise approach will provide simplicity and retain
overview of the plan. For instance, a first step from the base case would be the conversion to a
more effective preventive maintenance program for the transformers, including oil analysis,
thermography, and failure trending. The additional costs and savings can then be determined for
the remaining life of the plant and the impact on transformer failure reduction can be illustrated.
Although the initial cost for an aggressive PM program is high, reduction in failure rate of
transformers and components will offset the cost as equipment and plant outages are reduced.
Section 3.8 of the LCM Planning Sourcebooks Overview Report [1] contains a generic
discussion and listing of the typical financial data to be collected and specified as input to the
economic evaluations of alternative LCM plans.
9-1
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10
INFORMATION SOURCES AND REFERENCES
1. EPRI, “Life Cycle Management Planning Sourcebooks – Overview Report,” Report No.
1003058, December 2001.
2. EPRI, “Demonstration of Life Cycle Management Planning For Systems, Structures, and
Components,” Report No. TR-1000806, January 2001.
3. EPRI, “Preventive Maintenance Basis, Volume 38: Transformers (Station-Type, Oil-

Immersed),” Report No. TR-106857-V38, November 1998.
4. EPRI, “Guidelines for the Life Extension of Substations,” Report No. 1001779, 2002 Update.
5. EPRI, “Power Transformer Application and Maintenance Guide,” Report No. TR-1002913,
September 2002.
6. IEEE C57.12.90, “Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers.”
7. ANSI/IEEE C57.106-1991”Standard Guidelines for Acceptance of Insulating Oil in

Equipment.”
8. IEEE Std 637-1985, “Guide for the Reclamation of Insulating Oil and Criteria for Its Use.”
9. EPRI, “Optical Fiber Acoustic Sensors for Inside Transformers On Line Detection of Partial
Discharges,” Report No. 1000016.
10. EPRI, “EPRI System Monitoring Database for Nuclear Power Plant System monitoring
Plans” (SysMon), Version 2.0, TR-1000260, July 2000.
11. United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, FIST 3-30, Transformer
Maintenance, Facilities Instructions, and Techniques, October 2000.
12. German Nuclear Utility Association represented by “VGB”, “Zuverlaessigkeitskenngroessen

fuer Kernkraftkomponenten, ZEDB Auswertung 2000,” (Reliability Values for Nuclear
Power Plant Components, 2000 Edition”).
13. European Industry Reliability Data Bank, EIReDA 1998, Crete University Press.
14. Bartley, W. H., P.E., An Analysis of transformer Failures – 1988 through 1997, Hartford
Steam Boiler- The Locomotive.
10-1
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Information Sources and References
15. Canadian Electricity Forum, Electricity Today, Transformer Maintenance, Issue 1, Volume
14, 2002.
16. NRC NUREG-1801, Volumes I and II, Generic Aging Lessons Learned (GALL) Report.
17. EPRI TR105070, “Recommended Maintenance Tests” described in the Procedures M1 and
M14 from EPRI “Transformer Life Extension.”
18. EPRI, “Guide for Predicting Long-Term Reliability of Nuclear Power Plant System,
Structures, and Components,” Report No. 1002954.
19. SAND 93-7068, UC-523, “Aging Management Guidelines for Commercial Power Plants –
Power and Distribution,” May 1994
20. INPO SOER 90-1, “Ground Faults on AC Electrical Distribution Systems,” May 24, 1990.
21. INPO, SOER 02-3, Large Power Transformer Reliability, September 18, 2002.
22. EPRI Power Plant Electrical Reference Series “Power Transformers Vol. 2,” 1982.
23. NUREG 1350, “Information Digest 2001”, Volume 13, 06/01/2001.
24. ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00, “Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution,

Power and Regulating Transformers.”
25. ANSI/IEEE C57.104, “Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed
Transformers.”
26. EPRI, “Development of a Prototype Fiber-Optic Acoustic PD Sensor: For Inside Transformer
Installation,” Report No.1001943, November 2001.
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10076450
Target: About EPRI
Nuclear Power EPRI creates science and technology solutions for
the global energy and energy services industry. U.S.
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Research Institute in 1973 as a nonprofit research
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the company provides a wide range of innovative
products and services to more than 1000 energy-
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draws on a worldwide network of technical and
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EPRI. Electrify the World
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Life Cycle Management

Volume 4: Large Power Transformers

Consequences of Main Transformer Events

Final Report, March 2003

EPRI Project Manager

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Sargent & Lundy, LLC

This report was prepared by

Sargent & Lundy LLC

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

1 MANAGEMENT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................1-1

3 BASIC INFORMATION ON LARGE TRANSFORMERS .......................................................3-1

4 INDUSTRY OPERATING EXPERIENCE AND PERFORMANCE HISTORY ........................4-1

5 GUIDANCE FOR PLANT-SPECIFIC SSC CONDITION AND PERFORMANCE

6 GENERIC AGING AND OBSOLESCENCE ASSESSMENT .................................................6-1

7 GENERIC ALTERNATIVE LCM PLANS ...............................................................................7-1

8 GUIDANCE FOR ESTIMATING FUTURE FAILURE RATES................................................8-1

9 PLANT-SPECIFIC GUIDANCE FOR ECONOMIC MODELING ............................................9-1

10 INFORMATION SOURCES AND REFERENCES .............................................................10-1

Table 4-1 Transformer Events 1991 – 2001 ..............................................................................4-3

Important reasons for covering large power transformers in a sourcebook are:

Large transformer industry reliability issues addressed by this study are:

The potential alternative LCM plans considered include:

2.1 Purpose of LCM Sourcebooks

2.2 Relationship of Sourcebook to LCM Process

3.1 Safety and Operational Significance

The functions of large transformers are as follows:

3.2 Large Transformer Functions

3.3 System and Component Boundaries

3.3.1 Transformer Components

The principal parts of a transformer include:

3.3.1.1 Tank and Oil Preservation

3.3.1.2 Magnetic Core

3.3.1.4 Insulation System

3.3.1.5 Insulating Liquid

3.3.1.6 Transformer Accessories

De-Energized Tap Changers (DETC). DETCs employ manually-operated switching equipment

The DETC can be operated only when the transformer is de-energized.

3.4 Scope and Equipment Covered by the Sourcebook

• Electrical connections, terminals

4.1 Nuclear Industry Experience

4.1.1 Qualitative Data

4.1.2 Quantitative Data

Causes of Transformer Events

External Event Overheat

4.1.2.1 Relative Magnitude of Large Transformer Failure Frequency

1991 7 111 0.063

1992 8 110 0.073

1993 6 109 0.055

1994 8 109 0.135

1995 8 109 0.073

1996 11 110 0.100

1997 13 104 0.125

1998 14 104 0.135

1999 15 104 0.144

2000 17 104 0.163

2001 15 104 0.144

4.1.3 Maintenance Rule

Maintenance Rule Section 50.65, “Requirements for Monitoring the Effectiveness of

4.1.4 EPRI PM Basis Templates

EPRI TR-106857-V38, “Preventive Maintenance Basis for Transformers (Station-Type, Oil-

Table 4-4 (continued)