Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
ROBERT J. WEHRLE
B.S., Northern Kentucky University, 2012
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Wehrle, Robert J. M.S, Department of Chemistry, Wright State University, 2014.
The Curing and Degradation Kinetics of Sulfur Cured EPDM Rubber.
Ethylene‐propylene‐diene (EPDM) rubbers containing varying amounts of diene
were cured with sulfur using either a moving die rheometer (MDR) or a rubber process
analyzer (RPA). The effect of removing curatives and how the curing reaction changed
was explored. Kinetic data was extracted from the rheology plots and reaction rate
constants were determined by two separate ways: manually choosing points of interest
or by a computer model.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. Introduction 1
1.1 EPDM Overview 1
1.2 Preparation of EPDM 2
1.2.1 Ziegler‐Natta Catalysts 2
1.2.2 Metallocene Catalysts 4
1.3 Cross‐link Chemistry 5
1.3.1 Peroxide Cure 5
1.3.2 Sulfur Cure 6
1.3.3 Cross‐link Sites 8
1.3.3.1 Polymer Branching 9
1.3.4 Rubber Ingredients 10
1.3.4.1 Non‐curative Ingredients 10
1.3.4.2 Curative Ingredients 11
1.4 Kinetics 12
1.5 Instrumentation 13
2. Experimental 15
2.1 Materials 15
2.2 Instrumentation 16
2.3 Rubber Mixing 16
iv
Table of Contents (continued)
Page
2.4 Rheology Testing 17
2.5 Curve Fitting 17
3. Results and Discussion 18
3.1 Ziegler‐Natta vs. Metallocene Catalysts 18
3.2 ENB Incorporation 20
3.3 Filler‐less Formulations 21
3.4 Curative Effects 23
3.5 Degradation Effects and Factors 32
3.6 Curve Fitting to Predict Reaction Rates 42
4. Conclusion 48
5. References 48
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: A typical EPDM polymer………………………………………………………………………………….2
Figure 2: A typical metallocene catalyst…………………………………………………………………………4
Figure 3: An example of four entangled polymer chains………………………………………………..5
Figure 4: A peroxide cross‐link……………………………………………………………………………………….6
Figure 5: A mature sulfur cross‐link ……………………………………………………………………………….6
Figure 6: Three main dienes used in EPDM. A: DCPD B: VNB C: ENB…………………………..8
Figure 7: The ways the dienes can be incorporated into the polymer. A: Through the
norbornene ring B: Outside the norbornene ring………………………………………………………….8
Figure 8: An example of LCB…………………………………………………………………………………………..9
Figure 9: Di(p‐octylphenyl)amine …………………………………………………………………………………10
Figure 10: A: MBT B:TMTD………………………………………………………………………………………….11
Figure 11: A: ZDBDC B: TDEDC…………………………………………………………………………………….12
Figure 12: A diagram of how the moving die rheometer and rubber process analyzer
works…...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………13
Figure 13: A torque vs. Time plot. Area A: induction zone Area B: cure zone Area C:
overcure zone Line 1: marching Line 2: plateau Line 3: reversion/degradation……….15
Figure 14: Comparison of the metallocene and Ziegler‐Natta rubbers using MH‐ML vs.
ENB content.........…………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
vi
LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Page
Figure 15: Alkene region of the 300 MHz 1H NMR spectra of A: EPDM‐5, B: EPDM‐1, C:
EPDM‐3. The peaks at 5.44 ppm and 5.18 ppm correspond to the external and internal
pathways, respectively……...…………………………………………………………………………………………21
Figure 16: Comparison of MDR (or RPA) data for identical formulations with and without
carbon black...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
Figure 17: The curing of VL1710Z1 (1.8% ENB) at different temperatures…………………….25
Figure 18: RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZA1 (no MBT) at 170°C......…………………..26
Figure 19: RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZB1 (no TMTD) at 170°C...……………………27
Figure 20: RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZC1 (no ZDBDC) at 170°C …………………….28
Figure 21: RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZD1 (no TDEDC) at 170°C......……………….29
Figure 22: Derivative plots of VL1710ZA1‐VL1710ZD1 at 170°C. VL1710ZA1 (no MBT),
VL1710ZB1 (no TMTD), VL1710ZC1 (no ZDBDC), and VL1710ZD1 (no TDEDC)………………30
Figure 23: RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZE1 (no sulfur) at 170°C……………………….31
Figure 24: VL1710ZE1 (no sulfur) at different temperatures...………………………………………31
Figure 25: Curing of VL1710ZI2 at 200°C for 20 minutes……………………………………………….34
Figure 26: TGA traces of (blue) raw polymer (EPDM‐5), (green) cured and (red) uncured
samples of VL1710Z6. Samples were run under an air atmosphere …………………………….35
Figure 27: DCS traces of raw polymer (EPDM‐5) (blue), cured (green) and uncured (red)
samples of VL1710Z6......………………………………………………………………………………………………36
vii
LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Page
Figure 28: An example of how the intersect points were made. The slope of the curing
process was taken around the highest rate and the slope of the degradation was taken
from where the MH was reached until the end…………………………………………………………….37
Figure 29: Torque vs. temperature of the intersect points of the various formulations at
different temperatures…………………………………………………………………………………………………38
Figure 30: The Arrhenius plots for the curing process of VL1710Z1, VL1710Z3, VL1710Z5
and VL1710Z6 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39
Figure 31: Arrhenius plots for the degradation process of VL1710Z1, VL1710Z3,
VL1710Z5 and VL1710Z6.……………………………………………………………………………………………..39
Figure 32: Arrhenius plots for the ratio of curing vs. degradation of VL1710Z1, VL1710Z3,
VL1710Z5, and VL1710Z6……………………………………………………………………………………………..40
Figure 33: Activation energy required for both processes for varying ENB content………41
Figure 34: Fitted curve data for VL1710Z1 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces
Red: Theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software Green: The absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves………………………………………42
Figure 35: Fitted curve data for VL1710Z3 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces
Red: Theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software Green: The absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves………………………………………43
viii
LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Page
Figure 36: Fitted curve data for VL1710Z5 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces
Red: Theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software Green: The absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves......…………………………………44
Figure 37: Fitted curve data for VL1710Z6 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces
Red: Theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software Green: The absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves………………………………………45
Figure 38: Arrhenius plot of curing for all four formulations………………………………………..46
Figure 39: Arrhenius plot of degradation for all four formulations......…...……………………46
Figure 40: Activations energy required for both process......………………………………………..47
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: The standard minimal EPDM formulation……………………………………………………….17
Table 2: All the formulations in this set include the same ingredients except for the
polymer used ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………18
Table 3: Polymers used in each formulation and their ENB content...………………………….19
Table 4: The filler‐less formulation…..…......……...…………………………………………………………22
Table 5: Basic formulations for curative studies…………………………………………………………..24
Table 6: Basic formulations for degradation studies…………………………………………………….32
x
LIST OF EQUATIONS
Page
Equation 1: General kinetic model A: initial polymer B: cross‐linked rubber C:
degradation product…………………………………………………………………………………………………….12
Equation 2: The rate equation for B…………………………………………………………………………….13
Equation 3: Kinetic equation used to describe curing behavior……...……………...…………..13
xi
LIST OF SCHEMES
Page
Scheme 1: The catalytic process of α‐olefin polymization via a Ziegler‐Natta catalyst
system……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3
Scheme 2: General peroxide curing mechanism ……………………………………………………………6
Scheme 3: General sulfur curing mechanisms………………………………………………………………..7
xii
1 Introduction
One of the most widely used elastomers is ethylene propylene diene monomer
rubber or EPDM rubber 1. In order to decrease the cure time for EPDM rubber the cure
temperature can be increased, however, an increase in temperature can also lead to
degradation. This work will focus on studying a kinetic relationship between the sulfur
curing of EPDM rubber as well as a degradation process that occurs simultaneously. In
addition, experiments will be designed that will allow for the development of a basic
understanding of how the different curatives affect the two processes.
1.1 EPDM Overview
Rubber has been an important material in consumer and industrial settings ever
since Charles Goodyear first vulcanized natural rubber in 1844 2. Since that time many
different rubber types were created for different purposes: styrene‐butadiene,
isobutylene‐isoprene, acrylonitrile butadiene, fluoroelastomer, etc. Ethylene propylene
diene monomer (EPDM) rubber was first introduced in the United States in 1962 and
since has been widely used 1, having an extensive repertoire of applications.
1
Propylene
Ethylene
Diene
Figure 1: A typical EPDM polymer.
These applications range from automotive seals and gaskets to roofing and sheeting 3.
EPDM excels in these fields because its polymeric backbone is completely saturated
(Error! Reference source not found.), which in turn gives added resistance to oxygen,
ozone, electricity, heat, and UV 4. Due to EPDM having a hydrocarbon structure, it can
be used in the presence of polar solvents, but is attacked by nonpolar solvents, such as
toluene.
1.2 Preparation of EPDM Polymers
EPDM polymers are typically synthesized by a chain growth process utilizing a
transition metal catalyst1. The type of catalyst used can have a dramatic impact on the
properties of the polymer formed, such as molecular weight and tacticity. There are
two main classes of catalysts that dominate the production of EPDM polymers, Ziegler‐
Natta and metallocene catalysts.
2
1.2.1 Ziegler‐Natta Catalysts
In 1953 Karl Ziegler came up with a process to polymerize ethylene. A year later
Giulio Natta discovered that this process can be used to make isotactic polypropylene
and other olefin polymers such as EPDM 1. Much of the EPDM today is produced by use
of a heterogeneous Ziegler‐Natta catalyst. This is done by polymerizing the α‐olefin
monomers in a low boiling hydrocarbon diluent with titanium tetrachloride and
triethylaluminum as the catalyst system. As purposed by Cossee 5, chain growth
happens at the activated titanium species by the olefin associating its π‐electrons with
an open orbital of titanium (Scheme 1). The double bond of the ethylene then breaks
forming bonds with titanium and the growing polymer chain. Next migration happens
reopening the active site of titanium.
Scheme 1. The catalytic process of α‐olefin polymization via a Ziegler‐Natta catalyst
system
Cl
CH3 Cl
Et Al CH3
CH2 Et Al
CH2
Cl CH2 CH2
Ti Cl
CH2
Cl Cl Ti CH2
Cl Cl Cl
Cl
Activated catalyst Ethylene
with an open orbital Ethylenes pi electrons complex with
titanium's open orbital
CH3
CH2 Cl CH3
Cl H2C
Et Al C CH2
Et Al CH2 H2
Cl CH2
Cl Ti
Ti Cl Cl
Cl Cl Cl
Cl
The electrons rearrange in the system
Rearrangement of the growing chain
due to breaking of the pi bond
reopens the catalytic site for
additional growth
3
1.2.2 Metallocene Catalysts
Metallocene catalysts, developed after the creation of Ziegler‐Natta catalysts,
show higher catalytic activity than their conventional
predecessors, which is believed to be due to the homogenous
nature of the metallocene catalyst 6. The catalysts utilize group
IV transition metals (Ti, Zr, and Hf) as seen in Figure 2, which
Figure 2. A typical are then activated, typically by methylalumoxane. Depending
metallocene catalyst
on the steric influences placed on the system from the
aromatic ligands, the tacticity can be controlled 6, 7. Since the aromatic ligands take up
space, large bulky groups limit the ability of prochiral monomers to orient themselves in
the catalytic site; this decrease in orientation gives rise to polymers being constructed in
a regular manner, which leads to isotactic polymer chains. If there is less hindrance at
the catalytic site, there is more space for the prochiral monomers to enter which leads
to variety of orientations. When there are multiple orientations of prochiral monomers
then the polymer chain exhibits atacticity. These different tacticities can affect the
physical properties of the polymer, such as the glass transition temperature,
crystallinity, and solubility 8.
4
are then activated, typically by methylalumoxane. Depending on the steric influences
placed on the system from the aromatic ligands, the tacticity can be controlled 6, 7.
Since the aromatic ligands take up space, large bulky groups limit the ability of prochiral
monomers to orient themselves in the catalytic site; this decrease in orientation gives
rise to polymers being constructed in a regular manner, which leads to isotactic polymer
chains. If there is less hindrance at the catalytic site, there is more space for the
prochiral monomers to enter which leads to variety of orientations. When there are
multiple orientations of prochiral monomers then the polymer chain exhibits atacticity.
These different tacticities can affect the physical properties of the polymer, such as the
glass transition temperature, crystallinity, and solubility 8.
1.3 Cross‐link Chemistry
Without being cross‐linked EPDM by itself has limited mechanical properties.
5
to form polymeric radicals. From this point two polymer
radicals combine to yield a carbon‐carbon bond, the cross‐link 4
H2 H2
(Scheme 2). Peroxide cured rubbers are used for high C C
temperature applications, in part due to the strong carbon‐
carbon cross‐links (Figure 4). Figure 1: A
peroxide cured
cross‐link
Scheme 1: General peroxide curing mechanism
RO OR 2RO
RO + ROH +
2
1.3.2 Sulfur Cure
Since the discovery of vulcanization, sulfur‐curing
systems have been widely used to cure rubber. Unlike peroxide
curing systems, however, sulfur curing systems require a source
of unsaturation in the polymer. Curing by use of sulfur alone is
a slow process, so curatives were developed to aid in curing, as
well as to tailor specific properties of the final product. In sulfur
Figure 2. A mature
sulfur cross‐link
curing systems, sulfur is first typically activated by zinc oxide
6
and an accelerator. From this point it is accepted that the now formed sulfurating agent
abstracts an allylic hydrogen and attacks where the double bond once was on the
polymer forming a cross‐link precursor 4, 9. The cross‐link precursor then attacks another
polymer forming an initial polysulfidic cross‐link. The final matured cross‐link, as seen in
Figure 5, is formed when the sulfur content between the polymers has been reduced by
desulfuration (Scheme 3).
Scheme 3. General sulfur curing mechanisms
Sx Accelerator
+
Sx S1-3
Sx Accelerator
The presence of accelerators, activators, etc. also gives rise to competing side
reactions that lead to degradation during the curing process, which reduces the final
mechanical properties of the rubber 9, 10. When compared to peroxide curing, the
cross‐links that are formed are weaker, so applications that avoid high temperatures are
utilized, such as automotive belts and electrical wire insulation. With many reactions
occurring at once, each with its own influence on the curing process, a mechanistic
understanding what is happening remains difficult.
7
1.3.3 Cross‐linking Sites
With the presence of unsaturation in the diene
monomer EPDM can be cured using a sulfur system. One of
three dienes are typically incorporated in EPDM: A)
dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), B) 5‐vinylidene‐2‐norbornene
(VNB), or C) 5‐ethylidene‐2‐norbornene (ENB) as seen in Figure 6. The three main
dienes used in EPDM. A:
Figure 6. DCPD B:VNB C:ENB
Due to it being four times more reactive than ENB, VNB has had limited use in EPDM’s
11
. Because the double bond is in the terminal position with VNB, the catalyst system
used to make the polymer can readily access this source of unsaturation and cause
undesirable branching or premature
ENB VNB DCPD
cross‐linking, which can lead to the
polymer forming a gel and therefore
A
becoming unprocessable. If VNB is
incorporated into EPDM it is at low
amounts, which then lead to
B
unsatisfactory cross‐link density and less
than desired mechanical properties 11.
Figure 7. The ways the dienes can be
Fortunately, ENB does not experience incorporated into the polymer. A: Through
the norbornene ring B: Outside the
these problems. Since the unsaturation norbornene ring
8
of ENB is more hindered, there is less of a chance for premature cross‐links to form.
However, since there are two initial points of unsaturation present in the dienes, it is
possible that they can be integrated into the polymer at either the external or internal
double bond (Figure 7). Different modes of incorporation can have a direct effect on
branching in the polymer backbone leading to changes in glass transition temperature,
crystallinity, and solubility.
1.3.3.1 Polymer Branching
A structure that EPDM polymers can include is long
Polymeric backbone
chain branching (LCB). LCB happens as a result of the diene
substituent having a free unit of unsaturation to which a
catalyst system can add 11. Due to this possibility, the
LCB section
branches can reach a certain length enabling them to Figure 8. An example of
LCB
become entangled. With this added entanglement, it is
possible for lower diene containing polymers to act more like higher diene containing
polymers 12. A problem that may arise from LCB is that branching may become too
widespread and lead to gelation, although with proper tailoring of the catalyst system
gelation will not occur. LCB in EPDM can lead to microstructures that would otherwise
not be possible with linear EPDM, such as a comb type structure.
9
1.3.4 Rubber Ingredients
There are a number of ingredients that go into making a rubber, and each has its
own role. Despite the overwhelming number of items a rubber formulation can include,
a general knowledge of the purpose of each ingredient can provide some insight as to
the final properties of the cured rubber.
1.3.4.1 Non‐curative Ingredients
Non‐curatives are ingredients that, as their name implies, will not participate
directly in the curing of EPDM rubber. These ingredients include the processing aides,
antioxidants, and fillers. Processing aides are petroleum based oils that are added to
help when the polymer is cured inside a mold. The oils prevent the rubber from sticking
H to the mold surface, which could otherwise cause
N
was a paraffinic, petroleum oil. Antioxidants are compounds that protect the final
rubber product from degradation caused by heat, oxygen, ozone, UV radiation, etc. The
antioxidants act by scavenging the radicals that are caused by the sources of
degradation. Di(p‐octylphenyl)amine (Figure 9), the antioxidant used in this study,
makes use of the nitrogen present in its structure as a radical scavenger which forms NO
compounds. Fillers, carbon black in the case of this study, is beneficial to rubber
manufacturing in that it helps reinforce the final rubber product making it more durable
10
and giving higher mechanical properties. However, the addition of carbon black
increases the viscosity of the rubber during the mixing process, causing shear heating.
This shear heating can have undesirable effects such as premature cross‐linking or, as
will be discussed later, increased degradation.
1.3.4.2 Curative Ingredients
The curatives are one of the more critical ingredients of rubber manufacturing;
they are what allow rubber to cure. For sulfur cured systems, these ingredients include
accelerators, activators, and a sulfur source. Accelerators
N
A SH
S were developed to speed up the sulfur curing process and act
S by forming an adduct, with sulfur making it a more active
B S N
N S
species. 2‐Mercaptobenzothiazole, MBT, the primary
S
Figure 10. A: MBT B: accelerator in this study, is believed to be the main
TMTD
sulfurating agent in the curing process (Figure 10A). With the addition of zinc oxide,
MBT is able to form a complex that is actively able to integrate elemental sulfur in this
complex forming an active sulfurating species. The process of sulfur incorporation in
MBT, however, is still not yet understood. Tetramethylthiuram disulfide, TMTD, is
another accelerator used in this study (Figure 10B), which is thought to act in a similar
fashion to MBT, but it is also able to act as a sulfur donor. Efficient vulcanizations, or
vulcanizations that do not utilize elemental sulfur, require a large amount of TMTD to
form cross‐links by sulfur donation. Like the other accelerators mentioned thus far, zinc
11
dibutyldithiocarbamate, ZDBDC, and tellurium S S
A Bu Zn Bu
tetrakis(diethyldithiocarbamate), TDEDC, act as N S S N
Bu Bu
accelerators and are able to incorporate sulfur to
Et Et
form sulfurating species (Figure 11). N
S Et
S S N
B Et S Te S Et
1.4 Kinetics N S S
Et S
N
To attempt to understand the curing process Et Et
Figure 11. A: ZDBDC B: TDEDC
of EPDM rubber, which determines the final
properties given to the rubber after cure, a kinetic approach is necessary. A kinetic
equation that will accurately describe how a rubber will cure is possible. Due to the
complicated nature of how each ingredient, polymer orientation and structure interacts
and contributes to the cure and degradation rates, a broad definition of kinetic behavior
is preferred. Since this study utilizes isothermal conditions, first order kinetics can be
applied 13. That being said, there are only three species that need to be considered: the
initial polymer, the cross‐linked rubber, and the degradation product (Equation 1).
Equation 1. General kinetic model. A: initial polymer
B: cross‐linked rubber C: degradation product
భ మ
ܣ՜ ܤ՜ ܥ
By turning Equation 1 into a rate equation with interest in the creation of B forms
Equation 2.
12
Equation 2. The rate equation for B
݀ሾܤሿ
ൌ ݇ଵ ሾܣሿ ݁ ିభ ௧ െ ݇ଶ ሾܤሿ
݀ݐ
With Equation 2 being integrated, Equation 3 is formed.
Equation 3. Kinetic equation used to describe curing behavior
݇ଵ
ሾܤሿ௧ ൌ ሾܣሿ ି ݁ כమ ௧ െ ݁ ିభ ௧
݇ଵ െ ݇ଶ
In Equation 3, k1 and k2 can be solved to describe how and why curing is behaving the
way it is as well as determining how much
degradation is taking place.
1.5 Instrumentation
For this study, a moving die
rheometer and a rubber process analyzer
were used to better understand what is
happening during the curing process. They
Figure 12. A diagram of how the
operate by applying pressure to an uncured moving die rheometer and rubber
process analyzer works
rubber sample between two heated dies. The
bottom die is motorized and moves with a specific arc angle and frequency while the
top die measures the torque, or rotational force, that the rubber sample transmits from
the bottom die (Figure 12). As the rubber sample heats up, the curing process is
13
initiated and cross‐links begin to form. As cross‐links form the rubber sample becomes
more rigid and the torque increases. The data typically analyzed from these instruments
are torque vs. time plots.
From the generated torque vs. time plots the maximum torque (MH), minimum
torque (ML), curing rates, and degradation rates can all be gathered. As seen in Figure
13, there are three zones of interest: the induction zone, the curing zone, and the
overcure zone. In the induction zone, the polymer softens and its viscosity is reduced,
which is seen by a drop in torque. Also in this zone is where cross‐link precursors are
made. In the curing zone is where the cross‐links are formed and this area possesses
the maximum rate of cross‐linking.
In the overcure zone, the thermal aging behavior of the cured rubber sample can
be observed. There are three behaviors that can be seen: marching modulus, plateau
modulus, and reversion/degradation modulus. In EPDM, a marching modulus can be
seen when the sample is inadequately cured, which can be remedied by increasing the
cure temperature. Reversion happens due to degradation and side reactions that occur
in the rubber system. A plateau modulus is the desired outcome due to curing being
complete and an absence of degradation 14.
14
25
1
A B 2
20
Torque (in*lbs)
15 3
10 C
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
Figure 13. A torque vs. time plot. Area A: induction zone Area B: cure zone Area C:
overcure zone Line 1: marching Line 2: plateau Line 3: reversion/degradation
2 Experimental
2.1 Materials
EPDM polymers 1, 2, 5, and 6 were purchased from Exxon Mobil. EPDM
polymers 3 and 4 were purchased from Dow Chemical. EPDM polymer 7 was purchased
from Kumho Polychem. EPDM polymer 8 was purchased from Lion Copolymer Geismar.
Carbon Black was purchased from Colombian Chemicals Company. Paraffinic oil was
purchased from Holly Refining and Marketing. Zinc oxide was purchased from
Horsehead Corporation. 90% Stearic Acid was purchased from Acme Hardesty. Di(p‐
octylphenyl)amine, zinc dibutyldithiocarbamate (ZDBDC), tellurium
diethyldithiocarbamate (TDEDC), and Dipentamethylene thiuram tetrasulfide (DPTT)
were purchased from R.T. Vanderbilt Company. Sulfur was purchased from S.F. Sulfur
15
Corporation. 2‐Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) and tetramethyl thiuram disulfide
(TMTD) were purchased from Harwick Standard Distribution Corporation.
2.2 Instrumentation
A Monsato Rheometer (MDR 2000E) and Alpha Technology Rheometer (RPA
2000) were used to collect the rheology data. These data were collected at intervals of
10‐20 minutes at temperatures ranging from 170‐200°C. All NMR data were obtained
utilizing a Bruker AVANCE 300 MHz NMR spectrometer using toluene‐d8 as the solvent.
All DSC data were acquired using a TA Instruments Auto Q20 DSC; all samples were run
isothermally at 200°C for 20 minutes. All TGA data were acquired using a TA
instruments Q50 TGA; all samples were run isothermally at 200°C for 30 minutes.
2.3 Rubber Mixing
All rubber formulation variations were based on the standard formulation listed
in Table 1. The ingredients were added in concentrations of parts per hundred with
respect to the polymer (PHR). A two‐pass process was used to make the test sheet
utilized for sampling. The two‐pass process consisted of adding the non‐curing
ingredients in a Banbury mixer to form a master batch. This master batch was then
removed once it reached 125°C. If the master batch did not contain filler, it was then
added to a Bolling 10x20 mill and the curatives were added, otherwise the master batch
16
was reintroduced to the Banbury mixer at which point the curatives were added. The
test slab was considered finished once a temperature of 100°C was reached.
Table 1. The standard minimal EPDM formulation
Ingredient PHR
Polymer 100
Carbon Black 45
Paraffinic oil 10
Zinc Oxide 5
Stearic Acid 90% 1
Di(p‐octylphenyl)amine 2
Sulfur 1
MBT 2
TMTD 0.8
ZDBDC 0.8
TDEDC 0.8
2.4 Rheology Testing
ASTM D2084‐11 ‐ Standard Test Method for Rubber Property—Vulcanization
Using Oscillating Disk Cure Meter was used in collecting the rheological data. The
Moving Die Rheometer (MDR) and Rubber Process Analyzer (RPA) were calibrated daily
with a standardized rubber sample with a weight 4.5 times its specific gravity in
accordance to the ASTM method. Testing consisted of isothermal curing for 10‐20
minutes.
2.5 Curve Fitting
The curve fitting software within Microsoft Excel was utilized for data analysis.
Tangential estimates, forward derivatives, and a Newtonian method of optimization
were employed with a precision of 1x10‐6, a 5% tolerance, and a convergence of 1x10‐4.
17
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Ziegler‐Natta vs. Metallocene Catalysts
The initial focus of the project was to determine how changing the ethylidene
norbornene (ENB) level in the rubber formulation would affect the kinetics of the curing
reaction. The formulations of these sets of rubbers, as seen in Table 2 and Table 3,
were simplified in order to limit the number of variables.
Table 2. All the formulations in this set include the same ingredients except for
the polymer used.
Ingredient PHR
Polymer 100
Carbon Black 56.26
Paraffinic oil 12.5
Zinc Oxide 6.25
Stearic Acid 90% 1.25
Di(p‐octylphenyl)amine 2.5
Sulfur 1.25
MBT 2.5
TMTD 1
ZDBDC 1
TDEDC 1
18
Table 3. Polymers used in each formulation and their ENB content.
These rubbers were cured at 170, 180, 190, or 200°C by use of the MDR. As can be seen
in Figure 14, comparing the difference of the maximum torque and the minimum torque
(MH‐ML) vs ENB content gave uncorrelated data when viewed as a whole.
MH‐ML vs. ENB Content Between
Differing Catalysts Systems
20
18
MH‐ML (in*lbs)
16
14 Metallocene
Ziegler‐Natta
12
10
0 2 4 6 8 10
ENB Percentage
Figure 14. Comparison of the metallocene and Ziegler‐Natta rubbers using MH‐ML vs.
ENB content.
19
The data indicate that there might be two different classes of materials, which is
not unexpected due to the polymers being prepared using either a metallocene or
Ziegler‐Natta catalyst system. Metallocene catalysts lead to polymers with a narrow
polydispersity while the Ziegler‐Natta systems result in a much broader distribution of
chain sizes. Since the Ziegler‐Natta polymers gave more sporadic results while the
metallocene polymers gave a more linear trend, further work was carried out with the
polymers prepared with the metallocene catalysts.
3.2 ENB Incorporation
Due to the nature of the catalyst used, the ENB can be integrated into the
polymers in two different pathways, through the ring double bond or via the external
double bond. The different incorporations of ENB can have an effect on the properties
of curing due to spatial interactions. To determine if there was any variation in the ENB
incorporation 1H NMR spectroscopy was employed. The 1H NMR spectrum of ENB from
Liu et al. 15 shows that the ethylidene proton present at 5.2 and 5.4 ppm are from the
E/Z isomers and the internal ring alkene protons are at 6.1 ppm. Three of the four
metallocene polymers were analyzed and it was found that there was an absence of the
internal ring alkene protons (Figure 15). Based on this information the metallocene
catalyst only incorporated the ENB by the internal double bond and not by the
ethylidene double bond. Since there is no variation on how the ENB was incorporated
20
into the polymer, it can be concluded that the metallocene catalyst system used to
create these polymers was discriminate with regards ENB orientation.
Figure 15. Alkene region of the 300 MHz 1H NMR spectra of A: EPDM‐1, B: EPDM‐3, C:
EPDM‐5.
3.3 Filler‐less Formulations
With carbon black present in the formulations, an increase in degradation can be
seen when compared to filler‐less formulations (Figure 16). This increase in degradation
is due to shear heating that is introduced into the system due to the added viscosity
from carbon black. New formulations were created that excluded carbon black and
since di(p‐octylphenyl)amine does nothing to contribute to the curing process, it was
also removed (Table 4). The new formulations were then compared to their previous
formulation counterparts. The formulations without filler exhibited a 50.7% decrease
21
in MH, however, a 23.6% reduction in degradation at higher temperatures was observed
when compared to the first formulation sets (Figure 16). The decreased MH can be
attributed to the lack of reinforcement to the polymer network in the absence of carbon
black.
Table 4. The filler‐less formulations
22
EPDM‐1 Formulations With and Without
Carbon Black at 200°C
16
14
12
Torque (in*lbs)
10 VL1710Z221
8 (with filler)
6
VL1710Z5
4
(without filler)
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min)
Figure 16. Comparison of MDR (or RPA) data for identical formulations with and without
carbon black.
3.4 Curative Effects
In order to study the effects of the various curatives on the curing process
formulations based on VL1710Z1 (1.8% ENB) were developed as listed in Table 5.
These five new formulations were VL1710Z1 except that with each one, a different
curative was removed. These formulations were then cured at 170, 180, 190, and
200°C, which gave an indication of the effect of each curative on the overall process.
23
Table 5. Basic formulations for curative studies.
VL1710Z1
VL1710ZA1 VL1710ZB1 VL1710ZC1 VL1710ZD1 VL1710ZE1
Ingredients (Standard)
(PHR) (PHR) (PHR) (PHR) (PHR)
(PHR)
EPDM‐4 100 100 100 100 100 100
Paraffinic oil 5 5 5 5 5 5
Zinc Oxide 5 5 5 5 5 5
Stearic Acid
1 1 1 1 1 1
90%
Sulfur 1 1 1 1 1 0
MBT 2 0 2 2 2 2
TMTD 0.8 0.8 0 0.8 0.8 0.8
ZDBDC 0.8 0.8 0.8 0 0.8 0.8
At low temperatures VL1710Z1 exhibited an unusual curing profile in the form of
a shoulder (Figure 17). This change in the rate of torque increase can be attributed a
change in reaction rates in the cross‐linking process. These different rates may be
attributed to one of two reasons: alternative reactions or inhomogeneous mixing. If
inhomogeneous mixing is the cause of the rate fluctuations, then it should be absent in
other experiments. As depicted in Figure 17, this behavior is observed not only at 170°C,
but also at 180°C. The effect is not as visible at higher temperatures. This rate change is
absent at higher ENB concentrations, which suggests that kinetic factors are causing this
phenomenon. Also observed in Figure 17 is that higher temperatures seem to lead to
lower MH values which will be discussed later in the next section. Due to this
24
phenomenon’s visiblity in this EPDM system and not others is why VL1710Z1 was used
to explore how each curative affects the curing process as a whole.
VL1710Z1 at Various Temperatures
12
10
8
Torque (in*lbs)
170
6
180
190
4
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Figure 17. The curing of VL1710Z1 (1.8% ENB) at different temperatures.
With a baseline now established the curative levels were adjusted, one at a time,
in an effort to determine if a particular curative contributes to this observed rate
change. These tests were done at 170°C so that rate effects could be easily visualized.
The first curative experiment that was performed was the removal of MBT (VL1710ZA1),
which increased the induction time and the rate change was no longer observed (Figure
18). The change in the induction time and lack of a fluctuation in rate suggests that MBT
25
plays a significant role in the beginning of the curing process and a minimal role later on.
Since the curing process did occur, this indicates that there are compounds within the
formulation that can perform a similar role as MBT, but are not as efficient.
VL1710Z1 vs. VL1710ZA1 at 170°C
12
10
8
Torque (in*lbs)
6
VL1710ZA1
VL1710Z1
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Figure 18. RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZA1 (no MBT) at 170°C
The removal of TMTD instead of MBT (VL1710BZB1) showed a different effect;
the induction time returned to normal, but the later rate was reduced (Figure 19). In
addition to these variations the rate fluctuation was also absent. With this, it can be
said that TMTD acts later in the curing process. It seems that VL1710ZB1 will eventually
26
have the same amount of torque as VL1710Z1 which means, just like MBT, other
compounds can carry out the same functions as TMTD, just not to the same extent or
with the same rate of reaction.
VL1710Z1 vs VL1710ZB1 at 170°C
12
10
8
Torque (in*lbs)
6
VL1710ZB1
VL1710Z1
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Figure 19. RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZB1 (no TMTD) at 170°C
.
With the removal of ZDBDC (VL1710ZC1), it was noticed that, unlike with
removal of the other two curatives discussed above, the rate fluctuation was still
observed, albeit to a lesser degree (Figure 20). In addition, the initial and final rates
seem to follow the standard formulation quite well. With all of this said, it seems that
ZDBDC does not contribute to the curing process as much as the previous curatives.
Without ZDBDC, curing actually seems to be more efficient as there is less of a change
27
between the initial and ending curing rate with minimal impact on the maximum torque
when comparing to the standard (Figure 20).
VL1710Z1 vs. VL1710ZC1 at 170°C
12
10
8
Torque (in*lbs)
6
VL1710Z1
VL1710ZC1
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Figure 20. RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZC1 (no ZDBDC) at 170°C
When TDEDC (VL1710ZD1) was removed the induction time increased slightly,
when compared to the standard (Figure 21). Although not as vital as MBT, TDEDC
seems to work in the early stages of curing. Looking at the slope of VL1710ZD1 it
appears as if there is not a rate fluctuation, but examination of the derivative plot of this
28
cure system shows that the fluctuation is still present (Figure 22). The initial rate, based
on the slope, looks to be about the same, there is just more of an induction time.
VL1710Z1 vs. VL1710ZD1 at 170°C
12
10
8
Torque (in*lbs)
6
VL1710ZD1
VL1710Z1
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Figure 21. RPA traces of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZD1 (no TDEDC) at 170°C
29
Figure 22. Derivative plots of VL1710ZA1‐VL1710ZD1 at 170°C. VL1710ZA1 (no MBT),
VL1710ZB1 (no TMTD), VL1710ZC1 (no ZDBDC), and VL1710ZD1 (no TDEDC).
The last experiment that was performed was a study of how the absence of
sulfur affects the curing of the rubber (VL1710ZE1). Without sulfur, virtually no
vulcanization occurred (Figure 23). Only at high temperatures does any type of curing
become noticeable (Figure 24). When compared to the standard formulation,
VL1710ZE1 experiences a 93% decrease in MH at 170°C and an 86% decrease at 200°C.
The only curing that does take place is due to sulfur donation from ingredients such as
TMTD, but as observed this donation is minimal at best.
30
VL1710Z1 vs. VL1710ZE1 at 170°C
12
10
Torque (in*lbs) 8
6
VL1710ZE1
4 VL1710Z1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Figure 23. RPA plot of VL1710Z1 and VL1710ZE1 (no sulfur) at 170°C.
VL1710ZE1 at Various Temperatures
2.5
2
Torque (in*lbs)
1.5
170
180
1
190
200
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Figure 24. VL1710ZE1 (no sulfur) at different temperatures.
31
3.5 Degradation Effects and Factors
In an effort to understand and describe how EPDM cures, consideration of the
degradation reactions and how they contribute to the overall process must be taken
into account. As elluded to earlier, there is a relationship between temperature and
degradation. Determining how the cure reaction is related to the degradation reactions
will help determine the optimal conditions under which the rubber can be
manufactured. The formulations that were studied did not contain any filler and utilized
EPDM prepared with metallocene catalysts (Table 6).
Table 6. Basic formulations for degradation studies.
As a formulation is cured using either the MDR or RPA, there is a point after the
maximum is reached, where cross‐links may still be forming, however, the rate has
32
slowed considerably and the competing process of degradation begins to command the
observed torque vs. time plots. It is likely that degradation also occurs during the curing
process, but the formation of cross‐links is considerably faster, thus, dominating.
Degradation after the MH can be attributed to cross‐links degrading, the polymer
backbone degrading, or a combination of the two. Sulfur pickup and desulfuration are
reciprocal reactions and since there are still reactive species present, resulfuration is
also a distinct possibility for cross‐link degradation.
To explore whether resulfuration was the cause of the degradation an efficient
vulcanization was carried out using VL1710ZI2 (Figure 25) at a temperature of 200°C. An
efficient vulcanization is a type of vulcanization that does not utilize elemental sulfur
and instead relies on sulfur donation directly from the curatives. This, in turn, limits the
maximum amount of sulfur that can be contained in the preliminary cross‐link. Because
there was still degradation observed with this system, even in the absence of large
initial cross‐links, suggests that resulfuration does not occur and that the degradation
might be caused by bond rupture in the polymer backbone.
33
EV Cure at 200°C for 20 Minutes
7
5
Torque (in*lbs)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)
Figure 25. Curing of VL1710ZI2 at 200°C for 20 minutes.
To test if the polymer backbone was breaking down, TGA and DSC analyzes were
performed on raw polymer, uncured and cured VL1710Z6 (7.5% ENB) samples. On both
instruments a 200°C isothermal run was done and the data are presented in Figure 26
andFigure 27. Based on these results, there is no observable polymer degradation,
which might indicate that degradation is not a result of temperature alone, but coupled
to the mechanical stresses induced by the MDR or RPA analysis. In addition, a sample of
EPDM‐5, which was the polymer used in VL1710Z6, was then heated in an oven at 200°C
for 1 hour. This sample was no longer soluble in NMR solvents due to thermally induced
cross‐link formation, thus ATR‐FTIR spectroscopy was utilized in an attempt to analyze
the polymer sample. Due to ENB only consisting of 7.5% of the polymer by weight at
34
maximum, quantification of the double bond signal as confirmation of degradation was
unobtainable.
Weight vs. Time
120
100
80
Weight Percent
60 Raw Polymer
40 Uncured
Cured
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
‐20
Time (min)
Figure 26. TGA traces of (blue) raw polymer (EPDM‐5), (green) cured and (red) uncured
samples of VL1710Z6. Samples were run under an air atmosphere.
35
Heat Flow vs. Time
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
‐10
Heat Flow (mW)
‐20
Cured
‐30
Uncured
‐40
Raw Polymer
‐50
‐60
‐70
Time (Min)
Figure 27. DCS traces of raw polymer (EPDM‐5) (blue), cured (green) and uncured (red)
samples of VL1710Z6
Without a proper method to analyze how degradation was taking place the focus
was shifted to comparing the rate of degradation to the rate of cure and how
temperature is factored into their relationship. To understand general trends, an initial
qualitative approach was taken. For all of the standard formulations and temperatures,
the slope of the cure, at the steepest part of the curve, and the slope after MH were
utilized (Figure 28). The point where the trendlines of cure and degradation intersect is
the theoretical MH if the rate change at MH was instantaneous. From this data, it is
readily apparent that degradation does happen in the curing process.
36
Cure and Degradation rates of VL1710Z6
at 180°C
30
25 Whole Plot
20
Torque (in*lbs)
Derivative
15
Degradation
10
Cure
5
Linear (Degradation)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 Linear (Cure)
‐5
Time (min)
Figure 28. An example of how the intersect points were determined. The slope of the
curing process was taken near the highest rate and the slope of the degradation was
taken from where the MH was reached until the end.
All of the intersect points were then compared and the theoretical MH values
showed some interesting trends based on ENB levels (Figure 29). The MH itself does
not follow a particular trend with ENB content, which is due to different polymer
manufacturers being used. However, based on the slopes, it appears that as the
temperature is increased, the higher ENB formulations are less prone to the degradation
process.
37
Torque vs. Temperature of the
Theoretical MH
10 VL1710Z1 ENB ‐ 1.8%
9 VL1710Z3 ENB ‐ 4.9%
8.5
y = ‐0.0345x + 15.588
8
VL1710Z5 ENB ‐ 4.5%
7.5
y = ‐0.0416x + 15.978
7
VL1710Z6 ENB ‐ 7.5%
160 170 180 190 200 210
Temperature (°C) y = ‐0.0275x + 14.264
Figure 29. Torque vs. temperature of the intersect points of the various formulations at
different temperatures.
Since the cure and degradation rates appear to be highly temperature dependent, a
relationship between reaction rate and temperature needs to be established.
Accordingly, Arrhenius plots were made to examine if the activation energy confirmed
this dependency, as well as to probe why degradation happens more with higher
temperatures when compared to curing (Figure 30‐Figure 32). The cure rate was
determined by taking the slope of the steepest part of the cure curve and the
degradation rate was determined by taking the slope of the curve after MH was
achieved. These slopes ended up becoming the rate constants due to the linear
relationships used to obtain the slopes.
38
Arrhenius Plot of Curing
3.5
2.5
2 VL1710Z1 (ENB 1.8%)
ln (k)
1.5 VL1710Z3 (ENB 4.9%)
1 VL1710Z5 (ENB 4.5%)
VL1710Z6 (ENB 7.5%)
0.5
0
0.0021 0.00215 0.0022 0.00225 0.0023
T (1/K)
Figure 30. The Arrhenius plots for the curing process of VL1710Z1, VL1710Z3, VL1710Z5,
and VL1710Z6.
Arrhenius Plot of Degradation
0
‐0.50.0021 0.00215 0.0022 0.00225 0.0023
‐1
‐1.5
‐2 VL1710Z1 (ENB (1.8%)
ln(k)
‐2.5 VL1710Z3 (ENB 4.9%)
‐3 VL1710Z5 (ENB 4.5%)
‐3.5 VL1710Z6 (ENB 7.5%)
‐4
‐4.5
‐5
T (1/K)
Figure 31. Arrhenius plots for the degradation process of VL1710Z1, VL1710Z3,
VL1710Z5, and VL1710Z6.
39
Ratio of Cure to Degradation
8
7
6
5
ln (kc/kd)
VL1710Z1 (ENB 1.8%)
4
VL1710Z3 (ENB 4.9%)
3
VL1710Z5 (ENB 4.5%)
2
VL1710Z6 (ENB 7.5%)
1
0
0.0021 0.00215 0.0022 0.00225 0.0023
T (1/K)
Figure 32. Arrhenius plots for the ratio of curing vs. degradation of VL1710Z1,
VL1710Z3, VL1710Z5, and VL1710Z6.
Based on Figure 32, as the temperature was increased, the rate of degradation
increased more than the rate of cure increased. An example of this can be seen in
Figure 17 where the MH of a 200°C cure is lower than that of a 170°C cure. Based on
Figure 32, at the temperature of 211°C there is a convergence to where no matter
which polymer is used, the same cure to degradation ratio is observed. Since the
Arrhenius plot data showed different slopes for the different formulations, the
relationship between ENB content and activation energy was explored for each process
(Figure 33).
40
Activation Energy vs. ENB Content
200
Activation Barrier (kJ/mol)
150
100
Cure
50 Degradation
0
0 2 4 6 8
ENB (%)
Figure 33. Activation energy required for both processes for varying ENB content
As seen in Figure 33, with an increase in ENB content, the activation energy for
degradation is higher, which contributes to higher ENB content polymers being more
resistant to degradation. A higher percentage of ENB yields more cross‐links, adding to
the rigidity of the rubber, thus making the degradation process less likely. Another
consequence of higher ENB levels is the presence of lower activation energies for the
curing process. The decrease in Ea, with an increase in ENB level, could be caused by an
increase in reactive site availability and/or mobility issues in lower diene polymers.
With higher diene polymers it takes less energy investment to find reactive species to
react at cross‐link sites, whereas with the lower diene polymers the opposite is true.
41
3.6 Curve Fitting to Predict Reaction Rates
Some significant trends were observed with the initial kinetics study, however,
since the reaction rate constants determined were only approximations, a more
statistical method was needed. Curve fitting software, utilizing Equation 3, was
employed. In almost every case the rate constant for degradation was unobtainable
due to a marching modulus for the lower temperatures. This marching modulus
prevented obtaining a proper MH from the data and not showing clear degradation
process after that point.
Figure 34. Fitted curve data for VL1710Z1 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces;
Red: theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software; Green: the absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves.
42
It can be observed in Figure 34 that at lower temperatures the fitted curve does not
follow the experimental data accurately, but as the temperature is increased it fits
better. This is due to the rate fluctuation that is present at lower temperatures. The
equation that is utilized to fit the curve does not account for this phenomenon as it
assumes a steady‐state approximation for the formation of cross‐links. With the delay
in the formation of cross‐links at the fluctuation point, the approximation fails to fit the
experimental data.
Figure 35. Fitted curve data for VL1710Z3 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces;
Red: theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software; Green: the absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves.
VL1710Z3 had better curve fits than VL1710Z1 as seen from comparing the absolute
difference curves between Figure 34 andFigure 35. The reason for this can be
43
attributed to VL1710Z3 not exhibiting a rate fluctuation like that observed with
VL1710Z1.
Figure 36. Fitted curve data for VL1710Z5 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces;
Red: theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software; Green: the absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves.
VL1710Z5 showed the best fit out of all of the formulations, even at lower
temperatures. The absolute difference in curves, in Figure 36, is the lowest when
compared to the other fitted curve sets.
44
Figure 37. Fitted curve data for VL1710Z6 at various temperatures. Blue: RPA traces;
Red: theoretical data obtained from curve fitting software; Green: the absolute
difference between the theoretical and experimental curves.
VL1710Z6, as seen in Figure 37, also exhibits good fits with experimental data. Since
there appeared to be an additional degradation reaction occurring at higher
temperatures in some plots, that portion of the curve was excluded. This additional
degradation may be due to an auto‐catalytic reaction that happens well after the MH
has been reached and since the auto‐catalytic reaction is not part of the normal
degradation, it can be excluded from the data. By using k1 and k2, as solved by the
fitting software, Arrhenius plots were prepared from these data (Figure 38 Figure 39).
Since the fitted data at 170°C and 180°C resulted in negative k2 values, those values
were excluded in Figure 39.
45
Arrhenius Plot of Curing
2.5
1 VL1710Z3 (4.9% ENB)
VL1710Z5 (4.5% ENB)
0.5
VL1710Z6 (7.5% ENB)
0
0.0021 0.00215 0.0022 0.00225 0.0023
T (1/K)
Figure 38. Arrhenius plot of curing for all four formulations.
Arrhenius Plot of Degradation
0
0.0021 0.00212 0.00214 0.00216 0.00218
‐1
‐2
‐3 VL1710Z1 (1.8% ENB)
ln(k)
‐4 VL1710Z3 (4.9% ENB)
‐5 VL1710Z5 (4.5% ENB)
‐6 VL1710Z6 (7.5% ENB)
‐7
‐8
T (1/K)
Figure 39. Arrhenius plot of degradation for all four formulations.
When comparing Figure 30 andFigure 31 to Figure 38 andFigure 39, the trends set forth
in the former are not as neatly followed in the latter. The fitted line attempts to fit the
whole experimental curve, but a standard kinetic model cannot be used to describe the
46
entirety of the data set. However, focusing on only points of interest, as done prior to
using kinetic modeling, leaves out some sections of the curve that could provide a more
realistic representation of what is being shown.
Activation Energy vs. ENB Content
Energy Barrier of Degradation (kJ/mol)
700 90
Energy Barrier of Curing (kJ/mol)
600 80
70
500
60
400 50
300 40 Degradation
30
200 Cure
20
100 10
0 0
0 2 4 6 8
ENB (%)
Figure 40. Activation energy required for both processes.
When examining the trend of the cure data from Figure 40, it follows a similar pathway
as seen earlier from Figure 33. Degradation, on the other hand, seems to have an
opposite slope. A possibility could be that only two rate constants of degradation were
able to be used when constructing the Arrhenius plot, which could also have
contributed to the outlier caused by VL1710Z3.
47
4 Conclusion
To understand what contributes to the curing of rubber, each ingredient, side
reactions that occur, even polymer structure are important details to consider. As a
result, much about how exactly curing happens is poorly understood. Although direct
analysis of the degradation pathway is currently impossible, two different methods
were used to investigate how degradation effects curing. The findings suggest that
variables such as ENB content and temperature influence this degradation. It was found
that curing metallocene polymers with higher ENB content allowed for resistance to
degradation. However, at a temperature over 211°C, there is no benefit to utilizing high
contents as all of the polymers showed similar degradation to cure profiles.
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