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978-1-107-17151-0 — Advanced Structural Dynamics

Eduardo Kausel
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1 Fundamental Principles

1.1 Classification of Problems in Structural Dynamics

As indicated in the list that follows, the study of structural dynamics – and books about
the subject – can be organized and classiied according to various criteria. This book fol-
lows largely the irst of these classiications, and with the exceptions of nonlinear systems,
addresses all of these topics.

(a) By the number of degrees of freedom:

Single DOF

 lumped mass (discrete) system (finite DOF)
Multiple DOFs continuous systems (infinitely many DOF)
 
Discrete systems are characterized by systems of ordinary differential equations, while
continuous systems are described by systems of partial differential equations.

(b) By the linearity of the governing equations:

Linear systems (linear elasticity,small motionsassumption )


 conservative (elastic) systems
Nonlinear systems nonnconservative (inelastic) systems
 

(c) By the type of excitation:

Free vibrations

  harmonic
 periodic 
nonharmonic
 structural loads 
 Forced vibrations   deterministic excitation
 seismic loadds   

transient  stationary
 random excitation nonstationary
 
   y

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2 Fundamental Principles

(d) By the type of mathematical problem:

Static → boundary value problems


 eigenvalue problems (freee vibrations)
Dynamic initial value problem, propagation
  n problem (waves)

(e) By the presence of energy dissipating mechanisms:

Undamped vibrations

 viscous damping
hysterretic damping
 
Damped vibrations 
 Coulomb damping
 etc.

1.2 Stress–Strain Relationships

1.2.1 Three-Dimensional State of Stress–Strain

ε x   1 − ν − ν  σ x 
  1  
 ε y  =  − ν 1 − ν  σ y  , E = 2G (1 + ν) = Young’s modulus
 ε  E − ν − ν 1  σ  (1.1)
 z   z ν = Poisson’s ratio

σ x  1 − ν ν ν  ε x 
  2G    2G ν
σ y  =  ν 1− ν ν  ε y  , λ= = Lamé constant (1.2)
σ  1 − 2 ν  ν 1 − 2ν
 z  ν 1 − ν  ε z 

τ xy = G γ xy , τ xz = G γ xz , τ yz = G γ yz (1.3)

1.2.2 Plane Strain

ε x  1 1 − ν −ν  σ x 
 =    (1.4)
ε y  2G  −ν 1 − ν  σ y 

σ x  2G 1 − ν ν  ε x 
 =    (1.5)
σ y  1 − 2ν  ν 1 − ν  ε y 

ε z = γ xz = γ yz = 0 σ z = ν (σ x + σ y ) = λ (ε x + ε y ) , τ xy = Gγ xy (1.6)

1.2.3 Plane Stress

ε x  1  1 −ν  σ x  1 1 −ν  σ x 
 =    =    (1.7)
ε y  E  −ν 1  σ y  2G (1 + ν )  −ν 1  σ y 

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1.3  Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems 3

σ x  2G 1 ν  ε x 
 =    (1.8)
σ y  1 − ν ν 1  ε y 
ν ν
σ z = τ xz = τ yz = 0, εz = −
1−ν
( ε x + ε y ) = − (σ x + σ y ) ,
E
τ xy = Gγ xy (1.9)

1.2.4 Plane Stress versus Plane Strain: Equivalent Poisson’s Ratio

We explore here the possibility of deining a plane strain system with Poisson’s ratio ν such
that it is equivalent to a plane stress system with Poisson’s ratio ν while having the same
shear modulus G. Comparing the stress–strain equations for plane stress and plane strain,
we see that this would require the simultaneous satisfaction of the two equations

1 − ν 1 ν ν
= and = (1.10)

1 − 2ν 1 − ν 
1 − 2ν 1 − ν
which are indeed satisied if

ν
ν = plane strain ratio ν that is equivalent to the planee-stress ratio ν (1.11)
1+ ν
Hence, it is always possible to map a plane-stress problem into a plane-strain one.

1.3 Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Notation

E = Young’s modulus
G = shear modulus
ν = Poisson’s ratio
A = cross section
As = shear area
I = area moment of inertia about bending axis
L = length

Linear Spring
Longitudinal spring kx
4
Helical (torsional) spring k = G d
where 8 n D3
d = wire diameter Figure 1.1
D = mean coil diameter
n = number of turns
k −k 
Member stiffness matrix = K =  
−k k

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4 Fundamental Principles

Rotational Spring
Rotational stiffness kθ

Figure 1.2

Floating Body

Buoyancy stiffness kz = ρw g Aw Heaving ( up and down )

kθ x = ρw g I w Rolling about x -axis (small rotations)
kx, y = 0 Lateral motion

in which ρw = mass density of water; g = acceleration of gravity; Aw  = horizontal cross

section of the loating body at the level of the water line; and Iw= area moment of
inertia of Aw with respect to the rolling axis (x here). If the loating body’s lateral
walls in contact with the water are not vertical, then the heaving stiffness is valid only
for small vertical displacements (i.e., displacements that cause only small changes
in Aw ). In addition, the rolling stiffness is just an approximation for small rotations,
even with vertical walls. Thus, the buoyancy stiffnesses given earlier should be inter-
preted as tangent stiffnesses or incremental stiffnesses.
Observe that the weight of a loating body equals that of the water displaced.

Cantilever Shear Beam

Figure 1.3

A shear beam is ininitely stiff in rotation, which means that no rotational deforma-
tion exists. However, a free (i.e., unrestrained) shear beam may rotate as a rigid body.
After deformation, sections remain parallel. If the cantilever beam is subjected to a
moment at its free end, the beam will remain undeformed. The moment is resisted
by an equal and opposite moment at the base. If a force P acts at an elevation a ≤ L
above the base, the lateral displacement increases linearly from zero to u = Pa / GAs
and remains constant above that elevation.

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1.3  Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems 5

Typical shear areas : Rectangular section As = 65 A

Ring As = 21 A

Stiffness as perceived at the top:

EA
Axial stiffness kz =
L

GAs
Transverse stiffness kx =
L

Rotational stiffness kϕ = ∞

Cantilever Bending Beam

Figure 1.4

Stiffnesses as perceived at the top:

EA
Axial stiffness kz =
L
Transverse stiffness (rotation positive counterclockwise):
3EI
(a) Free end kx = (rotation unrestrained )
L3
EI
kφ = (translation unrestrained )
L
12 EI 6 EI
(b) Constrained end k xx = k xϕ =
L3 L2

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6 Fundamental Principles

6 EI 4 EI
kϕ x = kϕϕ =
L2 L
EI  12 6 L 
K BB =  2
L3 6 L 4 L 
Notice that carrying out the static condensations k x = k xx − k x2ϕ / kϕϕ and
kϕ = kϕϕ − k x2ϕ / k xx we recover the stiffness k x , kϕ for the two cases when the loaded
end is free to rotate or translate.

Transverse Flexibility of Cantilever Bending Beam

fLa

fxa θ u

x
M
faa P
L

Figure 1.5

A lateral load P and a counterclockwise moment M are applied simultaneously to

a cantilever beam at some arbitrary distance a from the support (Figure 1.5). These
cause in turn a transverse displacement u and a counterclockwise rotation θ at some
other distance x from the support. These are
P 2 M 2
u (x) = x ( 3a − x ) − x x≤a
6 EI 2 EI

P M
θ ( x) = − x (2a − x ) + x x≤a
2 EI EI

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1.3  Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems 7

and
P 2 M
u (x) = a (3 x − a ) − a (2 x − a ) x≥a
6 EI 2 EI

P 2 M
θ (ξ ) = − a + a x≥a
2 EI EI

Transverse Flexibility of Simply Supported Bending Beam

P
x

a b
L

Figure 1.6

A transverse load P and a counterclockwise moment M are applied to a simply

supported beam at some arbitrary distance a from the support (Figure 1.6). These
cause in turn a transverse displacement u and rotation θ (positive up and counter-
clockwise, respectively) at some other distance x from the support. Deining the
dimensionless coordinates α = a / L , β = 1 − α and ξ = x / L , the observed displace-
ment and rotation are:
P L3 M L2
u( x ) = βξ (1 − β2 − ξ 2 ) + ξ ( ξ 2 + 3β2 − 1) , ξ≤α
6 EI 6 EI

P L2 ML
θ( x ) = β (1 − β2 − 3ξ 2 ) + (3ξ2 + 3β2 − 1) , ξ≤α
6 EI 6 EI
and
P L3 M L2
α (1 − ξ ) 1 − α 2 − (1 − ξ )  + (1 − ξ ) 1 − 3α 2 − (1 − ξ )2 
2
u( x ) = ξ≥α
6 EI   6 EI

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8 Fundamental Principles

P L2  ML
α 3 (1 − ξ ) + α 2 − 1 + 3 1 − ξ ) + 3α 2 − 1
 6 EI  (
2 2
θ ( x) = ξ≥α
6 EI  

In particular, at ξ = α
P L3 2 2 M L2
u(α ) = α β + αβ (β − α )
3 EI 3 EI

P L2 ML
θ (α ) = αβ (β − α ) + (1 − 3αβ )
3 EI 3 EI

3EIL
Transverse stiffness at x = a k= (rotation permitted )
a 2 b2

48 EI
Special case : a = b = L / 2 k= ( rotation permitted )
L3

Stiffness and Inertia of Free Beam with Shear Deformation Included

A B
Figure 1.7

Consider a free, homogeneous bending beam AB of length L that lies horizontally

in the vertical plane x − y and deforms in that plane, as shown in Figure 1.7. It has
mass density ρ , Poison’s ratio ν , shear modulus G, Young’s modulus E = 2G (1 + ν ),
area-moment of inertia I z about the horizontal bending axis z (i.e., bending in the
plane), cross section Ax, and shear area Asy for shearing in the transverse y direction.
In the absence of further information about shear deformation, one can choose
either Asy = Ax or Asy = ∞. Deine
2
R  Iz 12 EI z I
m = ρ Ax L, jz = ρI z / L = m  z  , Rz = , φz = = 24 (1 + ν) z 2
 L Ax GAsy L 2
Asy L

then from the theory of inite elements we obtain the bending stiffness matrix K B
for a bending beam with shear deformation included, together with the consistent
bending mass matrix M B, which accounts for both translational as well as rotational
inertia (rotations positive counterclockwise):
 12 6L −12 6L 
 6L
EI z  (4 + φz ) L2 −6 L (2 − φz ) L2 
KB =
(1 + φz ) L3  −12 −6 L 12 −6 L 

 6 L (2 − φz ) L2 −6 L (4 + φz ) L2 

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1.3  Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems 9

 156 22 L 54 −13L   36 3L −36 3L 

 2  
−3L  jz  3L 4 L2 −3L − L2 
m  22 L 4 L2 13L
MB =  +  
420  54 13L 156 −22 L  30  −36 −3L 36 −3L 
 −13L −3L2 −22 L 4 L2   3L − L2 −3L 4 L2 

On the other hand, the axial degrees of freedom (when the member acts as a col-
umn) have axial stiffness and mass matrices
EAx  1 −1 ρab 2 1
KA =  , MA =  
L  −1 1  6 1 2 

The local stiffness and mass matrices K L , M L of a beam column are constructed
by appropriate combinations of the bending and axial stiffness and mass matrices.
These must be rotated appropriately when the members have an arbitrary orienta-
tion, after which we obtain the global stiffness and mass matrices.

Inhomogeneous, Cantilever Bending Beam

EI1 L1

EI2 L2

Figure 1.8

Active DOF are the two transverse displacements at the top (j = 1) and the junction
(j = 2). Rotations are passive (slave) DOF.
3EI j
Define the member stiffnesses Sj = , j = 1, 2
L3j

The elements k11 , k12, k21 , k22 of the lateral stiffness matrix are then
S1  3 L1 
k11 = k12 = − k11  1 +
3S  L 
2
 2 L2 
1 + 4 S1  L1 
2  2

 3 L1   S L1  L1  
2

k21 = − k11  1 + k22 = k11 1 + + 3 + 3   

2

 2 L2   S1 L2  L2  


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10

10 Fundamental Principles

Simple Frame (Portal)

P/2 P/2

EI

EI EI Lc

Ac Ac

Lg

Figure 1.9

Active DOF is lateral displacement of girder.

The lateral stiffness of the frame is

 1 + 1 Ic Lg + 4 Ic 
24 EI c  6 I g Lc Ac L2g 
k=  L 
3
Lc 1 + 2 c I g I c 
+ 16
 3 I g Lc Ac L2g 

Includes axial deformation of columns. The girder is axially rigid.

Rigid Circular Plate on Elastic Foundation

To a irst approximation and for suficiently high excitation frequencies, a rigid cir-
cular plate on an elastic foundation behaves like a set of springs and dashpots. Here,
Cs = G / ρ  = shear wave velocity; R = radius of foundation; G = shear modulus of
soil; ν = Poisson’s ratio of soil; and Rocking = rotation about a horizontal axis.

Table 1.1 Stiffness and damping for circular foundation

Direction Stiffness Dashpot

Horizontal 8GR kx R
kx = cx = 0.6
2−ν Cs
Vertical 4GR kz R
kz = cz = 0.8
1−ν Cs
Rocking 8GR 3 kr R
kr = cr = 0.3
3(1 − ν ) Cs
Torsion 16GR 3 kt R
kt = ct = 0.3
3 Cs

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