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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This thesis titled Depositional and Diagenetic Environments of


Carbonate of Chorgali Formation (Early Eocene) Salt Range-Potwar
Plateau, Pakistan by Mr. Muhammad Mujtaba, is hereby approved for
submission to the University of Punjab, in fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Prof. Dr. M. Nawaz Chaudhry


Supervisor
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ABSTRACT

Carbonates of the Chorgali Formation constitute important oil and gas producing reservoirs
in the northwestern portion of the Potwar Plateau. In the present study an attempt has been
made to understand the environment of deposition, diagenetic alterations and development
of secondary porosity within the limestone and dolomitic facies of the formation.

Field observations, petrographic features and geochemical data indicate that carbonates of
Chorgali Formation represent subtidal, lower intertidal, upper intertidal and supratidal
facies. Dolomite, predominantly, is of early diagenetic origin, whereas anhydrite represents
sabkha-related emplacement within the supratidal sediments. Microfacies observed are: 1)
biomicrite, 2) pelletiferous biomicrite, 3) biointramicrite, 4) fossiliferous intramicrite, 5)
fossiliferous micrite, 6) intramicrite, 7) micrite and 8) dolomite. Subtidal facies is
characterized by common occurrence of a full marine fossil assemblage, such as, benthonic
forams and echinoderms; lower intertidal facies is characterized by occurrence of relatively
low and restricted marine organisms, extensive bioturbation, absence of algal mats and
generally dark colour of the deposits-indicating reducing conditions; upper intertidal facies
is characterized by common occurrence of stromatolites, local occurrence of sparse
transported organisms, early diagenetic dolomitization and generally with light gray to light
brown colour, indicating oxidizing condition during deposition; and supratidal deposits are
recognized by scarcity of or lack of organisms, dominance of early diagenetic
(penecontemporaneous) dolomitization, common occurrence of sabkha related anhydrite
nodules, presence of collapse breccias and presence of wind blown sands within such
deposits. It has been inferred that deposition of carbonate sediments of Chorgali Formation
took place on a shallow, partially restricted, low energy ramp type of setting, in a
moderately arid climate.

Chorgali subtidal facies occupies most of the eastern and southeastern portions; whereas,
supratidal dolomite, sabkha related anhydrite and collapse breccias dominate in the western
and northwestern parts of the study area.

Minor and trace elements data reflect the chemical, physical and biological conditions of
depositional environments, the chemistry of the diagenetic fluids and in some cases, even
the diagenetic processes. Through the study of trace elements, efforts have been made to
infer the original mineralogy of the rock components, the chemistry of the diagenetic
solution and also the degree of chemical exchange during diagenetic alteration. Based on
trace elements and stable isotopes data comparison of Chorgali limestone and dolomite
have been carried out with those of modern counterparts. The relatively elevated Mg
content and significantly low Sr content indicate that Chorgali subtidal calcite was
originally high-Mg calcite. The general measured trends of trace elements of Chorgali
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dolomites fall within the limits of trace elements variations of modern sabkha dolomites.
The carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of Chorgali subtidal limestones, on the whole,
supports the petrographic and trace elements evidences that these limestones were originally
deposited in warm, shallow-marine environment, and stabilization took place subsequently
under a meteoric water influence. Similarly, interpretation of carbon and oxygen isotopic
compositions of the Chorgali dolomites supports the petrographic and trace elements
evidences that these dolomites were formed in mostly upper intertidal to supratidal
environments, and that stabilization took place under the meteoric water influence.

Dolomites of Chorgali Formation have been divided into three main types: 1) fabric
retentive, 2) fabric destructive and 3) as cement, filling fractures and other voids. Fabric
retentive dolomites are the dominant ones and are mostly confined to the supratidal and
upper intertidal settings. Based on texture and depositional settings, these dolomites have
been inferred to be of early diagenetic origin, i.e., the sediments were dolomitized by
contemporaneously evaporated seawater. Fabric destructive dolomites mostly occur in the
lower portion of the sequence in different localities and represent mostly precursor subtidal
sediments. These dolomites have been inferred as the ones, which have been originated
through 1) seepage-reflux model and/or hydrologic model. The third type of dolomites,
which are present as fracture and cavity filling cement, are late diagenetic in origin, and
were formed through fluids moving along paths of increased permeability created by
burrows, fractures and stylolites.

Chorgali carbonates are mostly tight in the outcrop as well as in core samples; however,
pore spaces are noticed in some of the surface and subsurface samples. These open pore
spaces are secondary in origin and occur almost entirely within dolomite facies. Influence
of fresh water has resulted in the widespread development of solution breccia, specially, in
the western and northwestern portions of the study area. Open molds and vugs were
developed due to leaching of metastable bioclastic allochems and evaporite nodules. The
major factor, which contributed towards the enhancement of porosity and permeability, is
the fracturing of the dolomitic facies of the formation due to intense structural deformation
in the northwestern portion. This is the reason that Chorgali carbonates are producing oil
and gas in that part of the Potwar Plateau.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The great help, assistance and encouragements from many individuals and organizations
facilitated the completion of this work. It is a great pleasure for me to express my gratitude
for the guidance, supervision and encouragement of my supervisor Professor Dr. M. Nawaz
Chaudhry. His constructive criticism and availability during this work has been invaluable.
Very special thanks, of course, go to Dr. H. Jurgan, the expert in the field of sedimentology,
of Federal Institute of Geosciences and Natural Resources of Federal Republic of Germany.
Dr. Jurgan was the person who not only introduced carbonate sedimentology to me, but also
explained the subject in detail in the field as well as in laboratory. I am also grateful to Mr.
Hilal A. Raza, Director General, Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan (HDIP),
for providing me materials, laboratory facilities and necessary information for this work.

I would also like to thank the authorities of oil companies,i.e.,Oil and Gas Development
Corporation (OGDC), Pakistan Oil Fields (POL) and Pakistan Petroleum Limited (PPL) for
allowing me to use core samples of their respective wells. Professor Dr. Khawja Azam Ali is
thanked for allowing me to use the instrument at the Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad,
to analyze the samples for atomic absorption analysis. He was the person who made personal
efforts to get isotopic analysis done of my samples. I am thankful to Mr. Muhammad Afzal
of HDIP for his contribution by preparing the thin sections, polished slabs and powder
samples for XRD analysis. I am also grateful to Mr. Shahid Hussain, Curator of Pakistan
Museum of Natural History for providing me the lab. facilities of his department for the
preparation of solutions for atomic absorption analysis.

Last but not the least I am thankful to Mr. Shahid Aziz of HDIP and my son Abid Hasan,
who helped a lot in typing the text and finalizing the tables and figures on computer.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Abstract 2
Acknowledgements 4
Table of Contents 5
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 7
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 10
1.1 Purpose of the study 10
1.2 General introduction 10
1.3 Stratigraphy of the study area 11
1.4 Tectonic setting and deformation style 12
1.5 Chorgali Formation 12
1.6 Previous geological work 13
1.7 Methods 15
CHAPTER 2 PETROGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Fossils 21
2.3 Intraclasts 21
2.4 Pellets 22
2.5 Stromatolites 22
2.6 Lamination 22
2.7 Anhydrite 23
2.8 Cementation 23
2.9 Fractures and microfractures 23
2.10 Collapse breccia 23
2.11 Dolomite 24
2.12 Porosity 25
CHAPTER 3 MICROFACIES 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Biomicrite 71
3.3 Pelletiferous biomicrite 77
3.4 Biointramicrite 78
3.5 Fossiliferous intramicrite 80
3.6 Fossiliferous micrite 81
3.7 Intramicrite 82
3.8 Micrite 85
3.9 Dolomite 87
CHAPTER 4 DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT 91
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Subtidal zone 91
4.3 Intertidal zone 92
4.4 Supratidal zone 93
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CHAPTER 5 DIAGENETIC EVOLUTION 98


5.1 Dolomitization 100
5.2 Formation of Evaporites 104
5.3 Formation of Collapse Breccia 105
CHAPTER 6 X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS 107
6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 Chorgali calcite 108
6.3 Chorgali dolomite 108
CHAPTER 7 ATOMIC ABSORPTION ANALYSIS 109
7.1 Introduction 109
7.2 Comparison with modern counterparts 110
7.3 Diagenetic trends 111
7.4 Possible fluid composition during diagenesis 112
CHAPTER 8 STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS 117
8.1 Introduction 117
8.2 Chorgali subtidal limestone 117
8.3 Chorgali upper intertidal to supratidal dolomites 118
8.4 Chorgali dolomitic limestone and calcareous dolomite 119
CHAPTER 9 DEPOSITIONAL SETTING 122
CHAPTER 10 POROSITY EVOLUTION AND RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS 124
10.1 Introduction 124
10.2 Origin of dolomite porosity 124
10.3 Porosity in Chorgali dolomite 125
CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 127

REFERENCES 131

APPENDIX Detailed pertrographic description of individual samples 143


A
APPENDIX B X-ray diffraction analysis data 178
B1 X-ray diffractograms showing the major peaks of calcite and dolomite in Kallar Kahar 182
B2 X-ray diffractograms showing the major peaks of calcite in Sethi 183
B3 X-ray diffractograms showing the major peaks of dolomite in Dom Nala 184
B4 X-ray diffractograms showing the major peaks of calcite and dolomite in Rassi Wan 185
B5 X-ray diffractograms showing the major peaks of calcite, dolomite and quartz in Chorgali 186
Pass
B6 X-ray diffractograms showing the major peaks of dolomite in Meyal-1 well 187
B7 X-ray diffractograms showing the major peaks of dolomite in Dakhni-3 well 188
APPENDIX Atomic absorption analysis data 189
C
APPENDIX Stable isotope data 194
D
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Summary of petographic analysis. 61


Table 2.2 Distribution of microfacies of Chorgali carbonates. 68
Table 2.3 Distribution of organisms, based on depth and salinity ranges. 69
Table 2.4 Facies criteria for marginal marine and shallow marine environments. 70

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Generalized tectonic map of Pakistan, showing the location of study area. 17
Figure 1.2 Generalized map of the upper Indus sub-basin, showing prominent geologic and 18
tectonic features.
Figure 1.3 Location of sampled outcrops and cores of carbonates of Chorgali Formation. 19
Figure 1.4 Stratigraphic correlation of the Cainozoic of Salt Range, Potwar and adjoining areas. 20
Figure 2.1 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 26
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dulmial section.
Figure 2.2 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 27
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Chak Khushi section.
Figure 2.3 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 28
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Kallar Kahar section.
Figure 2.4 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 29
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Makhial section.
Figure 2.5 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 30
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Sethi section.
Figure 2.6 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 31
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Bhadrar section.
Figure 2.7 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 32
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Jhunga section.
Figure 2.8 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 33
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dom Nala section.
Figure 2.9 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 34
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Rassi Wan section.
Figure 2.10 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 35
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Chorgali pass section.
Figure 2.11 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 38
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Hattar section.
Figure 2.12 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 39
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dakhni-3 well.
Figure 2.13 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 40
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Meyal-1 well.
Figure 2.14 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 41
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Meyal-2 well.
Figure 2.15 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 43
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Meyal-10 well.
Figure 2.16 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 44
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dhulian-37 well.
Figure 2.17 Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of 45
molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Chak Naurang section.
Figure 2.18 Photomicrograph showing biodebris and benthonic forams. 46
Figure 2.19 Photomicrograph showing well preserved benthonic forams. 46
Figure 2.20 Photomicrograph showing biodebris, benthonic forams and green algae. 47
Figure 2.21 Photomicrograph showing pelecypod test with well preserved microstructure 47
and internal sediment.
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Figure 2.22 Photomicrograph showing biodebris, benthonic forams and bioclastic molds 48
filled with sparry calcite.
Figure 2.23 Photomicrograph showing bioclastic molds filled with anhydrite cement. 48
Figure 2.24 Photomicrograph showing bioclasts and rounded intraclasts. 49
Figure 2.25 Photomicrograph showing micritic and biomicritic intraclasts. 49
Figure 2.26 Photomicrograph showing fecal pellets. 50
Figure 2.27 Photomicrograph showing benthonic forams and fecal pellets. 50
Figure 2.28 Polished hand specimen showing algal mat. 51
Figure 2.29 Polished hand specimen showing lamination, mud-cracks and horizontal 51
burrows.
Figure 2.30 Polished hand specimen showing irregular lamination. 52
Figure 2.31 Polished hand specimen showing anhydrite nodules. 52
Figure 2.32 Photomicrograph showing finely crystalline dolomite with randomly distributed 53
anhydrite crystals and vugs filled with anhydrite cement.
Figure 2.33 Photomicrograph showing chickenwire texture, developed in anhydrite nodule. 53
Figure 2.34 Photomicrograph showing microfracture filled with dolomite cement and 54
authigenic quartz crystals.
Figure 2.35 Photomicrograph showing fabric retentive dolomitization with randomly 54
scattered intraclasts.
Figure 2.36 Photomicrograph showing ghost of algal lamination and fenestral pore space 55
filled with carbonate cement.
Figure 2.37 Photomicrograph showing ghost of algal mat. 55
Figure 2.38 Photomicrograph showing fabric destructive dolomitization. 56
Figure 2.39 Photomicrograph showing fabric destructive dolomitization with ghost texture 56
of Nummulite.
Figure 2.40 Photomicrograph showing microfracture filled with dolomite cement. 57
Figure 2.41 Photomicrograph showing micritized bioclasts and vugs filled with dolomite 57
cement.
Figure 2.42 Photomicrograph showing poikilotopic cement. 58
Figure 2.43 Photomicrograph showing molds filled with authigenic silica. 58
Figure 2.44 Photomicrograph showing solution collapse breccia. 59
Figure 2.45 Photomicrograph showing solution collapse breccia. 59
Figure 2.46 Photomicrograph showing intercrystalline pore space and ghost texture of 60
pellets.
Figure 2.47 Photomicrograph showing finely crystalline dolomite and open molds. 60
Figure 4.1 Generalized facies distribution (vertical and lateral) of Chorgali Formation 95
along the Salt Range.
Figure 4.2 Generalized facies distribution (vertical and lateral) of Chorgali Formation 96
along the NW-SE direction of the study area.
Figure 4.3 Generalized facies distribution (vertical and lateral) of Chorgali Formation 97
along the northern portion of Potwar region.
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Figure 7.1 Calculated composition (mMe/mCa) of fluid in equilibrium with average 115
limestone of Chorgali Formation vs average composition ( mMe/mCa) for natural
waters.
Figure 7.2 Calculated composition (mMe/mCa) of fluid in equilibrium with average 116
Chorgali dolomite vs average composition ( mMe/mCa) for natural waters.
Figure 8.1 Comparison of 13C and 18O values of Chorgali subtidal limestone with the 120
Recent warm shallow-marine whole carbonate field, Recent warm shallow-
marine sediments and skeletons field and Recent temperate whole sediment
field.
Figure 8.2 Comparison of 13C and 18O values of Chorgali dolomites with Holocene 121
sabkha dolomites.
Figure 9.1 Block diagram showing the generalized morphological elements of Chorgali 123
carbonates tidal flat setting (right) and Jatta Gypsum shallow marine setting (left).
Figure 9.2 Block diagram showing the generalized lateral distribution of carbonate facies 123
of Chorgali Formation and time equivalent Jatta Gypsum.
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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose of the Study


The prime objective of the study is to investigate the carbonates of Chorgali Formation from
petroleum reservoir point of view. In the Potwar Plateau, Chorgali Formation and the
underlying Sakesar Limestone and Margala Hill Limestone, are the main petroleum
producing formations. At present about 40% of the known world hydrocarbon reserves
occur in carbonates, and the present trend in exploration strategies is towards the
stratigraphic traps of hydrocarbons. The reservoir characteristics, especially that of
carbonate rocks, depend not only on the depositional facies distribution (primary porosity
and permeability) but also on diagenetic alterations (secondary porosity and permeability).

Thus, the aims of the study are to reconstruct the depositional and diagenetic environments
of the carbonates of Chorgali Formation, exposed in the Salt Range and hidden subsurface
in the Potwar Plateau. Comparatively very little such work has been carried out on Chorgali
Formation, which is laterally variable in thickness and highly variable in lithology from
place to place. Dolomitization, neomorphism, pressure dissolution and leaching have altered
and sometimes even destroyed the original fabric information of the sediments of the
carbonates of Chorgali Formation, especially in the western and northwestern portions of the
study area. A large number of rock samples were collected from the exposed stratigraphic
sections, as well as, from the cores of oil and gas wells drilled in the Potwar Plateau.
Petrography, trace elements geochemistry and x-ray diffraction analysis were chosen as the
basic tools to investigate the depositional and diagenetic environments, and thus to infer the
porosity of the carbonates of Chorgali Formation for the accumulation of hydrocarbons.
Stratigraphic correlations were planned to infer the vertical and lateral change throughout
the extent of the area. Additional evidence is discussed on the basis of the isotopic variation
in oxygen and carbon.

1.2 General Introduction


The region of Salt Range-Potwar Plateau lies between latitude 320 30' and 330 45' North and
longitude 710 30' and 740 0' East in the northern Pakistan (Figure 1.1). The area is bounded
by Punjab Plain in the south and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the north; whereas the
eastern limit is marked by Jhelum Fault and the western boundary by river Indus
(Figure1.2). The area is accessible from all sides and connected by the main road and
railway lines of the country, which join the port city of Karachi in the south and to the city
of Peshawar in the north. Potwar area, for the most part, forms a composite plateau of low
hills and dissected valleys with an average elevation of about 500 m. Indus River, along
with its tributary, the Soan River, drains the area that flows to the southwest into the Punjab
plains. Potwar Plateau is famous as the highest oil producing region in the country.
1.3 Stratigraphy of the Study Area
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The stratigraphic nomenclature used in this thesis is based on the recommendations and
decisions of the Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 1977). A generalized
stratigraphic column of the Cainozoic strata found in the Salt Range, Potwar Plateau and the
adjoining areas is shown in Figure 1.4. Sedimentation, in the Salt Range-Potwar Plateau and
the adjoining areas, started in the late Precambrian and lasted until the Pleistocene. From
bottom to the top, the stratigraphic section can be divided into four groups: 1) basement
complex, 2) Salt Range Formation, 3) platform section, and 4) molasse section (Khan et al.,
1986). The Precambrian basement complex is believed to be similar in lithology to the rocks
exposed in Kirana Hills (part of Sargodha High) south of Salt Range, consisting of
metamorphic and volcanic rocks of the Indian Shield (Yeats and lawrence,1984). The
Eocambrian Salt Range Formation is mainly an evaporitic unit, with a number of facies
(marl, anhydrite etc.); the dominant one is halite. The platform section consists of Cambrian
to Eocene shallow-water sediments with major unconformities at the base of the Permian
and at the base of the Paleocene. There is also an unconformity between the platform
sequence and the overlying Miocene to Pleistocene synorogenic molasse section. The
molasse section consists of the Rawalpindi and Siwalik Groups, which are over 5000 m
thick at the axis of the Soan syncline (Figure1.2).

From Cambrian to Eocene the sedimentation took place in marine, occasionally partially
restricted to littoral and subaerial conditions. In Early Paleocene time a marine transgression
from the west over-stepped all older strata in the region. Paleocene and Eocene sediments
were deposited over eroded Cretaceous to Cambrian strata, from west to east. These
shallow-marine, locally evaporitic carbonates and coastal brackish water clastics attained a
maximum thickness of about 760 m in the west and thinned depositionally in the east. In
late Eocene time, initial Himalayan orogenic movement uplifted the strata and subjected
them to weathering throughout Oligocene time. Erosion was more severe in the southeast,
which resulted in complete erosion of Eocene and Paleocene sediments at the extreme
southeast portion of the area. An orogenic foredeep was developed in Miocene, trending
northeast-southwest. The depocenter migrated to the southwest in the Plio-Pleistocene time,
resulting in the accumulation of molasse upto 6100 m thick. These sediments were derived
from rapid erosion of rising mountains in the north. After deposition of the Siwalik
sediments, the most severe orogenic phase in the Pleistocene resulted in detachment
shortening with folding, faulting and uplift in the region. In the late Pleistocene, erosion
across the structural highs dumped conglomeratic detritus (Lei conglomerate) in structural
lows, which were later tilted by gentle tectonic movement. The region thereafter was
peneplaned and covered with a 30-46 m thick sub-recent alluvium blanket.
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1.4 Tectonic Setting and Deformation Style


The Salt Range and Potwar Plateau are part of the active foreland fold-and-thrust belt of the
Himalaya in the northern Pakistan (James and Lillie, 1988). The underthrusting of Indian
Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate is producing compressional thin-skinned tectonic features
since Eocene time on the northern and northwestern fringes of the Indian Plate. The wrench
tectonic features associated with compressional regime (Harding and Lowel, 1979) are
documented in the Mianwali Re-entrant and along Pezu Fault (Figure 1.2). From south to
north, three major tectonic elements can be defined for the active foreland deformation belt
of northern Pakistan: 1) Jhelum plain, 2) Salt Range and similar frontal ranges west of the
Indus River, and 3) Potwar-Kohat Plateau and Bannu Trough (Yeats and Lawrence, 1984).

Salt Range passes gently and gradually into the Potwar Plateau. Its southern escarpment,
rising 800-900 m above the plain, marks the southern most extent of deformation along the
Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt in Pakistan. Beneath the Salt Range/Potwar Plateau lies a
shallow dipping thrust that has carried the entire sedimentary section southwards along a
decollement within the Salt Range Formation (Seeber and Armsbruster, 1979; Lillie et al.,
1987). Salt Range is the topographic expression of this great thrust sheet riding up and over
a down-to-the-north basement normal fault (Lillie and Yousuf, 1986; Baker et al., 1988).
However, as one moves eastward away from the central Salt Range, the prominent
topographic expression of the thrust front dies out (Yeats et al., 1984).

Between the Salt Range and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) is the Potwar Plateau, which
is nearly undeformed south of the Soan River but is deformed on its northern and eastern
margins (Figure1.2). Eastern Potwar represents strong deformation as compared to central
and western Potwar. Southern Potwar Plateau, though has been pushed at least 20 km
southward (Baker, 1987; Leather, 1987), yet it has undergone almost no internal
deformation, except broad, gently folded anticlines (Khan et al.,1986). This phenomenon is
due to the weak evaporite decollement and to the increase in the basement slope (Jaume and
Lillie, 1988). The northern Potwar Plateau is complexly folded and faulted with Miocene
and older rocks. The intense deformation, seen in the northern Potwar Plateau, was as the
result of its original development upon a decollement dominated by frictional sliding instead
of salt, probably somewhere in the vicinity of the foot of the present Kala Chitta Range.
Major petroleum producing fields of the region are located in the eastern and northern
portions of the Potwar Plateau. These fields represent structural traps created by tectonic
forces.

1.5 Chorgali Formation


The term "Chorgali beds" of Pascoe (1920) has been formalized as Chorgali Formation by
the Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah,1977) after the Chorgali Pass in the Khair-e-
Murat Range, Attock District of Punjab Province. The formation represents the "Passage
13

beds" of Pinfold (1918) in the Attock area, "Chorgali beds" of Pascoe (1920) in the Khair-e-
Murat Range, "Bhadrar beds" of Gee and Evans (in Davies and Pinfold, 1937) in the Salt
Range, and "Lora Formation" of Latif (1970a) in the Hazara area. Chorgali Pass (lat. 33 26'
30" N; long. 70 41' E), in the Khair-e-Murat Range has been chosen as the type locality
(Shah, 1977); whereas the locality of Bhadrar (lat. 320 41' N; long. 720 31' E), in the Salt
Range, is the principal reference section (Fatmi, 1973, 51p) of the Chorgali Formation.

According to Shah (1977) Chorgali Formation consists of shale and limestone. At its type
locality, the formation is divisible into two distinct units: 1) the lower dolomitic limestone
and shale, and 2) the upper mainly of shale with one thick bed of limestone and a bed of
nodular argillaceous limestone near the top. In the Salt Range area, the formation is again
divisible into two portions: 1) shale and limestone in the lower part, and 2) mainly limestone
in the upper part. In the Kala Chitta Range, the formation consists of thin to medium bedded
limestone with subordinate marl. The limestone is slightly nodular and contains chert
nodules.

According to Fatmi (1973), the formation is developed in the eastern Salt Range, along the
foothills of Kala Chitta Range, the Khair-e-Murat Range, in the core of the Chharat
anticlines, and in the Hazara area. It laterally changes to Jatta Gypsum in the Kohat area,
where no exposures of the formation are present. The formation is well exposed close to the
eastern limit of the Salt Range, where it is 30 m thick and thins out to 15 m in the central
portion ( at the locality of Bhadrar) of the range. The thickness of the formation at its type
locality (i.e., Chorgali Pass) is, however, 150 m. The formation overlies conformably the
Sakesar Limestone in the Salt Range, and Margala Hill Limestone at rest of the places. In
the Salt Range, the formation is unconformably overlain by the basal conglomerates of the
Murree Formation, whereas in other areas it has conformable upper contact with the
overlying Kuldana Formation.

A rich fossil assemblage, including foraminifers, molluscs and ostracods, has been reported
by Davies and Pinfold (1937), Eames (1952b), Gill (1953) and Latif (1970a). The fauna
indicates an Early Eocene age.

1.6 Previous Geological Work


Prior to Gill's (1953) detailed work on facies and fauna in Bhadrar beds, presently
designated as Chorgali Formation, of Salt Range, only some brief descriptions of this rock
unit are available in the literature. Gee's description (1932, p.116, in Gill, 1953) is that "on
the Salt Range Platform, the Hill Limestones are overlain by 15 to 25 m thick of fine green
shales and thin limestones with numerous foraminifera". Cotter (1933, p.96) described these
beds as 'passage beds consisting of argillaceous limestone, marl and shales, sometimes 6 m
14

thick or so, overlying the massive Hill limestone'. Davies (1937, p.15) recorded some
foraminifera from the Bhadrar beds.

First detailed field studies of this rock unit, in the Salt Range area, were carried out by Gill
(1953). According to Gill "the upper layers of the Sakesar Limestone (Early Eocene) of the
western and central Salt Range pass eastward into the lower Bhadrar shales, reflecting an
approach to the margin of the basin of deposition. In the eastern outcrops the highest Laki
beds, beneath the unconformable Murree (Miocene) freshwater beds, are 15-25 m of shales
with thin limestones which overlie the main Laki (Sakesar) limestone and have been
differentiated as a separate stratigraphic unit, the “Bhadrar beds". Gill divided Bhadrar beds
into two parts, upper Bhadrar and lower Bhadrar. Upper Bhadrar represents mostly
unfossiliferous porcellaneous limestones with an increasing element of argillaceous,
dolomitic limestones in the west; and was probably deposited in lagoons. The lower Bhadrar
beds, in contrast, constitute shale facies in the east with westerly increase of calcareous
rocks. Gill concluded that the lower Bhadrar shales, which form a distinct lithological and
faunal unit in the eastern Salt Range are homotaxial with beds in the west that would be
mapped as the uppermost layers of the Sakesar Limestone, though the occurrence of
Distyoconus group and the abundance of Orbitolites complanatus may allow the limestone
facies of the lower Bhadrar to be differentiated from the Sakesar Limestone. According to
Gill the easterly development of shale facies probably relates to an approach to the edge of
the basin of deposition with shallower water and more land derived detritus.

According to Latif & Iqbal (1986) Chorgali Formation (previously designated as Lora
Formation by Latif, 1970) is well developed in the Hazara area. Margala Hill Limestone
passes upwards with a gradual change of material, into the Chorgali Formation, which is
generally composed of limestones, marly limestones, argillaceous limestones, marl and
subordinate shales. The limestones are rarely massive, and generally show a flaggy habit.
There is a significant increase in the argillaceous content upwards, which may range from
argillaceous limestones to calcareous mudstones and visibly devoid of any fossils.

According to Wells (1984, p.335-336) Chorgali Formation in its type locality (Khair-e-
Murat Range) comprises of five main facies: 1) 3 m pedogenized marls with rootlet traces,
2) 2.2 m locally silicified marine miliolid and ostracod pelsparites grading up into partially
silicified, formerly pelletal, pedogenized probably saline-lacustrine ostracodal and
gastropodal micrites, 3) 60 m olive shales, 4) 58 m essentially unfossiliferous but in places
bioturbated marly to dolomitic siltstones, with possible algal beds, and 5) 13 m shallow
water and upward-shoaling Nummulitic limestones, Assilinal dolomitized limestones, and
silty ostracodal and/or Lockhartia dolomicrites. Wells concluded that Chorgali Formation
comprises near shore deposits of Early Eocene age and shows a single regression late in the
Early Eocene that left the land dry during Middle Eocene.
15

On the basis of the detailed study of the Chorgali Formation at its type locality, Jurgan and
Abbass (1991,p.35) suggested to use the term Chorgali Formation for the lower 80-90 m
thick thin bedded dolomite sequence, and to include the upper 70 m thick greenish shale
within Kuldana Formation. The contact with the underlying Sakesar/Margala Hill
Limestone and the overlying Kuldana Formation is conformable. As per Jurgan's
interpretation Chorgali Formation was deposited in intertidal to supratidal environments
during an overall regression of the Early Eocene sea. Jurgan has further added that most of
the Bhadrar beds (presently designated Chorgali Formation) in the Salt Range are fully
marine deposits, and should, therefore, be considered as a member of the Sakesar
Limestone, and not as a homolog of the Chorgali Formation. Jurgan has also concluded that
the Lora Formation of the Hazara area is also a fully marine deposit, and therefore should be
excluded from the Chorgali Formation.

1.7 Methods
An initial field reconnaissance of the Salt Range, Khair-e-Murat Range and Kala Chitta
Range was undertaken. On the bases of the geological observations, made during
reconnaissance field trips, eleven different locations were selected for detailed study based
on their accessibility, continuity of exposure and presence of datum horizon. Optical
distance meter, clinometer, brunton compass and measuring tape were used to measure the
stratigraphic thicknesses of the sections on traverses at right angles to strike of the strata. In
addition to outcrop samples, core samples were collected from the cores of six bore holes
drilled in Potwar Plateau. Core materials were made available by different oil companies,
such as, "Pakistan Oil Fields Limited", "Oil and Gas Development Corporation", and
"Pakistan Petroleum Limited". Cores were logged and a total of fifty nine carbonate samples
were collected at significant lithological changes. Similarly, during detailed examination,
measurement and bed-by-bed sampling of the exposed rock units of eleven sections, a total
of one hundred and eleven carbonate samples were collected for subsequent laboratory
study. Stratigraphic sections were plotted at the scale of ~ 1:100 to 1:50.

Carbonate samples were cut, polished and etched with 10% HCl containing Alizarin Red-S
for dolomite detection. A total of 340 rock slabs and thin sections were made. Rock slabs
were examined for fossil content, texture and primary and diagenetic structures. Thin
sections were cut from the opposite face of the slabs to give details of texture, mineralogy,
fossils and diagenetic fabrics. Petrographic study has been used as the major tool, in this
study, for the interpretation of depositional environment, diagenetic history and evolution of
porosity. Rock types are classified according to slightly modified scheme of Folk (1959),
and these rock types are considered as microfacies. Detailed petrographic description of all
the samples are given in Appendix A.
16

Carbonate mineralogy and dolomite stoichiometry were determined using x-ray diffraction
analysis. Finely ground powders were sieved through a 62-m mesh and packed into a
sample holder. These randomly oriented powder mounts were analyzed using Nicolet x-ray
diffractometer, applying Copper-K (alpha) radiation with a generator setting of 40 kv and 30
mA. The sample mounts were scanned from 5° to 40° (2 theta) with a step-size of 0.04° (2
theta) and scanning speed of 1.0 sec/step. The degree of ordering of the dolomite samples
was calculated from the relative peak heights of the d 015 and d 110 reflections using the
intensity ratio of I015/I110. The relative proportion of calcite to dolomite in individual
samples was determined by taking the ratio of the heights of the (104) calcite peak and the
(104) dolomite peak. The CaCO3 contents in calcite and dolomite of Chorgali Formation
have been calculated from the equation of Lumsden (1979) relating mol % CaCO3 to the d104
spacing measured in angstrom units (d): NCaCO3 = Md+B, where M is 333.33 and B is
-911.99.

One hundred and seventy powdered whole rock samples of carbonates were dissolved in 1N
HCl and the solutions were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for Ca, Mg,
Sr, Na, Mn and Fe, at the Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. Precisions are ±1% for Ca
and Mg and ±5% for Sr, Na, Mn and Fe (Robinson, 1980). Insoluble residues (%IR) were
calculated from the AAS leaches, dried on filter paper (blank corrected) and weighed..

Thirty four whole rock selected powdered samples of calcite, dolomite and dolomitic
limestone were allowed to react with 100% phosphoric acid at 25 oC for 24 hours. The CO2
extracted after three hours reaction was taken to represent calcite. Reaction was then
allowed to proceed further and the CO2 extracted after 24 hours was taken to represent
dolomite. This sequential analysis procedure is based on the method proposed by Sheppared
and Schwarez (1970). The CO2 extracted from each sample was analyzed by mass
spectrometry (Delta E, Finnigan Mat) for 13C and 18O. The dolomite and calcite isotope
values determined by sequential analysis are in the same range as those determined by
individual dolomite. No correction for acid fractionation were made for dolomite. Based on
replicate analysis of standard powders, precision is ±0.2% (1) for both 13C and 18O.
Results are reported in conventional per mil (‰) notation relative to PDB standard using the
standard correction procedure.
17
18
19
20
21

2. PETROGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS

2.1 Introduction
A total of three hundred and forty polished slabs and thin sections were made for detailed
petrographic analysis (see Appendix A for petrographic description of individual samples).
Important petrographic features, such as, type and percentage of components, e.g., bioclasts,
intraclasts, etc., occurrence of sedimentary structures, such as, laminations, cyanobacterial
mats, bioturbation features, fenestral fabrics and mudcracks were observed and are shown in
Table 2.1. The vertical distribution of different facies, together with the interpreted
depositional environments, is shown on the stratigraphic chart of each measured section
(Figures 2.1 to 2.17). Environment of deposition for the microfacies of individual samples
has been inferred through the criteria given in Tables 2.3 and 2.4.
Chorgali carbonates are dominantly of micritic composition with varying amounts of
bioclasts and intraclasts; whereas, peloids are sparse and occur only locally. A brief
description of some of the salient petrographic features, such as, skeletal and non-skeletal
grains, primary and diagenetic structures, petrographic aspects of dolomite and anhydrite are
given below:

2.2 Fossils
Skeletal grains are represented by whole shells as well as angular biodebris (Figure 2.18).
Fossils consist mostly of shallow-marine benthonic forams, such as, Miliolidae, Soritidae,
Alveolinidae, smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites, Assilina and Lockhartia (Figures 2.18, 2.19,
2.20). Echinoderms, ostracods and sparse pelecypods and gastropods are almost exclusively
represented by shell debris (Figure 2.18). In one sample pelecypod shell with well preserved
internal structure is present (Figure 2.21). Green algae (dasycladaceans) are sporadically
distributed (Figure 2.20). The common size of skeletal grains ranged from 2 to 3 mm, but all
sizes ranging from 0.01 mm to >1 cm are present. For percentage of bioclasts and relative
abundance of different types of benthonic forams present in the individual samples of the
studied sections, see Table 2.1. In some localities bioclasts are mostly represented by molds
(open or filled). The filled ones mostly contain sparry calcite (Figure 2.22), rarely anhydrite
(Figure 2.23), dolomite and authigenic silica.

2.3 Intraclasts
The term "intraclasts" has been used in this study according to Folk's scheme (1962), which
describes intraclasts as the fragments of penecontemporaneous, generally weakly
consolidated carbonate sediment that have been reworked from within the area of
deposition. Intraclasts, occurring in Chorgali carbonates, range from silt size upto very
coarse sand size; however, most of them fall within the range of very fine to medium sand
size. All shapes from angular to rounded are observed but predominantly the intraclasts are
angular to subrounded. The intraclasts are mostly composed of dolomitized micrite (Figure
22

2.24) and dolomitized biomicrite (Figure 2.25). They generally occur in association with
algal mats.

2.4 Pellets
Following Folk's scheme (1962), the term "pellets" has been used for allochems that are
rounded, spherical to elliptical or ovoid aggregates of microcrystalline calcite, which are
devoid of any internal structure. Generally these grains show uniformity of shape and size.
The size of these grains varies, with a distinct upper size limit at about 0.15 mm.

The pellets, present in Chorgali carbonates, vary in shape from spherical to elliptical. The
size of the pellets ranges from 0.05 mm to 0.2 mm; however, pellets occurring in a single
sample, are mostly of the same size and shape (Figures 2.26 and 2.27). Pellets occur
dominantly in a micrite matrix. However, in a few samples. isolated patches of pellets
surrounded by sparry calcite are noticed (Figure 2.26). Usually spar cemented pellets have
hazy boundaries, indicating, probably, incipient recrystallization spreading from the cement
into the pellets. In one sample well sorted pellets were noticed along with bioclasts
embedded in the groundmass of sparry calcite (Figure 2.27). Pellets are probably more
abundant in the samples than the visual estimates indicated, because pellets are often
difficult to distinguish from the micrite matrix due to patchy recrystallization (Figure 2.26).
Most of the pellets observed seem to be of fecal origin (Figure 2.26). Some of the pellets;
however, can be called peloids (following Mckee & Gutschick, 1969) as their mode of
origin is not certain (Figure 2.27).

2.5 Stromatolites
Few samples of Chorgali carbonates display vague to well developed algal laminations both
at mesoscopic and microscopic scale (Figures 2.28, 2.36, 2.37). Under microscopic
examination the individual laminae appear to be less than 1 mm in thickness. They may be
parallel to each other, flat or wavy, or they may be truncated by overlying laminae. They are
mostly of dolomitic composition. In some cases bird's eye structures are present. They
correspond to the cryptalgal-laminated sediments of Aitken (1967) and are stromatolites by
the definition of Logan et al (1964), but they differ from other stromatolites in lacking
pronounced doming. They are considered to be stromatolites formed by cyanobacteria.

2.6 Lamination
Prominent horizontal lamination is seen in some sections. For example, in Chorgali Pass
area , well preserved lamination was observed on the polished slab (Figure 2.29), consisting
of dark and light coloured laminae in association with mudcracks and probable horizontal
burrows. In thin section it consists of millimeter-thick dolomicritic layers alternating with
dark coloured organic matter. These laminae probably represent sediments deposited by
tidal currents. In some localities irregular lamination looking structure is seen (Figure. 2.30),
23

displaying small scale erosion features. The origin of such structure is often related to the
alternation of tidal currents and slack water (Reineck, 1975).

2.7 Anhydrite
Anhydrite is present at various intervals within the cores of four wells (Meyal-1, Meyal-2,
Meyal-10 and Dhulian-37), located in the northwestern portion of the Potwar Plateau.
However, very common occurrence of collapse breccia in almost whole of the western and
northern portions of the study area, indicates presence of some precursor evaporite minerals.

Anhydrite mostly occurs as nodules of different shapes and size (Figure 2.31). Sometimes
anhydrite nodules are closely packed, resulting in the development of chicken-wire texture
(Figure 2.33). Besides nodular form, it also occurs as wavy bands (enterolithic folds),
monocrystals scattered randomly in the groundmass of finely crystalline dolomite (Figure
2.32), mold and vug fillings (Figures 2.23, 2.32) and as fracture fillings.

2.8 Cementation
Phenomenon of poikilotopic cement (Figure 2.42) is very common in the surface as well as
core samples of western and northwestern portions of the study area. In some of the samples
microvugs and micromolds were noticed filled with calcite (Figure 2.22), anhydrite (Figure
2.23) , dolomite (Figure 2.41), authigenic silica (Figure 2.43) and solid hydrocarbon.

2.9 Fractures and Microfractures


Fractures and microfractures are well developed on the polished surfaces and in thin
sections of some of the samples. These fractures and microfractures are filled with sparry
calcite , dolomite (Figure 2.40) and anhydrite. Some of the microfractures are noticed with
well developed authigenic quartz crystals along with the dolomite cement (Figure 2.34). A
few partially open fractures are also present.

2.10 Collapse breccia


Well developed features of collapse breccia (also known as solution breccia) are present in
the surface as well as in core samples, collected from western and northwestern portions of
Potwar Plateau (Figures 2.44, 2.45). This phenomenon is noticed in only one sample
(Dulmial section) of the southeastern portion of the study area.

The breccia consists predominantly of dolomite and limestone fragments. Dolomite


fragments consist mostly of dolomicrite; whereas, limestone clasts generally represent
micrite (Figure 2.45) and fossiliferous micrite. The carbonate fragments are of different
shapes and size. They are mostly angular to sub-angular (Figure 2.45), and size ranges upto
several cm. The clasts show very little displacement (Figure 2.45) to random displacement
(Figure 2.44). Some breccias are infilled by detrital silt and clay lithoclasts (Figure 2.44);
24

whereas, others retain some pore space due to incomplete filling by sediment or no sediment
at all.

2.11 Dolomite
Dolomite occurs in a wide range of crystal forms, fabrics and mosaics. Most of the dolomite
is a replacement of preexisting CaCO3, and there is a wide range of replacement fabrics
developed. Rarely dolomite also occurs as a cement, filling voids in the same way as calcite
spar.

Replacement of CaCO3 by dolomite ranges from fabric retentive to fabric destructive and
from fabric selective to pervasive. The important factors are grain original mineralogy and
crystal size, timing of dolomitization and nature of dolomitizing fluids. The shapes of
dolomite crystals in mosaics vary from anhedral to euhedral rhombs, and mosaics can be
referred to as xenotopic and idiotopic.

Dolomite of Chorgali Formation can be divided into three main types: 1) fabric retentive, 2)
fabric destructive and 3) as cement filling fractures and other voids.

Fabric retentive dolomites are the dominant ones, which are exclusively confined to the
supratidal and upper intertidal settings. According to the classification of Sibley & Gregg
(1987) these dolomites can be described mostly as unimodal, planar-s dolomites with
mimically replaced intraclasts and unimodal matrix (Figures 2.34, 2.35, 2.40). In some
localities local occurrence of polymodal, planar-s dolomites are observed with mimically to
nonmimically replaced bioclastic allochems (Figures 2.25, 2.41). Dolomite crystal size is
related to the textures of the precursor fine grained supratidal and intertidal sediments.
Dolomitized micrites and dolomitized intramicrites have already been described. There is a
general paucity of skeletal grains within these dolomites, however, dolomicritic intraclasts
of different shapes and sizes are locally common and randomly distributed in the
groundmass of dolomicrite. Distinctive microbial laminations are the prominent structural
features of intertidal dolomites (Figures 2.36, 2.37), whereas, anhydrite nodules are locally
very common within the supratidal dolomites.

Fabric destructive dolomites mostly occur in the lower portion of the sequence in different
localities and represent mostly precursor subtidal sediments. They consist of equigranular,
fine to medium crystalline (upto 150 m) mosaic of dolomites (Figures 2.38, 2.39, 2.46,
2.47). As per Sibley & Gregg classification (1987), these dolomites mostly represent
polymodal, planar-s dolomites with nonmimically replaced bioclastic allochems (Figure
2.39) and mimically replaced pellets (Figure 2.46). Local occurrence of intercrystalline
(Figure 2.46) and moldic (Figure 2.47) porosity are noticed.
25

The third type of dolomite is the fracture-pore and cavity filling cement, which constitutes
less than 1% of the total dolomite of the Chorgali Formation. They represent medium to
coarsely crystalline mosaic of dolomites (Figures 3,34, 2.40 2.41), with irregular
intercrystalline boundaries and sometimes strong undulatory extinction. In the sense of
Sibley and Gregg classification (1987), they represent polymodal, planar to nonplanar
dolomite. Locally well developed quartz crystals were observed within such fracture filling
dolomites (Figure 2.34).

2.12 Porosity
Carbonates of Chorgali Formation display five pore types: 1) moldic, 2) fenestral, 3) vuggy,
4) intercrystalline and 5) fracture. Moldic pore types are either open (Figure 2.47) or filled
with calcite (Figure 2.22), anhydrite (Figure 2.23) and authigenic silica (Figure 2.43).
Fenestral pore spaces are mostly filled with carbonate cement (Figure 2.36). Vuggy pores
are common in some sections and mostly filled with dolomite cement (Figure 2.41).
Intercrystalline pore space are generally filled (Figure 2.38), however, in some sections open
intercrystalline pores are also present (Figure 2.46). Fracture and microfracture pores are
common in some areas, but these are generally filled with dolomite cements (Figures 2.34,
2.40).
26

Figure 2.1: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dulmial section.
27

Figure 2.2: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Chak Khushi section.
28

Figure 2.3: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Kallar Kahar section.
29

Figure 2.4: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Makhial section.
30

Figure 2.5: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Sethi section.
31

Figure 2.6: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Bhadrar section.
32

Figure 2.7: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Jhunga section.
33

Figure 2.8: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dom Nala section.
34

Figure 2.9: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Rassi Wan section.
35

Figure 2.10: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Chorgali pass section.
Cont.......
36

Cont......
37
38

Figure 2.11: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Hattar section.
39

Figure 2.12: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dakhni-3 well.
40

Figure 2.13: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Meyal-1 well.
41

Figure 2.14: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Meyal-2 well.
Cont.........
42
43

Figure 2.15: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Meyal-10 well.
44

Figure 2.16: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Dhulian-37 well.
45

Figure 2.17: Vertical distribution of microfacies, depositional environments and variation of


molar ratios of trace elements with respect to calcium at Chak Naurang secation.
Figure 2.18: Photomicrograph showing whole and broken bioclasts, which are mostly
represented by benthonic forams (e.g. Nummulites) and echinids.
Section: Makhial. Sample: CMK - 06.
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.19: Photomicrograph showing biomicrite with well preserved benthonic forams
(Nummulites and Lockhartia).
Section: Jhunga. Sample: CJA - 08
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
47

Figure 2.20: Photomicrograph showing benthonic forams (e.g. Alveolinidae, Soritidae and
smaller Rotalidae) and green algae.
Section: Makhial. Sample: CMK - 07
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.21: Photomicrograph showing pelecypod test with well preserved microstructure and
internal sediment. Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 12
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
48

Figure 2.22: Photomicrograph showing biodebris, benthonic forams (e.g. Soritidae) and
bioclastic molds filled with sparry calcite.
Section: Jhunga. Sample: CJA - 06
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.23: Photomicrograph showing bioclastic molds filled with anhydrite cement.
Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 11
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
49

Figure 2.24: Photomicrograph showing bioclasts and rounded intraclasts.


Section: Hattar. Sample: CHR - 17
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.25: Photomicrograph showing micritic and biomicritic intraclasts of different shapes
and size. Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 09
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
50

Figure 2.26: Photomicrograph showing fecal pellets surrounded by sparry calcite and
microsparry calcite. Section: Sethi. Sample: CSI - 03
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm .

Figure 2.27: Photomicrograph showing smaller benthonic forams and well-developed fecal
pellets of same size and shape. Well: Dakhni-3. Sample: CDI - 11
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
51

Figure 2.28: Polished hand specimen showing well preserved cyanobacterial mat.
Section: Chorgali Pass. Sample: CCG - 31
Coin diameter = 22 mm.

Figure 2.29: Polished hand specimen showing well developed lamination, mud-cracks and
horizontal burrows. Section: Chorgali Pass. Sample: CCG - 34
Coin diameter = 22 mm.
52

Figure 2.30: Polished hand specimen showing irregular lamination.


Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 09
Coin diameter = 22 mm.

Figure 2.31: Polished hand specimen showing anhydrite nodules.


Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 19
Coin diameter = 22 mm.
53

Figure 2.32: Photomicrograph showing finely crystalline dolomite with randomly distributed
anhydrite crystals and vugs filled with anhydrite cement. Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 20
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.33: Photomicrograph showing chickenwire texture, developed in anhydrite nodule.


Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 08
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
54

Figure 2.34: Photomicrograph showing microfracture filled with dolomite cement and authigenic
quartz crystals. Section: Chorgali Pass. Sample: CCG - 23
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.35: Photomicrograph showing fabric retentive dolomitization with randomly scattered
rounded intraclasts and microfracture filled with calcite cement.
Section: Kallar Kahar. Sample: CKK - 04
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
55

Figure 2.36: Photomicrograph showing ghost of algal lamination and fenestral pore space filled
with carbonate cement. Section: Dom Nala. Sample: CDM - 01
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.37: Photomicrograph showing ghost of algal mat.


Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 04
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
56

Figure 2.38: Photomicrograph showing fabric destructive dolomitization. Individual crystals


display cloudy center and clear rims. Section: Chorgali Pass. Sample: CCG - 41
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.39: Photomicrograph showing fabric destructive dolomitization with ghost texture of
Nummulite. Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 02
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
57

Figure 2.40: Photomicrograph showing microfracture filled with dolomite cement.


Section: Chorgali Pass. Sample: CCG - 15
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.41: Photomicrograph showing micritized bioclasts and vugs of different shape and size,
filled with dolomite cement. Section: Dom Nala. Sample: CDM - 02
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
58

Figure 2.42: Photomicrograph showing poikilotopic cement.


Section: Hattar. Sample: CHR - 08
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.43: Photomicrograph showing molds filled with authigenis silica.


Section: Chorgali Pass. Sample: CCG - 33
Cross-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
59

Figure 2.44: Photomicrograph showing collapse breccia.


Well: Meyal-2. Sample: CM2 - 05
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.45: Photomicrograph showing collapse breccia.


Section: Rassi Wan. Sample: CRW - 02
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
60

Figure 2.46: Photomicrograph showing intercrystalline pore-space and ghost texture of pellets.
Well: Dakhni-3. Sample: CDI - 04
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

Figure 2.47: Photomicrograph showing finely crystalline dolomite and open molds.
Well: Meyal-1. Sample: CM1 - 05
Plane-polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70

Table 2.4 Facies criteria for marginal marine and shallow marine environments. (Fluegel, 1982)

Marginal Marine Shallow Marine


Shallow
Supratidal Intertidal Subtidal Deep Subtidal
Limestones Common Common Common Common
Early diagenetic Dolomite Present Present - -
Evaporites Present Present - -
Micrite Common Present Present Present
Sparite - Rare Present Present
Vadose Silt Common Present - -
Particle : Micrite Ratio 1 : 9 to 1 : 1 1 : 9 to 1 : 1 1 : 9 to 9 : 1 1 : 9 to 9 : 1
Peloids Rare to Common Common Present
Present
Aggregate Grains - Present Common -
Oncoids - Present Present Present
Normal Ooids Rare Common Common -
Radial Fibrous Ooids Present Present - -
Vadose Pisoids Common Rare -
Cortoids - Common Common Rare
Intraclasts: mud pebbles Common Present Rare Rare
Extraclasts: black pebbles Present Present Rare -
Terrigenous Particles Common Rare to Rare Rare
Present
Birdseyes Common Common Rare -
Fenestral Fabrics Common Common - -
Lamination Common Present Rare
Desiccation Cracks Common Present -
Collapse Breccia Present - -
Cross-bedding Rare Present Rare Rare
Storm Deposits Common Common Rare -
Erosional Structures Rare Common Present Rare
Tepee Structures Present Rare - -
Bituminous Films Present Present - -
Algal Mats Common Common Present
Stromatolites - Common Present -
Plant Litter Present Present Rare Rare
Organism Diversity Very low Low High or low Mostly high
Organism Abundance Low or very High or low High to very High
high high
Endobiontic Organisms - Present Common Common
Bioturbation - Common Present Present
Vertical Burrows - Common Present -
Horizontal Burrows - - Common Present
3. MICROFACIES

3.1 Introduction
Environmental interpretation of ancient limestones mostly involves the same facies
approach as is used for siliciclastics (e.g. Walker, 1984; Reading, 1986), along with more
detailed laboratory studies to identify microfacies. The term "microfacies" was initially
suggested by Brown (1943, p.325), and has been defined as "the total of all the
paleontological and sedimentological criteria which can be classified in thin-section, peels,
and polished slabs" (Fluegel, 1982). According to Choquette & Meyers (1992), dolomite
and limestones can be grouped into microfacies on the bases of their inferred depositional
textures, crystal-size characteristics, proportions of dolomite, calcite and non-carbonate
minerals, and nature of grains or skeletal molds.

Microfacies identification of carbonates of Chorgali Formation, as mentioned earlier, is


based on the study of a total of three hundred and forty polished slabs and thin sections.
Through these studies these carbonates have been classified according to the Folk's scheme
(1959) into eight rock types. These eight rock types have been considered here as
microfacies (Table 2.2) following Gubler et al. (1967) and later workers. Distribution of
these microfacies in individual measured sections and wells is given in Table 2.2. Table 2.2
also demonstrates the lateral distribution of these microfacies from west to east of the
Potwar and Salt Range areas. As can be seen from the location map (Figure 1.3), Dakhni-3
well occupies the extreme northwestern corner, whereas, Dulmial is located in the extreme
southeastern corner. Lateral distribution of microfacies (Table 2.2) clearly indicates that
upper intertidal to supratidal microfacies (mainly micrite and intraclast related micrite)
mostly occupy the western and northwestern portions; whereas, lower intertidal to subtidal
microfacies (mainly biomicrite) occur in the eastern and southeastern portions of the area. A
brief description of the microfacies of Chorgali carbonates is given bellow:

3.2 Biomicrite
Biomicrite is the most abundant microfacies (Table 2.2), and is dominantly confined to the
eastern and southeastern portion of the study area. Biomicrite is defined as the carbonate
rock type containing at least 10% fossils in a micrite matrix. Fossils are the only
allochemical constituents of these biomicrites, except at a few localities (e.g. Sethi section)
where some very localized minor occurrence of fecal pellets and micritic intraclasts are
present in association with bioclasts. The grain to groundmass ratio in this microfacies is
generally greater than 1:9. This rock type constitutes about 42 % of the total carbonate
samples.

Recognizable fossil forms include benthonic forams (Miliolidae, Soritidae, Alveolinidae,


smaller Rotaliida and larger Rotaliida, which are dominantly represented by Nummulites,
72

Assilina and Lockhartia), echinids, ostracods, pelecypods, gastropods and green algae.
Besides, broken fragments of fossils are common and occur as disoriented biodebris
scattered randomly in a micrite matrix. It is evident from Table 2.1 that there is a sort of
association of different types of organisms, specially amongst the different types of
benthonic forams from one biomicrite to another (Figures 2.19, 2.20). There is a wide
variation in the grain size of bioclastic allochems and often the type of fossil cannot be
determined due to their small size (Figures 2.18, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22), some are even so small as
to make it difficult to differentiate from micrite matrix. The angular shape of the fossil
fragments most probably indicate the churning activity of the sediment feeding animals,
because in some cases where sediments are not completely homogenized, concentration of
biodebris was observed in burrows as compared to the surrounding areas. Most of the
micrite shows high degree of bioturbation, which has resulted in complete homogeneity of
the sediment (mottled structure). In one sample of Jhunga section highly micritized
biodebris are present. Distribution of biomicrite microfacies in measured sections and wells
is given in Table 2.2. A brief description of this microfacies in individual measured sections
and wells is given below:

3.2.1 Meyal-2 (CM2)


The biomicrites in Meyal-2 well contain fossils from 12 to 35%, with a mean fossil content
of 25%. Besides bioclasts, no other allochems are noticed. Fossils occur mostly as small
broken fragments and are difficult to identify. The recognizable fragments are of
pelecypods, ostracods and benthonic forams (exclusively Miliolidae) (Table 2.1). In some
samples sparse to common echinid fragments are present. In one of the sample (CM2-12) a
complete test of pelecypod was observed with well preserved internal structure (Figure
2.21). Burrows are common in some of the samples. Lamination is present in one of the
samples. About 60% of the samples are partially to fully dolomitized. This microfacies
constitutes about 20 % of the total samples of this section.

Interptretation: - Based on different association of full marine organisms and presence of


lamination, early diagenetic dolomites and anhydrite nodules, in different samples, this
microfacies in Meyal-2 well has been interpreted as of subtidal to supratidal environment.

3.2.2 Dhulian-37 (CDL)


In Dhulian-37 well, two out of the three samples represent biomicrite, which contain about
12 to 15% bioclasts. Fossils are exclusively represented by broken fragments, and generally
are so small that they cannot be identified. The recognizable bioclasts are randomly
scattered pelecypod and echinid fragments. The rock type is about 75% dolomitized and
lamination is the only structural feature preserved. This microfacies constitutes about 67 %
of the total samples collected from this well.
73

Interpretation: - Based on the absence of remains of any marine diagnostic organisms and
presence of lamination and sparse anhydrite, the environment of deposition of this
microfacies in Dhulian-37 well, has been inferred as sabkha related upper intertidal to
supratidal environment.

3.2.3 Chorgali Pass (CCG)


In Chorgali Pass section this microfacies contains fossils ranging from 20 to 40% (mean
content is 28%). Fossils are generally in the form of small broken fragments and most of the
times difficult to recognize. The recognizable bioclasts include common to sparse echinid
and ostracod fragments. Only in one sample (CCG-35) common benthonic forams
(Miliolidae and Soritidae) in association with echinids are present. In the top-most bed
freshwater green algae is present (this top-most bed is not being considered as a part of
Chorgali carbonate in this study). Samples from the bottom portion of the rock unit are
partially to fully dolomitized. Lamination is observed in only one sample. This microfacies
constitutes about 16% of the total samples of this section.

Interpretation: - Biomicrite microfacies of Chorgali Formation is believed to have been


deposited in a wide spectrum of environments, i.e., from lower intertidal to supratidal (Table
2.1). Presence of micrite as matrix indicates that overall quiet conditions prevailed during
deposition.

3.2.4 Hattar (CHR)


In Hattar section biomicrites contain fossils from 12 to 40%, with a mean fossil content of
33%. The recognizable bioclasts occur as common benthonic forams (Miliolidae, Soritidae,
smaller Rotaliida and Lockhartia), and common echinid and ostracod fragments.
Lockhartia, echinids and ostracods predominate in the lower portion of the section.
Lamination and burrows are sometimes present. Biomicrites, belonging to the upper portion
of the section, are partially to fully dolomitized. This microfacies constitutes about 72% of
the total samples of this section.

Interpretation:- Common occurrence of remains of fully marine organisms such as


benthonic forams and echinids, in most of the biomicrite samples of Hattar section, indicates
subtidal environment of deposition. Among the benthonic forams common occurrence of
larger foraminifera (Miliolidae and Soritidae) and smaller Rotaliida and absence of
Nummulites and Assilina indicate lagoon or other quiet environments with higher salinity
(Grenier, 1969; Murray, 1973; Chaproniere, 1975). Based on the absence of remains of full
marine benthonic forams and occurrence of lamination, a few biomicrite samples of this
section have been interpreted as deposited in lower to upper intertidal environments (e.g.
samples CHR-01, CHR-05 in Table 2.1).
74

3.2.5 Chak Naurang-1 (CCN)


The biomicrites in Chak Naurang-1 well contain fossils content ranging from 20 to 28%,
with a mean of 24%. Fossils occur as small broken unrecognizable fragments as well as
recognizable bioclasts, which are randomly distributed in the groundmass of micrite. The
recognizable bioclasts include benthonic forams (smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites, Assilina,
Miliolidae, Soritidae and Alveolinidae), echinids, ostracods, and pelecypods. Lockhartia and
green algae are present in one sample each, and are confined to the bottom of the section
(Table 2.1). In addition, other larger Rotaliida (Nummulites and Assilina) are also confined
to the lower half of the section. No sedimentary structures are seen in the biomicrites of this
well. The microfacies constitutes about 88% of the total samples of this section.

Interpretation:- Based on the presence of diagnostic full marine benthonic forams and
echinids and absence of early diagenetic dolomitization, this microfacies has been
interpreted as subtidal.

3.2.6 Jhunga (CJA)


This microfacies represents the entire Jhunga section with fossils ranging from 15 to 28%
with a mean content of about 20%. As can be observed from Table 2.1 all varieties of
bioclasts except Assilina occur in this section. They are randomly distributed in a micrite
matrix. However, the dasyclads (Green algae) are noticed to be present only in the middle
portion of the section. Other notable features are the burrows, but they are limited to
samples from near the base.

Interpretation:- On the bases of common occurrence of full marine benthonic forams,


echinids and green algae (dasycladaceans) a subtidal environment of deposition has been
interpreted for the rock units of this section. Larger Rotaliida (Nummulites and Lockhartia)
and green algae are confined to the lower half of the section, whereas smaller Rotaliida
dominates in the upper half portion of the section indicating restricted and higher salinity
environment in the upper half of the section.

3.2.7 Sethi (CSI)


A wide variety of randomly distributed bioclasts, ranging from 12-25% (mean 17%) in a
brownish micrite matrix, occur at this locality. The most widely distributed fossil
constituents are echinids, ostracods, smaller Rotaliida, Soritidae and Miliolidae. Lockhartia
is occasionally present like the pelecypods, whereas Nummulites are prevalent in only the
lower half of the section. Besides, Alveolinidae and Assilina are present in one sample each.
The biomicrites are extensively bioturbated and give a mottled appearance. In one sample,
horizontal burrows are preserved. These biomicrites constitutes about 85% of the section.
75

Interpretation:- Common occurrence of larger foraminifera and echinids indicates full


marine conditions, therefore, the biomicrites of Sethi section have been interpreted to be of
subtidal environment. In the lower portion of the section full development of larger
Rotaliida, such as, Nummulites indicates non-turbid, shallower warm water of normal
marine salinity (Lehmann, 1970). In the upper portion of the section, dominance of smaller
Rotaliida indicates restricted and higher salinity conditions.

3.2.8 Bhadrar (CBR)


The two carbonate beds in a predominately marly sequence at Bhadrar contain 15-20%
fossils (mean 18%). Recognizable bioclasts consist of benthonic forams (Miliolidae,
Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites, Assilina and Lockhartia) with sparse echinids,
ostracods and pelecypods. As can be observed from Table 2.1, these bioclasts are present in
variable proportions. Due to extensive bioturbation no primary structural features were
preserved. This microfacies like the Jhunga section constitutes the whole carbonate sequence
in the section.

Interpretation: - Based on the types and frequency of fossil assemblage (especially larger
foraminifera) the environment of deposition of the biomicrite microfacies of this section is
interpreted as of subtidal environment.

3.2.9 Makhial (CMK)


The whole section at Makhial is represented by the biomicrites with fossils ranging from 12
to 15 % (mean content is 13.5%) in a micrite matrix. Among the larger Rotaliida,
Nummulites are present in all the samples, whereas, Assilina and Lockhartia are present in
one sample each. Smaller Rotaliida are widespread, whereas Miliolidae, Alveolinidae and
Soritidae are sparsely distributed. Other bioclasts present are echinid and ostracod
fragments. Green algae (dasycladaceans) are observed in the basal carbonate bed of the
section. Complete homogenization of the sediments indicates high degree of biological
activity which may also have been responsible for the large variation in size of fossil
fragments (Figures 2.18, 2.20).

Interpretation:-Type and frequency of larger foraminifera indicate similar environment of


deposition as described above in the Jhunga section. The rock type (biomicrite) has,
therefore, been assigned as of subtidal environment.
76

3.2.10 Chak Khushi (CCK)


The top and the basal beds of Chak Khushi section constitute the biomicrite microfacies and
represent 25% of the total samples studied. The fossil content ranges from 25 to 30%. The
recognizable remains in order of abundance are smaller Rotaliida, Soritidae, ostracods,
echinids, Miliolidae, and pelecypods. It is interesting to note that no larger Rotaliida, such
as, Nummulites, Assilina or Lockhartia, are noticed. Burrows are present in the top bed of
the section.

Interpretation:- Common occurrence of full marine benthonic forams and echinids clearly
indicate a subtidal environment. Presence of Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida, and
absence of larger Rotaliida (Nummulites and Assilina) demonstrate lagoon or other quiet
environments with higher salinity (Grenier, 1969; Murray, 1973; Chaproniere, 1975).

3.2.11 Dulmial (CDL)


The biomicrites at Dulmial contain fossils ranging from 15 to 20% (with mean content of
18%). Recognizable fossil assemblage includes benthonic forams (smaller Rotaliida,
Miliolidae, Soritidae with rare Lockhartia), echinids, ostracods and pelecypods. Sediments
are highly bioturbated and lamination and burrow features are present in only one sample
each. This microfacies, as at Jhunga, Bhadrar and Makhial sections, constitutes the whole
carbonate sequence of the section.

Interpretation:- As described earlier in Chak Khushi section, common occurrence of smaller


Rotaliida and scarcity of larger Rotaliida (Nummulites and Assilina) indicate a restricted
shallow marine environment of higher salinity. This rock type in Dulmial section has,
therefore, been interpreted as of subtidal environment.

3.2.12 Rassi Wan (CRW)


This microfacies at the locality of Rassi Wan occupies the lower portion of the section
(Figure 2.9) and constitutes of dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts are mostly represented by
molds filled generally with sparry calcite cement. The rock unit displays the phenomenon of
solution collapse breccia. This microfacies constitutes about 14% of the total samples
collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Due to lack of marine diagnostic organisms, and occurrence of fabric


retentive dolomitization and collapse breccia (indicating presence of precursor evaporites) a
sabkha related supratidal environment of deposition can be inferred.
77

3.3 Pelletiferous Biomicrite


This microfacies is defined as the carbonate rock type containing more than 10 % fossils and
less than 10 % pellets in a micrite matrix. The grain to groundmass ratio in all cases is more
than 1:9. Bioclasts are mostly represented by fossil fragments. Pellets are of different shapes
and sizes and indicate fecal origin. This microfacies is present in only three localities i. e.
Dakhni-3 and Meyal-2 wells in the north-west and Sethi section in the south-east of the
study area (Table 2.2).This rock type represent about 2 % of the total carbonate samples. A
brief description of this microfacies in individual well and section are given below:

3.3.1 Dakhni-3 (CDI)


This rock type in Dakhni-3 well displays the phenomenon of fabric retentive dolomitization
with fossil content as 15%. Bioclasts are predominantly represented by unrecognizable fossil
fragments, except a few biodebris which are identified as pelecypods. Local occurrence of
well developed fecal pellets of different size are noticed, sometimes occurring in clusters.
This microfacies constitutes only 8% of the total samples of this well.

Interpretation:-The non-existence of marine diagnostic organisms and occurrence of early


diagenetic dolomitization (fabric retentive dolomitization) indicate a supratidal environment
for this rock type.

3.3.2 Meyal-2 (CM2)


This microfacies in Meyal-2 well shows the phenomenon of fabric retentive dolomitization
and displays occurrence of anhydrite nodules. The fossil content is 20%. Bioclasts are
entirely represented by unrecognizable fossil fragments, because they occur as mold, filled
with anhydrite (Figure 2.23). Well developed fecal pellets are seen occurring in clusters.
This microfacies constitutes only 4% of the total samples of this well.

Interpretation:- Based on the absence of marine organisms, and presence of anhydrite


nodules and early dolomitization, a sabkha related supratidal environment is inferred.

3.3.3 Sethi (CSI)


This microfacies in Sethi section contains fossil content from 18 to 20%, and pellets from 2
to 8%. The recognizable bioclasts includes sparse benthonic forams (Miliolidae, Soritidae
and smaller Rotaliida), common echinids and sparse ostracods (Table 2.1). Due to intense
bioturbation no sedimentary structural feature is present. This microfacies constitutes about
14% of the total samples of this section.

Interpretation:- On the bases of absence of larger Rotaliida (Nummulites and Assilina) and
presence of Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida, a restricted marine condition of
78

higher salinity is concluded for this microfacies. This rock type has, therefore, been
interpreted as of subtidal environment at this location.

3.4 Biointramicrite
Biointramicrite is defined as the carbonate rock having at least 10% of both intraclasts and
bioclasts in a micritic matrix, and the content of intraclasts being more than the bioclasts.
The grain to groundmass ratio is always greater than 1:3. Intraclasts are of different shapes
and sizes and generally are randomly distributed in micrite matrix. Bioclasts are mostly
represented by broken fossil fragments and benthonic forams. Biodebris, sometimes, are
represented by open and filled molds. This rock type represents about 5 % of the total
carbonate samples. This microfacies is fully dolomitized and is observed in four sections
(Dom Nala, Rassi Wan, Chorgali Pass and Chak Khushi) and in one well (Meyal-2), which
are located mostly in north and western portions of the studied area. A brief description of
this rock type in the measured sections is given bellow:

3.4.1 Dom Nala (CDM)


This microfacies in Dom Nala contains intraclasts from 22 to 30% and bioclasts 20 to 25%.
Intraclasts are of different shapes and sizes, and micritic in composition (Figure 2.41). In the
top most bed of this section intraclasts are represented by disintegrated and reworked algal
mat. Fossils consist of biodebris and benthonic forams (exclusively smaller Rotaliida).
Rarely fecal pellets are observed occurring in clusters. Well preserved algal lamination is
seen in the top most bed (Figure 2.36) displaying the phenomenon of filled fenestral vugs.
This microfacies constitutes about 60% of the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Based on the presence of algal mat, occurrence of benthonic forams of


restricted marine environment and higher salinity (Smaller Rotaliida), absence of normal
marine benthonic forams, such as, larger Rotaliida (Nummulites and Assilina) and presence
of fenestral vugs, this microfacies in Dom Nala section has been interpreted as upper
intertidal.

3.4.2 Rassi Wan (CRW)


This rock type in Rassi Wan section consists of intraclasts 25% and bioclasts 12%. This
microfacies is completely dolomitized. Intraclasts are mostly subangular, micrite to
biomicrite in composition and randomly distributed. Bioclasts are represented mostly by
open molds of smaller benthonic forams. Open microvugs are also common. This
microfacies constitutes about 14% of the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Based on the absence of diagnostic full marine organisms and presence of
fabric retentive early dolomitization this microfacies of Rassi Wan section has been
interpreted as supratidal.
79

3.4.3 Meyal-2 (CM2)


The Biointramicrite in Meyal-2 well contains intraclasts ranging from 20 to 27% (mean
content of intraclasts 24%) and fossils from 12 to 25% (mean content of 19%). Intraclasts
are from sand to pebble sized, rounded to subrounded and micrite to biomicrite in
composition. Bioclasts mostly consist of fossil fragments with rare occurrence of benthonic
forams (Miliolidae and Soritidae). In the biointramicrite sample (CM2-05), located in the
upper portion of the section, echinid and ostracod fragments are common and randomly
scattered. Anhydrite nodules occur in the lower portion of the well. Lamination is common
in the microfacies occurring in the upper portion of the well. This rock type is mostly fully
dolomitized and constitutes only 12% of the total carbonate samples of this well.

Interpretation:- Based on the absence of diagnostic full marine organisms (bioclasts present
look to be transported) and presence of fabric retentive early diagenetic dolomitization and
occurrence of anhydrite nodules, in different samples, a supratidal environment has been
inferred for this microfacies in Meyal-2 well.

3.4.4 Chorgali Pass


This microfacies in Chorgali Pass section contains fossils as 25% and intraclasts as 30%.
Bioclasts include mostly fossil fragments and benthonic forams (Miliolidae and smaller
Rotaliida) with sparse ostracod fragments. Intraclasts are of different shapes and sizes and
represent disintegrated and reworked algal mat. Algal mat structure is well preserved with
common occurrence of fenestral vugs. The rock type is fully dolomitized and constitutes
about 3% of the total samples of this section.

Interpretation:- Based on the absence of diagnostic full marine organisms (bioclasts present
look to be transported) and presence of algal mat, fenestral vugs and early diagenetic fabric
retentive dolomitization the microfacies has been interpreted as of intertidal environment.

3.4.5 Chak Khushi (CCK)


Biointramicrite in Chak Khushi section is chalky, calcrete and fully dolomitized. Intraclasts
are mostly rounded, silt to medium sand sized and micritic in composition. They represent
probably disintegrated and reworked algal mat. Bioclasts consist of unidentifiable fossil
fragments and occur mostly as filled molds. Intraclasts and biodebris are distributed
randomly in the groundmass of dolomicrite. Sparse silt sized detrital quartz grains are
observed scattered throughout. Greenish gray clayey lenses are displayed on the polished
surface. This microfacies constitutes about 12% of the total samples collected at this
location.
80

Interpretation:- Lack of marine diagnostic organisms and occurrence of early diagenetic


fabric retentive dolomitization indicate a supratidal environment.

3.5 Fossiliferous Intramicrite


This microfacies is defined as micrite containing more than 10% intraclasts but less than
10% fossils. Intraclasts are of different shapes (sub-angular to sub-rounded) and size (silt to
medium sands) and distributed randomly in the micritic groundmass. Fossils occur
commonly as broken, disoriented fragments scattered randomly in the micritic matrix.
Recognizable fossil fragments include benthonic forams, echinid and ostracod fragments.
This microfacies is fully dolomitized and confined to the two localities (Meyal-2 well and
Chorgali Pass) of the northwestern portion of the study area. This rock type constitutes
about 3% of the total carbonate samples. A brief description of the fossiliferous intramicrite
observed at these two places is given below:

3.5.1 Meyal-2 (CM2)


This microfacies in Meyal-2 well contains intraclasts from 12 to 27% with mean content of
21%, and fossils from 5 to 8% (with mean content as 6%). Intraclasts are from subangular
to subrounded in shape, mostly fine sand sized and micritic in composition. These intraclasts
are randomly distributed and sometimes represent disintegrated and reworked algal mat.
Bioclasts consist of fossil fragments, benthonic forams (Miliolidae and Soritidae), echinid
and ostracod fragments. Biodebris are sometimes represented by molds filled with
carbonate, silica and anhydrite. Algal mat (Figure 2.37), fenestral vugs (filled with
anhydrite) and burrows are the locally common structural features. The microfacies is fully
dolomitized and constitutes 16% of the total of the samples of this section.

Interpretation:- Based on the absence of marine diagnostic organisms, presence of anhydrite


nodules and occurrence of early diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization an upper intertidal
to supratidal environment for this microfacies has been interpreted for Meyal-2 well.

3.5.2 Chorgali Pass (CCG)


This rock type in Chorgali Pass section consists of intraclasts upto 30% and fossils from 2 to
8%. Intraclasts are of different shapes (subangular to subrounded) and sizes and are more
variable than at Meyal-2 i. e. silt to medium sand, micritic in composition, and randomly
distributed in the micrite matrix. Bioclasts are rare and represented by benthonic forams
(Miliolidae and Soritidae) and echinid fragments. Lamination and algal mat are common.
The microfacies is fully dolomitized and constitutes about 3% of the total samples of this
section.
81

Interpretation:- Based on the absence of diagnostic fully marine organisms, presence of


algal mat and common occurrence of early diagenetic dolomitization this rock type in
Chorgali Pass section has been interpreted as upper intertidal to supratidal.

3.6 Fossiliferous Micrite


Fossiliferous micrite is defined as micrite having fossils ranging upto 10% as the only
allochems. The grain to groundmass ratio in all cases is greater than 1:9. This rock type like
the pelletiferous biomicrite occurs only sporadically. Bioclasts consist of broken fossil
fragments (benthonic forams, echinid and ostracod fragments). Bioclasts, sometimes, are
represented by filled molds. This microfacies is mostly partially dolomitized and confined to
the three localities (Hattar, Chorgali Pass and Meyal-2 well) of north and northwestern
portions of the study area. This rock type represents about 2% of the total carbonate
samples. A brief description of this microfacies observed in the measured sections is given
below:

3.6.1 Meyal-2 (CM2)


This microfacies in the Meyal-2 well contains 8% fossils which consist of unidentified, very
small sized bioclastic fragments and pieces of ostracods. Biodebris are randomly distributed
in the groundmass of micrite. The rock unit is partially dolomitized and shows no structural
features. This microfacies constitutes only 4% of the total samples of this well.

Interpretation:- Absence of diagnostic marine organisms and close association with


underlying anhydrite suggest a supratidal environment for this microfacies in Meyal-2 well.

3.6.2 Chorgali Pass (CCG)


Fossiliferous micrite in Chorgali Pass section contains fossils from 2 to 5%, which consist of
bioclastic fragments, benthonic forams and echinids. Some bioclasts are represented by
filled molds and ghost textures. Fine sand sized, well sorted, detrital quartz grains are
present which occur in irregular lenses at the top portion of the sequence. In the basal
portion of the sequence burrow looking irregular patches are noticed on the polished surface
which contain dolomite. This rock type constitutes only about 7% of the total carbonate
samples at this location.

Interpretation:- Absence of marine diagnostic organisms and occurrence of burrow looking


features indicate a lower intertidal to supratidal environment.

3.6.3 Hattar (CHR)


This microfacies in Hattar section contains 8% bioclasts, exclusively of unidentified fossil
fragments. Some of the biodebris are represented by filled molds. Algal mat, fenestral vugs
82

and mud cracks are the common structural features. The rock unit is partially dolomitized
and represents only about 6% of the total samples of this section.

Interpretation : -Absence of marine diagnostic organisms and occurrence of algal mat,


fenestral vugs and mudcracks indicate an intertidal environment.

3.7 Intramicrite
The intramicrite is defined as a carbonate rock type containing at least 10% intraclasts as the
only allochems. The grain to groundmass ratio is always greater than 1:9. Intraclasts are of
different shapes (subangular to subrounded) and sizes (silt, sand and even coarser) and
composed mostly of micrite. These allochems are scattered randomly in the groundmass. In
some sections intraclasts seem to have originated through disintegration and reworking of
algal mats. Lamination, algal mat and rarely burrows are observed in this microfacies. The
micritic groundmass has mostly been replaced by dolomite. This microfacies consists of
about 17% of the total carbonate samples. A brief description of intramicrite in the
measured sections and wells is given below:

3.7.1. Dhakni-3 (CDI)


Intramicrite in Dakhni-3 well contains 12% intraclasts. These intraclasts, although clearly
identifiable, do not have completely distinct boundaries due to the presence of finely
crystalline dolomite, which is in greater amount in the groundmass. Irregular vugs
(birdseyes), filled with spar, are randomly distributed. This microfacies constitutes only
about 8% of the total samples of this well.

Interpretation : - Absence of marine organisms and presence of fenestral features and


occurrence of early diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization indicate supratidal
environment.

3.7.2 Meyal-1 (CM1)


This rock type in Meyal-1 well contains intraclasts from 14 to 30%, which are of different
shapes and size. These intraclasts are dolomicritic in composition and randomly distributed
and represent disintegrated and reworked algal mats. Algal mat structure in the top bed and
anhydrite nodules in the middle portion of the section are present. This microfacies is fully
dolomitized and constitutes about 29% of the total samples of this well.

Interpretation : - Absence of marine organisms and presence of anhydrite nodules and early
diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization indicate supratidal environment.

3.7.3 Meyal-2
83

This rock type in Meyal-2 well contains 12% intraclasts, which are fine sand sized and
dolomicritic in composition. These intraclasts are randomly scattered in the dolomicritic
matrix. Polished surface displays occurrence of lamination, irregular anhydrite nodules and
lenses. Vugs channel-ways were observed filled with anhydrite and authigenic silica. Fine to
very fine detrital quartz grains are randomly distributed. Some well developed medium
sized dolomite crystals are noticed within the host of anhydrite bodies. This microfacies
constitutes about 4% of the total samples collected at this well.

Interpretation:- Based on the occurrence of anhydrite nodules and early diagenetic fabric
retentive dolomitization and absence of any sort of marine organisms this rock type is
interpreted to be of supratidal environment.

3.7.4 Meyal-10 (CM10)


Intramicrite in Meyal-10 well is fully dolomitized and contains 22% intraclasts. These
intraclasts are of different shapes and size and biomicritic in composition. These allochems
represent disintegrated and reworked algal mats and are randomly distributed in the
groundmass of dolomicrite. Bioclasts within the intraclasts consist of fossil fragments and
benthonic forams (Miliolidae and smaller Rotaliida). Mudcracks are common within the
algal mat. This rock type constitutes 50% of the total samples of this well.

Interpretation:- Absence of marine diagnostic organisms and occurrence of early diagenetic


fabric retentive dolomitization and close association with the underlying anhydrite nodules
bearing bed indicate supratidal environment.

3.7.5 Chorgali Pass (CCG)


Intramicrite in Chorgali Pass section is fully dolomitized and contains intraclasts from 12 to
30% with mean content of 20%. Intraclasts are of different shapes (subangular to
subrounded) and size (silt to medium sand) and dolomicritic in composition. These
allochems are randomly distributed and at places closely associated with algal mats thereby
indicating that these intraclasts were formed due to disintegration and reworking of algal
mat. Discontinuous patches on polished surfaces of some samples indicate burrows. Some
irregular fenestrae (birdseyes) are present filled with spar or authigenic silica. Algal mat in
some samples display the phenomenon of mudcracks. This microfacies constitutes about
42% of the total carbonate samples of this section.

Interpretation:- Based on the absence of marine diagnostic organisms and occurrence of


algal mat, early diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization, fenestrae looking features and
mudcracks, in different samples, an intertidal to supratidal environments have been assigned
to this microfacies at this location.
84

3.7.6 Hattar (CHR)


This microfacies at Hattar is fully dolomitized and contains intraclasts ranging from 15 to
40%. These intraclasts are of different shapes and size and dolomicritic in composition.
They are mostly randomly distributed and closely associated with algal mat. Polished
surface displays occurrence of algal mat, burrow and fenestral vugs. This rock type
constitutes about 11% of the total samples of this section.

Interpretation:- Absence of marine diagnostic organisms and presence of algal mat, early
diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization, burrows and fenestral vugs indicate an upper
intertidal environment for this microfacies at Hattar section.

3.7.7 Dom Nala


This microfacies in Dom Nala section consists of 13% intraclasts, which are scattered
randomly in the groundmass of dolomicrite. Intraclasts are irregular in shape, comparatively
larger in size and represented by ghost texture. Filled molds and vugs are common within
the intraclasts. This microfacies constitutes about 20% of the total samples collected at this
location.

Interpretation:- Presence of bioclastic molds within the intraclasts, occurrence of early


diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization and absence of marine organisms indicate an
upper intertidal environment.

3.7.8 Kallar Kahar


This microfacies at Kallar Kahar consists of 12% intraclasts, which are randomly distributed
in a dolomicritic matrix. The intraclasts are rounded to subrounded and fine to very fine
sand sized (Figure 2.35). Lamination was observed in polished surface. Thin fractures are
locally developed, which are filled with calcite. This microfacies constitutes about 25% of
the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Non-existence of any sort of marine organisms and occurrence of early


diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization indicate upper intertidal environment.
85

3.7.9 Chak Khushi (CCK)


This fully dolomitized rock type at Chak Khushi location contains intraclasts ranging from
12 to 15% (with mean content of 14%). The intraclasts are mostly angular to subangular,
fine sand sized and dolomicritic in composition. They are randomly distributed in the
groundmass of dolomite, and represent mostly reworked algal mat. Lamination, algal mat
and burrows are locally common. This microfacies represents 62% of this section.

Interpretation:- Absence of marine organisms and presence of algal mat, lamination,


burrows and early diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization indicate upper intertidal to
mostly supratidal environment.

3.7.10 Chak Naurang-1(CCN)


This microfacies in Chak Naurang-1 well contains 12% intraclasts, which are fine sand to
silt sized, rounded, dolomitic and randomly distributed in the groundmass of dolomitic
matrix. The rock unit displays presence of common microfractures, a few microstylolites
and some large microvugs infilled with carbonate cement. Horizontal burrows, filled
fenestral and mudcrack looking features are common. The rock type constitutes 12% of the
total samples analyzed from this well.

Interpretation:- Absence of marine organisms and presence of burrows, fenestrae, mudcrack


looking features and early diagenetic fabric retentive dolomitization, an upper intertidal
environment has been inferred.

3.8 Micrite
This microfacies is defined as the carbonate rock type containing less than 1% allochems.
This rock type is mostly dolomitized and consists of dolomicrite. This microfacies was
observed at four sections (Chorgali Pass, Hattar, Kallar Kahar and Rassi Wan) and in one
well (Meyal-2). Except Kallar Kahar, all the sections and the well are located in the western
and northern portions of the study area. This rock unit constitutes about 8% of the total
carbonate samples. A brief description of micrite in the measured sections and well is given
below:

3.8.1 Chorgali Pass (CCG)


This microfacies at the locality of Chorgali Pass occurs at different levels (Figure 2.10) and
consists of dolomitized micrite. Due to fabric retentive dolomitization some fabric
information of the original sediments are preserved, such as, occurrence of a few intraclasts,
burrows and fenestral vugs etc. One sample shows the occurrence of well developed
phenomenon of solution collapse-breccia (CCG-18). Randomly distributed, fine sand to silt
sized, detrital quartz grains are common in most of the samples. This microfacies constitutes
about 20% of the total samples collected at this location.
86

Interpretation:- Absence of marine organisms and occurrence of fabric retentive


dolomitization indicate supratidal environment of deposition.

3.8.2 Hattar (CHR)


This microfacies occurs at different levels in the middle portion of the measured section of
Hattar locality (Figure 2.11) and consists of micrite and partially dolomitized micrite.
Dolomite crystals are subhedral to anhedral, equaint and with mostly clear centers. Sample
No. CHR-10 displays the phenomenon of solution collapse breccia, whereas sample No.
CHR-13 shows clotted texture. This microfacies constitutes about 11% of the total samples
collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Absence of marine organisms and occurrence of solution collapse breccia


indicate a sabkha related supratidal setting for the deposition of partially dolomitized micrite
; whereas, micrite is associated with biomicrites at the top as well as at bottom, so a subtidal
environment has been inferred for this microfacies.

3.8.3 Kallar Kahar (CKK)


This microfacies of the Kallar Kahar section constitutes most of the measured section
(Figure 2.3) and consists of dolomitized micrite, with common occurrence of channels and
cracks of different size. These channels and cracks are filled with sparry calcite cement.
Polished surfaces of these samples display the phenomenon of non-tectonic breccia and
caliche hardpan breccia. Such features were probably developed in a subaerial environment
due to alternate shrinkage and expansion and through the process of dissolution and
cementation (Esteban & Kappa, 1983, p.15). This microfacies constitutes about 75% of the
total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Absence of marine organisms and occurrence of fabric retentive


dolomitization indicate supratidal environment of deposition.

3.8.4. Rassi Wan (CRW)


This microfacies occurs in the upper portion of the measured section of Rassi Wan locality
(Figure 2.9) and consists of microporous micrite. The rock unit displays the phenomenon of
solution collapse breccia (Figure 2.45), indicating presence of precursor evaporite mineral.
This microfacies constitutes about 14% of the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Lack of any sort of organisms and indication of precursor evaporite mineral
giving the clue that these sediments were deposited in a sabkha related supratidal
environment of deposition.
87

3.8.5. Meyal-2 (CM-2)


This microfacies occurs at the basal part of the upper portion of the carbonates of Meyal-2
well (Figure 2.14). The rock type consists of dolomitized micrite with common anhydrite
nodules. Anhydrite nodules show the phenomenon of chickenwire features (Figure 2.33),
indicating growth by displacement. Very finely crystalline, well developed, pyrite looking
crystals are locally common. Polished surface displays fine lamination. This microfacies
constitutes about 4% of the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Lack of marine organisms and common occurrence of anhydrite nodules


indicate sabkha type supratidal environment of deposition.

3.9 Dolomite
Dolomite constitutes the second most abundant microfacies (Table 2.2), and is confined to
the western and northwestern portions of the study area. The petrographic aspect of
dolomite has been described earlier (see page 24). This microfacies was observed in three
outcrops (Dom Nala, Rassi Wan and Chorgali Pass) and in five wells (Dhakni-3, Dhulian-
37, Meyal-1, Meyal-2 and Meyal-10). A brief description in individual localities is as
follows;

3.9.1 Dakhni-3 (CDI)


This microfacies at Dakhni-3 well displays the phenomenon of fabric retentive to fabric
destructive dolomitization. The original sediments have been inferred as micrite with
varying amount of peloids, pellets, intraclasts and bioclasts. Ghosts of intraclasts and pellets
are of different shapes and size and mostly scattered randomly in the groundmass of
microcrystalline dolomite (Figure 2.46). Some of the intraclasts are of biomicritic in
composition. Fecal pellets are locally common in some of the samples and occur in clusters.
Bioclasts consist generally of biodebris with sparse benthonic forams and echinid fragments.
In one of the samples (CDI-09) gastropod fragments are common. Bioclasts are mostly
represented by filled molds. Sample CDI-06 displays randomly distributed fenestrae looking
filled microvugs. Intercrystalline and vuggy porosity were noticed in some samples (Figure
2.46). Some samples display microvugs filled with solid bitumen. This microfacies displays
well developed phenomenon of solution collapse breccia, which have destroyed most of the
depositional and diagenetic fabric information. This microfacies constitutes about 84% of
the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Phenomenon of solution breccia indicates precursor occurrence of evaporite


minerals, which give the clue of sabkha related upper intertidal to supratidal environment of
deposition.

3.9.2 Meyal-2 (CM2)


88

Dolomite microfacies in Meyal-2 well constitutes the lower portion of the Chorgali
carbonates (Figure 2.14). Fabric destructive dolomitization (Figure 2.32) and displacive
growth of anhydrite nodules (Figure 2.31) have almost completely destroyed the original
fabric information, yet some ghosts of pellets, intraclasts and bioclasts (Figure 2.39) can be
seen. Filled and partially filled fractures and microfractures are locally common in some of
the samples. Dolomite crystals are fine sand sized, equaint, subhedral to anhedral and with
centers mostly filled with brown inclusions. In some of the samples intercrystalline spaces
are filled with black bitumen. This microfacies constitutes about 36% of the total samples
collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Fabric destructive dolomitization has completely destroyed the original


fabric information; however, occurrence of anhydrite nodules indicate sabkha related
supratidal environment.

3.9.3 Meyal-1 (CM1)


This microfacies at Meyal-1 well consists of finely crystalline dolomite with anhydride
nodules of different shapes and sizes. Dolomite crystals are mostly subhedral to anhedral
and full of brown inclusions. Some of the samples display the phenomenon of solution
collapse breccia and clotted texture. Fabric destructive dolomitization has almost completely
destroyed the original textural information, yet some ghosts of pellets, intraclasts and
bioclasts can be seen. Some samples display occurrence of open molds and vugs (Figure
2.47). This microfacies constitutes about 70% of the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Fabric destructive dolomitization has completely destroyed the original


fabric information; however, occurrence of anhydrite nodules indicate sabkha related
supratidal environment.

3.9.4 Meyal-10 (CM10)


This microfacies at Meyal-10 well consists of finely crystalline dolomite and occupies the
basal portion of the Chorgali carbonates (Figure 2.15). Dolomite crystals are mostly
euhedral to anhedral and full of brown inclusions. Dolomitization has completely destroyed
the original fabric information. Microvugs of different shapes and size are common and
filled with anhydrite. Rock fabric on the whole, gives the indication of solution collapse
breccia. This microfacies constitutes about 50% of the total samples collected at this
location.

Interpretation:- Fabric destructive dolomitization has completely destroyed the original


fabric information; however, presence of anhydrite and solution collapse breccia indicate
sabkha related supratidal environment.
89

3.9.5 Dhulian-37 (CDL)


This microfacies consists of finely crystalline dolomite with a few ghosts of dolomitized
intraclasts. Sparse microvugs were noticed filled with anhydrite cement. Some well
developed dolomite rhombs were noticed scattered throughout. Polished surface displayed
solution collapse-breccia looking features with vugs filled with silica cement. This
microfacies constitutes about 33% of the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Fabric destructive dolomitization has completely destroyed the original


fabric information; however, presence of anhydrite and solution collapse breccia indicate
sabkha related supratidal environment.

3.9.6 Chorgali Pass (CCG)


This microfacies occupies different levels at the Chorgali Pass locality (Figure 2.10) and
consists of finely to very finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are generally
equigranular and subhedral to anhedral. Most of the dolomite crystals have light-brown
cloudy centers with clear rims. Dolomitization has completely destroyed the fabric
information of the precursor sediments. This microfacies constitutes about 10% of the total
samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Fabric destructive dolomitization has completely destroyed the original


fabric information; however, based on underlying and overlying facies, different
environments have been inferred for this microfacies.

3.9.7 Rassi Wan (CRW)


This microfacies at the locality of Rassi Wan constitutes most of the measured section and
consists of finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are subhedral to anhedral with
intercrystalline space filled with dark coloured ferruginous substance. Most of the samples
display well developed phenomenon of solution collapse-breccia (Figure 2.45). Some of the
samples display occurrence of open vugs and molds of different size. Ghosts of intraclasts,
pellets and bioclasts are locally common. This microfacies constitutes about 57% of the total
samples collected at this location.

Interpretation:- Dolomitization and solution collapse-breccia have almost completely


destroyed the original fabric information of the sediments; however, solution collapse
breccia indicate precursor evaporite minerals, thus indicating mostly sabkha related
supratidal environment.

3.9.8 Dom Nala (CDM)


This microfacies at Dom Nala section occupies the basal portion and consists of finely
crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are equant, subhedral to anhedral with centers filled
90

with brown coloured inclusions. Locally intercrystalline spaces are filled with dark coloured
ferruginous substance. Randomly scattered a few open molds and vugs are present. This
microfacies constitutes about 20% of the total samples collected at this location.

Interpretation: Dolomitization has completely destroyed the fabric information of the


original sediments; however, tan to yellowish brown colours of the rock unit indicate
oxidizing condition of deposition, thus giving the clue of upper intertidal environment.
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4. DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

4.1 Introduction
According to Fluegel (1982) microfacies types document differences in the kind of and
significance of sedimentological (affecting sediments) and biological (affecting
organisms) environmental factors. For limestone formation, sedimentological factors
include: (1) organic activities; (2) water movement or energy level (energy produced by
waves or currents in the boundary zone between water and the substrate; (3) suspended
ferruginous influx (influx from continents, sedimentation of non-carbonate particles and
of carbonate extraclasts); and (4) process of cementation during early diagenesis. Factors,
which affect the organisms, include: (1) light and water depth; (2) water energy and
oxygen supply; (3) salinity of water; (4) water temperature; and (5) composition and
consistency of substrate. Vertical distribution and type of facies and fossil assemblage of
the eight microfacies of the carbonates of Chorgali Formation (Table 2.1), in the studied
sections and wells, indicate that the original carbonate sediments were deposited in three
basic environmental zones of tidal flat system, i.e., (1) subtidal, (2) intertidal; and (3)
supratidal. The criteria used in delineating these tidal flat environments have been shown
in Table 2.3 (distribution of organisms based on depth and salinity ranges) and Table 2.4
(facies criteria for marginal marine and shallow marine environments). The inferred
generalized paleogeographical setting and depositional model of the carbonates of
Chorgali Formation have been shown in Figures 9.1 and 9.2 respectively.

According to Shinn (1983a) modern tidal flat system is based on two models: (1) the
humid, transgressive or onlap Andros Island model, and (2) the arid, regressive or offlap
Persian Gulf model. In both models the supratidal flat (the supratidal marsh at Andros
Island and the "sabkha" of the Persian Gulf), forms a belt paralleling the land. During
storms, large quantities of sediment settle on intertidal and subtidal flats; but laminations
do not survive in the subtidal and lower intertidal zones due to bioturbation. Some
laminations are, however, preserved in the intertidal zone of arid tidal flats because of
extreme salinities. From the predominance of sabkha related early diagenetic dolomite
and common occurrence of evaporite and solution collapse breccia, in the western and
north western portion of the study area (Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3), it can be very safely
concluded that the Early Eocene tidal flat system of Chorgali carbonates, represent the
arid, regressive or offlap Persian Gulf type of model. A brief description on the
diagnostic features of the three characteristic zones of tidal flat system is given below.

4.2 Subtidal Zone


Except for tidal channels, the subtidal zone forms a belt seaward of the intertidal zone
(Figure 9.1); however, in some cases this zone occurs directly adjoining the supratidal
zone. The lower boundary limit is not clearly defined; however, often drawn around 200
92

m. This zone is generally characterized by muddy sediment and is vital to tidal flat
system, because it is the source of sediment needed for accretionary growth of the tidal
flat system. Depending on the geographic setting, the subtidal zone may extend seaward,
in some cases, for hundreds of kilometers. Generally, the adjacent muddy marine
sediments are in shallow, low-energy conditions and are thus easily stirred into
suspension, and thus transported to the flats during storm-tide condition. Shallow subtidal
zone is characterized by an abundance of algae, foraminifera, sponges and bryozoans etc.
Important criteria for determining shallow subtidal environments are a high diversity of
dasycladaceans and coralline algae, as well as, association of algae and encrusting
organisms, such as, foraminifera and bryozoans etc. (Fluegel, 1982). Subtidal sediments
are predominantly composed of pelleted muds, which are almost always homogenized by
burrowing and thus lack primary sedimentary structures. Subtidal sediments are never
exposed to subaerial conditions and have a characteristic mottled-grey colour.

Keeping in view the above noted diagnostic features and the criteria given in Table 2.3
and Table 2.4, biomicrites of Chorgali carbonates, specially those from the middle to the
eastern portions of the study area (Table 2.2), belong to subtidal environment.

4.3 Intertidal Zone


Intertidal sediments are deposited between normal high and low tide; they are exposed
either once or twice daily depending on the tidal regime and local wind conditions
(Shinn, 1983a). These sediments accumulate as a belt seaward of the supratidal flats and
landward of the subtidal zone (Figure 9.2). Diagnostic sedimentary laminations and
structures are generally lacking in both modern and ancient intertidal accumulations.
Lack of laminations, in this environment, is due to homogenization by burrowing
organisms. Besides the characteristic oxidized colour and a generally lower fossil
diversity, intertidal sediments in humid areas are practically indistinguishable from
nearby subtidal sediments. In the Persian Gulf, however, where the climate is arid,
presence of evaporites in the upper part of the intertidal zone precludes the presence of
most burrowing organisms. Algal-laminated sediments thus form in the upper intertidal
zone and extend into the overlying supratidal zone. Upper part of the intertidal zone
shows signs of oxidation. Bird's-eye vugs, generally the bubble-like variety may occur in
the upper intertidal zone, where algal mats are lacking. If algal mats are present, the vugs
are predominantly of the planar variety. From the Table 2.2 and the location map of
studied sections and wells (Figure 1.3), it is quite evident that almost all the intramicrite
microfacies are confined towards the northwestern portion of the Potwar area (e.g.
Chorgali Pass and Hattar sections and Meyal-1, Meyal-2 and Meyal-10 wells). In the Salt
Range area, intramicrites are confined to the Chak Khushi section. From the description
of these intramicrites (Chapter 4 on microfacies and description of individual samples of
intramicrites given in Appendix A) it is quite clear that these intramicrites were formed
93

due to disintegration and reworking of algal laminations. As described above, algal


laminations occur in the upper part of intertidal zone in an arid environment. Other
features of these intramicrites also satisfy, to some extent, the criteria of intertidal given
in Table 2.4. The intramicrites of Chak Khushi section represent isolated tidal flat
environment, which is surrounded by subtidal environments. This isolated occurrence of
tidal flat environment has been explained through the deposition of tidal flat sediments on
paleoridges (Figures 9.1, 9.2).

4.4 Supratidal Zone


Supratidal sediments are deposited above normal or mean high tide, which are exposed to
subaerial conditions most of the time, as they are flooded only by spring and storm tides.
Spring tides occur twice each month, and storm tides occur sporadically during certain
seasons. Diagnostic sedimentary structures of supratidal zone are mudcracks, laminations,
algal structures and birds-eye structures. Intraclasts and soil clasts are also characteristic
features of supratidal zone.

Dolomite is the most significant early diagenetic mineral, which forms on supratidal flats.
Although the chemistry of dolomitization remains controversial, many of the controlling
parameters are known, specially, for supratidal dolomites which are by far the easiest to
recognize in the geologic record (Shinn, 1983a). The details of dolomite formation on
supratidal have been described in the chapter of dolomitization. Evaporite minerals, such
as, anhydrite and gypsum are present on all modern tidal flats. Gypsum may form
temporarily on humid tidal flats during dry season, but disappears during the wet season
and therefore is not preserved for the geologic record. On Persian Gulf tidal flats, gypsum
mush (30 cm thick) forms in the transition zone between intertidal and supratidal
conditions. The gypsum layer grades laterally to contorted fine-grained anhydrite further
landward, where it is overlained by supratidal dolomite, anhydrite and quartz sand. The
lower part of the buried anhydrite zone contains "chickenwire" texture. The chickenwire
texture grades upward into distorted layers of fine-grained anhydrite. Gypsum also occurs
as large isolated rosettes several centimeters across and randomly distributed throughout
the intertidal and algal mat zone.

Evaporites, either as rosettes of gypsum or banded anhydrite, can be considered a cement.


These minerals may cause some cementation of sediment by infilling of birds-eye vugs,
or in some cases, produce a hard rock by infilling intraparticulate void space. Opaline
silica or chert has also been observed in ancient supratidal sediments.

Laminated crusts, similar to freshwater vadose caliche crusts, occur in several supratidal
areas of the Persian Gulf. Pisolites are associated with crusts or occur as individual pisoid
floating in uncemented supratidal sediment. It has been demonstrated that these features
94

are vadose caliche, but instead of being formed through fresh waters these lithoclasts are
formed by precipitation from hypersaline waters. The site of formation of these
lithoclasts is in the seaward portion of the sabkhas exposed to sea water spray and spring
or storm tide flooding.

Features of dolomite microfacies, as described in the chapter of microfacies, Table 2.1


and Appendix A, clearly indicate that most of the dolomites of the study area were
formed in the supratidal environment. These supratidal dolomites are associated with
evaporites (anhydrite and some gypsum) and solution collapse breccia and almost entirely
confined to the western and northwestern portions of the study area (Figures 4.1, 4.2,
4.3). A few isolated locations in the eastern part of Salt Range (Kallar Kahar and Chak
Khushi sections) and Chak Naurang well in the eastern part of the Potwar region display
the occurrence of upper intertidal to supratidal environment. These are probably the
locations which occupy the proposed buried ridges in the study area (Figures 9.1, 9.2).
The vertical distribution of the lithofacies, specially in the centeral and western portion of
the area indicates that Chorgali carbonates were probably accumulated as a part of
prograding sabkha complex, from west to the east, (Figures, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3), similar to the
modern Abu Dhabi sabkha complex. Overall, it can be concluded that deposition of
Chorgali carbonate sediments took place as shallowing upward sequence, on a shallow,
partially restricted, low energy ramp type of setting (Figures 9.1, 9.2), in a moderately
arid climate.
95
96
97
98

5. DIAGENETIC EVOLUATION

The diagenetic evolution of limestones consists of a continuous sequence of processes


that modify their depositional texture and composition through time from deposition to
deep burial (Carozzi, 1993). The fundamental feature of the diagenesis of limestones is
their interaction with marine and meteoric waters and with subsurface solution. Each of
these fluids leaves a unique diagenetic imprint at the time of its reaction with the
limestone. This imprint can be considered as a distinct diagenetic environment and
qualified in time as a diagenetic phase, although, this imprint may be largely or totally
destroyed by subsequent diagenetic phases.

Carbonate sediment is assumed to begin its evolution in the marine phreatic environment.
From the time of deposition as a sediment in the marine environments a given limestone
can follow different pathways until the final burial. Reconstruction of resulting diagenetic
sequence, by the study of surviving textures and geochemical signatures of the
limestones, indicates that many factors regulate their diagenetic evolution, such as
tectonic framework, climate, composition and flow rate of the waters, and the length of
residence time within a particular diagenetic environment.

According to Tucker (1990), diagenesis includes six major processes: Cementation,


microbial micritization, neomorphism, dissolution, compaction (including pressure
dissolution) and dolomitization. Carbonate diagenesis operates in three principal
environments: the marine, near-surface meteoric and burial environments, and there are
features of the cement fabrics and other textures which are diagnostic of a particular
diagenetic environment.

In modern, low-latitude, shallow-marine environments, seafloor diagenesis mainly


involves the precipitation of cements and the alteration of grains by microbial
micritization and borings by other organisms. Disruption of seafloor surfacial crusts by
storms, waves and burrowing organisms lead to intraclasts, which may be reworked.
Cementation of carbonate sediments also takes place on tidal flats and in supratidal zones,
which are frequently flooded by seawater. Dolomitization may also take place in these
situations to produce surfacial crusts and dolomitic layers beneath the surface.
Precipitation of CaCO3 cement on tidal flats leads to the development of cemented
pavements and these are commonly polygonally cracked, buckled, folded and thrust into
tepee structures. Intertidal-supratidal carbonate facies are widely represented in the
geological record and there are many diagenetic features of these rocks resulting largely
from cementation from marine waters. With some tidal flat facies, however, the early
marine diagenetic features are complicated by the precipitation of dolomite and evaporite
99

minerals, and also the development of soil horizons, laminated crusts and palaeokarsts as
the result of meteoric effects.

Meteoric diagenetic environment is the zone where rainfall-derived groundwater is in


contact with sediment or rock. The water table separates the vadose and the phreatic
zones. There are three main processes, which operate during meteoric diagenesis:
dissolution, precipitation (cementation) and mineralogical transformation. Dissolution on
a microscale creates porosity but when significant dissolution occurs the term karst is
applied. Subsurface karst is represented by fissures and caves. Cementation is common
feature in both the vadose and phreatic zones, but the style differs markedly between
them. One distinctive type of meteoric cementation consists of zones, in some cases many
meters thick, of finely crystalline secondary carbonate, which are termed calcrete or
caliche (Goudie, 1983). These are micritic or microspar grade cements which fill pore
spaces but can also be replacive and displacive in origin. During meteoric diagenesis the
conversion of high-Mg calcite and aragonite to low-Mg calcite and the addition of low-
Mg calcite cement, result in significant chemical and textural changes.

In deep-burial environment, limestone is directly influenced by the lithostatic pressure of


the overlying column of rocks, which in turn controls temperature and pressure,
circulation of fluids and pore-water chemistry, which are factors reacting in time with the
mineralogy, grain-size and textures of a given limestone. The predominant processes are
dewatering, decrease of porosity, mechanical compaction, microfracturation, chemical
compaction (represented by pressure solution), cementation, various types of replacement
by dolomite and other minerals, etc.

Petrographic aspects of the diagenetic products of the Chorgali carbonates have been
described in the chapter of petrographic observations. The diagenetic history of the
carbonates of Chorgali Formation, in the study area, includes multiple episodes of
cementation, dolomitization, mechanical and chemical compaction, emplacement of
evaporite minerals, silicification, recrystallization and dissolution etc. These diagenetic
processes occurred in the above noted three principal diagenetic environments i.e.,
marine, near-surface meteoric and burial environments. Fracturing and other tectonic
related changes took place during the phase of uplifting of the region. Due to wide
occurrence of dolomite in the study area, the process of dolomitization has been
described below. The other two significant diagenetic products of Chorgali carbonates,
i.e., evaporites and solution-collapse-breccia have also been briefly discussed below.
100

5.1 Dolomitization

5.1.1 Introduction
The "dolomite problem" is still as hotly debated today as it was about forty years ago
(Fairbridge, 1957). The primary reasons for that are the scarcity of dolomite in recent
marine environments, as compared with the abundance of ancient dolomite, and the failure
to synthesize dolomite in the laboratory under conditions simulating those prevailing in the
past (Land, 1980). Although the understanding of the modern dolomites is a prerequisite to
the understanding of ancient dolomites, yet there are well-documented geological,
mineralogical and petrographic differences between modern and ancient dolomites. First, no
modern equivalent of the vast dolomitized platforms of the past is known, and thus modern
dolomites apparently cannot provide scaled analogs. Secondly, the petrographic textures and
mineralogical composition of modern dolomites differ significantly from those of many
ancient ones (Purser et al., 1994). Although the evolution of dolomite crystals in modern
sediments has been studied (Makenzie, 1981; Gregg et al., 1992), yet the nature of the initial
crystal phases is not well understood. In view of the highly variable composition of the
mineral, it is clear that its origin will never be explained in terms of one unique dolomitizing
model (Purser et al., 1994).

The significance of dolomite fabrics and mineralogy is well documented in several recent
publications (e.g. Gregg & Sibley, 1984; Sibley & Gregg, 1987; and others). However, the
volumetric importance of certain dolomite fabrics and their geological significance may
have been somewhat exaggerated by studies emphasizing Paleozoic rocks, with insufficient
consideration of Tertiary, Quaternary and Recent dolomites (Purser et al., 1994). The dense,
non-planar fabrics of many Paleozoic dolomites seem to be less abundant in Mesozoic and
Tertiary dolomites, in which planar fabrics, often forming highly porous reservoirs, are
common. It is important to understand what factors determine the preservations (retention)
or destruction of primary sedimentary fabrics during dolomitization. Two aspects are
considered: 1) In any given rhombohedron the inner parts of the crystal are often cloudy,
owing to the presence of numerous inclusions which may partially preserve the primary
sedimentary fabric. The peripheral part of the same crystal may be limpid (because it is
probably a cement) and, therefore, does not preserve primary fabrics; 2) In certain samples
the nature of the sediment or the predolomite diagenetic fabric (e.g. submarine cement) may
be well preserved inspite of total diagenetic replacement by dolomite and in other samples
of crystalline dolomite, the primary fabric is totally destroyed. Do these basic petrographic
differences reflect fundamental differences in the process of dolomitization? There are at
least three possible explanations of fabric preserving and fabric destroying dolomitization.
The first explanation given by Sibley (1980), involves the saturation state of parental fluids.
It is suggested that fabric preserving dolomitization is associated with waters that are
saturated with respect to calcite (which is incorporated as inclusions), whereas limpid
101

dolomite is formed from solutions undersaturated with respect to calcite. The solution is
essentially invariable, as crystals nearly always exhibit cloudy centers and clear rims, but
rarely the contrary. The second explanation, also discussed by Cullis (1904), Sibley (1990)
and Tucker & Wright (1990, p. 373) concerns the original mineralogy of the sediment. If
dolomitization is early and thus affects primary carbonate minerals, H.M.C. (high Mg-
calcite) tends to be dolomitized with retention of primary fabric, whereas aragonite and, to a
lesser degree L.M.C. (low Mg-calcite) tend to dolomitize with fabric destruction. Thus, both
timing of dolomitization and primary mineralogy are important. The third explanation
concerns the dissolution of predolomite components. In many cases dolomitization involves
dissolution of the precursor carbonate followed by the precipitation of dolomite. When
dissolution is balanced by precipitation of dolomite, intervening void is small and inclusions
are incorporated into the resultant dolomite, thus preserving the fabric. However, if
dissolution occurs more rapidly the intervening void will be large and inclusions will not be
incorporated into the dolomite, which will be a cement.

The major considerations in the dolomitization of a limestone are the source of the Mg2+ and
the mechanism by which the dolomitization fluids are moved through the rocks (e.g.
reviews of Morrow 1982a, 1982b and Land 1985). Seawater is Mg 2+ rich and thus the
obvious source, but because of the kinetic obstacles to dolomite precipitation in the marine
realm, in most dolomitization models seawater is chemically modified to a greater or lesser
extent. Five broad categories of dolomitization models are currently available for the
interpretation of ancient dolomites: 1) evaporative, 2) seepage-reflux, 3) mixing zone, 4)
burial and 5) seawater. The popularization of modern evaporative and sabkha dolomite in
the 1960s led to the interpretation of many ancient dolomites as supratidal in origin.
Extending this evaporative model, Mg2+ rich, high Mg/Ca ratio, hypersaline fluids
descending into the subsurface were the basis of the seepage-reflux model and evaporative
draw down model devised to account for dolomitized intertidal-subtidal facies, usually
beneath evaporites. Each model involves a different type of dolomitizing fluid, mode of
flow and geological setting(s), but there is overlap between the models, several could apply
in one setting or to one formation, and the product of a particular model may not be very
distinctive petrographically or geochemically. Before one of the models can be applied
confidently, the paleogeography and facies, content and distribution, petrography and
geochemistry of dolomite all need to be known. A brief description of dolomitizing models
is given below.

5.1.2 Evaporative Dolomitization


Most dolomites forming at the present time are in evaporitic environments. Dolomite crusts
occur on the tidal flats of Andros Islands, Bahamas (Shinn et al., 1965), Sugar Loaf Key,
Florida (Shinn, 1968a) and Bonaire, Netherland Antilles (Deffeys et al., 1965). Dolomite is
being precipitated within high intertidal-supratidal sediments of the Trucial Coast sabkhas
102

(Illing et al., 1965; Makenzie, 1981; Patterson & Kinsman, 1982), within coastal evaporitic
lakes of the Coorang, South Australia (Von Der Borch, 1976; Von Der Borch & Lock,
1979), in Salina lakes of Victoria, Australia (De Decker & Last, 1988) and in hypersaline
lagoons of Baffin Bay (Behrens & Land, 1972) and Kuwait (Gunatilaka et al., 1984).

Dolomite supratidal crystals are usually ascribed to precipitation from evaporated sea water,
with the early formation of aragonite and gypsum leading to higher Mg/Ca ratio of
porewaters to facilitate the dolomitization of the surficial sediment layer (Shinn, 1983a). As
in the Trucial coast sabkhas, it is generally considered that seawater is supplied by storm
flooding on the supratidal flats and evaporation-induced capillary action on sediment
porewaters. There are numerous examples of ancient tidal flat evaporative dolomites (West
et al., 1968; Hird et al., 1987).

5.1.3 Seepage-reflux Dolomitization


This model involves the generation of dolomitizing fluids through evaporation of lagoon
water or tidal flats porewaters and then the descent of these fluids into underlying carbonate
sediments. The model was applied by Adams & Rhodes (1960) to account for the
dolomitization of the Permian reef complex of west Texas. Many ancient dolomites have
been interpreted based on this model (Smith, 1981; Clark, 1980; Fisher & Rodda, 1969 etc).

5.1.4 Mixing-zone Dolomitization


The logic behind this model is that it is easier to precipitate dolomite from a dilute solution,
so that if seawater with its Mg/Ca molar ratio of 5.2 is mixed with freshwater, the high
Mg/Ca ratio is maintained but some of the Kinetic obstacles due to the high ionic strength of
the seawater are removed (Folk & Land, 1975).

5.1.5 Burial Dolomitization


Evidence for dolomite precipitation during burial has been found in many dolomitic rocks,
but whether whole carbonate formation can be dolomitized at depth is still a matter of
debate. The principal mechanism is the compactional dewatering of basinal mudrocks and
expulsion of Mg2+ rich fluids into adjacent shelf-edge and platform carbonates. One major
problem with the burial-compaction model is the long distance transport of the pore-fluids
into adjacent shallow water carbonates. However dolomite is common in thin limestones
close to clay beds (McHargue & Price, 1982) and it does occur along pressure dissolution
seams in limestones (Logan & Semeniuk, 1976; Wanless, 1979). These occurrences are
generally on a local and small scale.

5.1.6 Seawater Dolomitization


In most of the models, discussed earlier, the source of the Mg 2+ is seawater and the kinetic
problems in precipitating dolomite from normal seawater are overcome by either diluting it
103

or evaporating it. The models thus provide a mechanism for driving the dolomitizing fluids
through the carbonate sediments. Land (1985) suggested that with little modification ,
seawater itself may be able to dolomitize if there is an efficient mechanism to pump it
through carbonate sediments. Discoveries of apparently marine dolomite are now being
made e.g. cores from Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific contain dolomitized Eocene limestones
at depths between 1250 and 1400 m below sea level (Saller, 1984).

5.1.7 Interpretation
As describe earlier, the fabric retentive dolomites are finely to very finely crystalline and are
exclusively confined to the supratidal and intertidal settings. Their texture (small crystal size
and planar intercrystalline boundaries) is typical of dolomites formed under near surface,
low temperature conditions, although such textures also occur occasionally in dolomites
formed at elevated temperatures (Gregg and Sibley, 1984, Sibley and Gregg, 1987).
Therefore, on the bases of texture and depositional settings of the sediments, these fabric
retentive dolomites can be interpreted to be of early diagenetic origin. Furthermore, the
similarity between Chorgali shallowing upward sequence and Persian Gulf sabkha sequence
suggests that the formation of these early diagenetic Chorgali dolomites was similar to that
of Holocene dolomite in Persian Gulf; where the sediments are being dolomitized by
contemporaneously evaporated sea water (Illing et al., 1965; Mackenzie, 1981; Patterson
and Kinsman, 1982).

The fabric destructive dolomites, which predominantly occupy the lower portion of the
sequence and represent mostly probably precursor subtidal sediments, can be interpreted in
two possible ways: 1) seepage-reflux model of Deffeyes et al. (1965), through which high
Mg/Ca ratio fluids are generated or 2) hydrologic model of McKenzie et al., (1980) which
has been applied to the Holocene sediments of Abu Dhabi. Through this model a single
hydrologic cycle was defined by three sequential stages: flood recharge, capillary
evaporation and evaporative pumping. The close association of these fabric destructive
dolomites with the overlying sabkha related dolomites and evaporites indicate that the
McKenzie et al., (1980) hydrologic model was most probably the mechanism of
dolomitization of such dolomites.

The late diagenetic fracture and void filling dolomite cement probably formed as fluids
moved along paths of increased permeability created by burrows, fractures and stylolites as
suggested by Zenger (1983). These dolomite cements can be interpreted in two ways: 1)
originated from saline brines (Radke and Mathis, 1980; Machel, 1985), or 2) precipitated
either from descending meteoric water which dissolved dolomite at unconformity, or from
limited volume of dolomite-saturated fluids derived from meteoric solution-compaction of
pre-existing dolomites.
104

5.2 Formation of Evaporites

5.2.1 Introduction
Evaporites are a group of rocks that is formed by precipitation from concentrated brines.
Concentration necessary for precipitation is generally attained by evaporation at the air-
water interface, but can also be achieved by brine freezing or by subsurface processes
such as ion-infiltration of residual conate fluids (Kendall, 1979). Many evaporites are not
strictly primary precipitates, but are diagenetic minerals, emplaced within non-evaporite
sediments. Still others are diagenetic replacement of true primary precipitates.

Evaporites can be viewed in terms of two classes of models: 1) sedimentary models that
relate structures and other textures to hydrodynamic and other depositional parameters,
and 2) post-depositional models that relate present mineralogical compositions to the
physicochemical environments of diagenetic processes. As evaporite deposition is
controlled mainly by physicochemical parameters, many changes occur even during early
diagenesis (when they are controlled by depositional settings).

On many possible environments of evaporite precipitation, five categories (or regimes)


were identified by Schreiber et al. (1976) with a further subdivision in each category as to
whether the evaporites are calcium sulfates or halides (with or without complex sulfates).
Regimes grade into each other such that identification may depend more upon associated
facies than upon internal characteristics.

5.2.2 Chorgali Evaporites


Based on the petrographic features (as discussed earlier on p.23) and associated facies
(penecontemporaneous dolomite and desiccation features) the evaporites (anhydrite in
this case) of Chorgali Formation have been interpreted as diagenetic emplacements
within supratidal environments. This interpretation is based upon their close resemblance
to the sequence of lithologies in the progradational wedge along the Abu Dhabi Coast of
the Persian Gulf (Shearman, 1966; Kinsman, 1969; Butler, 1970; Bush, 1973).

In areas of arid climate and low eolian sand influx the seaward progradation of subtidal
and intertidal facies generates broad coastal flats (or sabkhas) that lie just above high tide
level and extend between the offshore water body (commonly with coastal lagoons) and
regions of arid continental sedimentation. This environment is a product of both
depositional and diagenetic processes, the most important of the latter being the
displacive growth of early diagenetic calcium sulfate (or halite).

In simplest terms, the sediments of the sabkhas comprise a vertical succession of lagoonal or
subtidal carbonates which pass up into intertidal algal mats, which are in turn overlain by the
105

sediments of the supratidal facies. The succession records a simple regressive cycle of
carbonate shoreline sedimentation. Small crystals of gypsum grow abundantly in the
intertidal algal mats and a short distance inland, series of anhydrite nodules grow by
displacement in the sediments of the supratidal facies. Emplacement of the evaporites is
accompanied by dolomitization of the fine grained aragonite present in the intertidal and
supratidal sediments. A variety of evaporite minerals may form in association with peritidal
carbonates, but the most common are gypsum, anhydrite and halite.

Water is supplied to the sabkhas in three ways: 1) by flood recharge during storms
(Butler, 1969), 2) by capillary evaporation where waters are drawn up through the sabkha
sediments by capillary action, and 3) by a process known as evaporative pumping (Hsu &
Schneider, 1973), which involves the upward flow of ground water to replace waters lost
by capillary evaporation. In the upper intertidal zone of the Persian Gulf sabkhas, gypsum
first appears as lens-shaped crystals upto 2 mm long, which have grown displacively in
the microbial laminated sediments. In the lower supratidal zone the gypsum occurs as a
mush upto 0.3 m thick. Further landward the gypsum is replaced by anhydrite nodules.
These nodules initially formed by the dehydration of gypsum followed by later growth.

The nodular, replacement and pore-filling forms of anhydrite of Chorgali Formation


indicate that they were produced by precipitation within the sediment out of the
interstitial water and represent a diagenetic, not a sedimentary environment (Murray,
1964; Kerr and Thomson, 1963). The carbonate-anhydrite sequence of Chorgali
Formation can be very safely correlated with that of modern tidal flat sequence of Trucial
Coast of Persian Gulf. According to Curtis et al. (1963), supratidal flat (sabkha) of
Trucial Coast is characterized by mudstone, anhydrite nodules and lenses, gypsum
crystals, lack of marine organisms and dolomite; intertidal environment characterized by
mudstone and packstone, algal mats and dolomite and subtidal sediments represent
lagoonal environment.

5.3 Formation of Collapse Breccia

5.3.1 Introduction
Breccias may provide an important key to the depositional setting during particular
geological time intervals or to major tectonic or karstification events (e.g. Blount &
Moore, 1969). Evaporite dissolution breccias represent an important class of breccia.
Often direct evidence of the former interlayered evaporites is absent and the same is
inferred from subsurface data, where the evaporites are preserved (e.g. McWhae, 1953;
Middleton, 1961; Stanton, 1966; Mamet et al., 1986; Claeys, Herbosch & Preat, 1988). In
some cases breccias may present two main problems: 1) recognizing that the breccia is a
product of evaporite removal, and 2) determining the nature of the removed evaporite. As
106

mentioned earlier, correlation with subsurface evaporites is the best evidence for an
evaporite dissolution breccia. Other useful criteria are stratigraphic conformity associated
with restricted marine or tidal flat carbonates, and other evidence of evaporites.
Dissolution of anhydrite and gypsum produces cavities, some of which collapse to
produce breccia.

5.3.2 Chorgali Collapse breccia


As mentioned earlier, collapse breccia represent the major rock unit of the Chorgali
carbonates in some of the sections and wells in the western and northwestern portions of
the study area (e.g. Rassi Wan section and Dakhni-3 well). Very common occurrence of
evaporites in the cores of four wells (i.e. Meyal-1, Meyal-2, Meyal-10 and Dhulian-37) is
the compelling evidence that these breccias were formed through dissolution of precursor
evaporites. Convincing evidence, which supports a near-surface solution-collapse origin
for these breccias, is the presence of detrital clasts of silt and clay within these breccias.
Some of these detrital particles has a red to brown colour (Figure 2.44), similar to
modern terra rossa deposits. These features support a near-surface origin for the breccia
and also indicate that turbid water flowed through the breccia. If the climate was arid
during Early Eocene Chorgali carbonate deposition, as indicated by the presence of
evaporites, there arises the question as to how dissolution occurred. One possibility is that
active flow of dilute ground water took place via alluvial fan sedimentation to the
underlying or "down-dip" carbonate mud and mudstone of the sabkhas. A modern analog
for such situation has been reported by Amiel and Friedman (1971) is a continental
sabkha near the Gulf of Aqaba.
107

6. X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS

6.1 Introduction
Chemically and biologically generated carbonate minerals, at the time of deposition, may be
aragonite, high Mg calcite or low Mg calcite. In ancient carbonates, like that in this study,
these carbonate minerals have been stabilized into diagenetic low Mg calcite or altered to
dolomite. These diagenetic alterations are indicated by very important signatures. The x-ray
diffraction (powder method) data combined with chemical analysis may provide a valuable
basis to resolve the original mineralogy of the carbonate mineral. Furthermore,
determination of the stoichiometry of dolomites may give a clue to their origin when
combined with other information e.g. texture and association with evaporites (Morrow,
1978, 1982). X-ray diffraction data is used to determine this important feature of the
dolomite.

Chorgali carbonates consist of two minerals, i.e., calcite and dolomite. Calcite consists,
dominantly, of micrite with different amounts of bioclasts, intraclasts and pellets. Dolomite
texture and crystal size distribution are mainly influenced by the precursor sediments. These
are, mostly, very fine to finely crystalline with planar-s to non-planar (subhedral to
anhedral) dolomite fabrics (Sibley & Gregg, 1987). A few samples, however, show rare
occurrence of planar-e (euhedral) dolomite crystals. The crystal chemistry of the calcite and
dolomite, as determined by XRD, is listed for individual samples in appendix B. The CaCO3
contents in calcite and dolomite of Chorgali Formation have been calculated from the
equation of Lumsden (1979) relating mol % CaCO3 to the d104 spacing measured in
angstrom units (d): NCaCO3 = Md+B, where M is 333.33 and B is -911.99.

Diffractograms of the carbonate samples of the selected sections and wells have been
shown in Appendices B1 to B7. These diffractograms show the major peaks of the
dominant minerals in the individual sample. Appendix B1 displays the major peaks of
dolomite and calcite of the samples of Kallar Kahar section. Dolomite represent the
supratidal lithology, whereas, calcite represent the sparry calcite cement filling the
channels and cracks in the sample. Appendix B2 demonstrates that the whole carbonate
sequence of Sethi section consists of calcite only. Diffractograms of Appendix B3 show
that rock unit of Dom Nala section consists of dolomite only. Appendix B4 shows that
except one calcite horizon near the top, whole of the carbonate sequence consists of
dolomite at the locality of Rassi Wan. The calcite horizon near the top probably indicates
the phenomenon of dedolomitization, because the calcite-bearing horizon composed of
solution collapse breccia (Figure 2.9). Diffractograms of Appendix B5 demonstrate
occurrence of dolomite, calcite as well as quartz within the carbonate sequence at
Chorgali Pass section. Calcite occurs at three different levels. The top two samples
indicate fresh water limestone; whereas isolated occurrence of calcite at lower portion
108

probably shows influence of dedolomitization. Diffractograms in Appendices A6 and A7


indicates dolomite sequence in Meyal-2 and Dakhni-3 wells.

6.2 Chorgali Calcite


A total of forty-eight pure limestone samples of Chorgali Formation were analyzed by X-ray
diffraction for determination of mol % of CaCO3. Appendix B shows the range of CaCO3
determined in each sample which varies from 97.23 to 99.93 mol % with a mean of 98.88
mol %. These low Mg calcites have a max. amount of 2.73 mol % MgCO3 (range from 2.73
to 0.07 with an average of 1.40 mol % MgCO3).

6.3 Chorgali Dolomites


A total of seventy eight pure dolomite samples were analyzed by XRD. The CaCO3 excess
in each sample was determined using the equation of Lumsden (1979). Evaluation of x-ray
diffraction traces of these dolomites showed the presence of sharp superstructure reflections
at d101 = 22.1° , d015 = 35.3° , d021 = 43.8° , d030 = 67.4° , and d0012 = 70.6° , two theta (using
hexagonal indices), indicate well-ordered dolomite. The sample x-ray diffraction patterns
were also compared with that of the standard dolomite. Both types of patterns are very
similar in terms of position and sharpness of the dolomite superstructure reflections. The
degree of ordering (I015/I110) ranges from 0.17 to 1.00 with an average of 0.62. On the basis
of association with evaporite minerals, dolomites of Chorgali Formation can be divided into
two types: 1) dolomites associated with evaporites and 2) dolomites not associated with
evaporites. Some limestone and dolomite mixed samples were also analyzed through this
technique (Appendix B).

The evaporite associated dolomites of Chorgali Formation are near stoichiometric. The
CaCO3 content in the dolomite lattice ranges from 48.73 to 52.3 mol % with a mean of
50.70 mol % (Appendix B). The Chorgali dolomites, not associated with evaporites, are
generally Ca-rich (calcian dolomites). The CaCO3 content in these dolomites ranges from
50.80 to 57.90 mol % with an average of 54.50 mol % (Appendix B). According to Lumsden
and Chimahusky (1980) and Morrow (1978, 1982), both types of dolomites, i.e., the one which
is associated with evaporite minerals and the one not associated with evaporites, are usually early
diagenetic, near-surface in origin. Reasons for the difference in mol % of CaCO 3 contents in
these two types of dolomites are thought to be the salinity and Mg/Ca ratio of dolomitizing fluids
and the control of climate. Evaporite associated dolomites indicate an arid climate and pore fluids
with a high Mg/Ca ratio due to the precipitation of gypsum, anhydrite and aragonite. It is thought
that the abundance of Mg2+ ions in the fluids would result in near stoichiometric dolomite. The
calcian dolomites, which are not associated with evaporites, are thought to have formed from
solutions with lower Mg/Ca ratios.
109

7. ATOMIC ABSORPTION ANALYSIS

7.1 Introduction
Interpretation of minor and trace elements data have an important role in the study of the
chemical/physical/biological conditions of the depositional environments and the chemistry
of the diagenetic fluids and/or nature of diagenetic processes. Study of trace elements in
carbonate minerals is used to 1) to determine the original mineralogy of the rock
components (Moore, 1989), 2) to constrain the chemistry of the diagenetic solution, and 3)
to assess the degree of chemical exchange during diagenetic alteration (Brand & Veizer,
1980; Veizer, 1983).

It is assumed that the elements incorporation in carbonate minerals is determined by


substitution for Ca2+, rather than interstitially between lattice planes, at site defects, as
absorbed cations, or within inclusions (Veizer, 1983). Trace element incorporation is
controlled by the distribution coefficient D, as outlined by Kinsman (1969). The distribution
coefficient of an element is generally determined experimentally by precipitating the solid
phase from a solution of known concentration, and measuring the concentration of the
element in the solid phase (Kinsman, 1969). This method, however, presents a problem in
the case of dolomite, which cannot be synthesized under earth-surface temperature and
pressure conditions (Veizer, 1983). Behren and Land (1972) reasoned that the D for Sr and
Na in dolomite should be half that for calcite because dolomite contains half as many Ca
sites as an equivalent amount of calcite. This reasoning has become common practice
(Veizer, 1983).

The size of the crystal lattice plays a major role in determining the magnitude of D for the
carbonates. The large unit cell of orthorhombic aragonite crystals can accommodate cations
larger than Ca (such as Sr, Na, Ba and U), while the smaller unit cell of the rhombohedral
calcite preferentially incorporates smaller cations (such as Mg, Fe, Mn).

The use of trace elements has great promise in determining the diagenetic environments
(Kinsman, 1969). Sr and Mg are of particular interest because metastable carbonate minerals
i.e. aragonite (Sr rich) and magnesian calcite (Mg rich) dominate the modern shallow
marine environments. Stabilization of these shallow marine carbonates to calcite and
dolomite involve a major redistribution of these elements between the new diagenetic
carbonates and the diagenetic fluids. Na is of interest because it is relatively major cation in
seawater and brines, and a minor constituent in meteoric groundwater. Fe and Mn are
multivalent, and are both sensitive to Eh and pH controls. These two elements occur in very
low concentrations in sea water, but present in higher concentrations in ground water and oil
field brines (Veizer, 1983).
110

Concentrations of Ca, Mg, Sr, Na, Mn and Fe were measured in whole-rock of one hundred
and seventy dolomite and limestone samples of Chorgali Formation by Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy (AAS) are given in Appendix C. Out of these one hundred and seventy
carbonate samples forty seven belong to pure to almost pure limestone, seventy seven pure
to almost pure dolomite and remaining forty six a mixture of limestone and dolomite in
different proportions. These major and the trace values represent elements present in
carbonate phase, normalized to whole rock. Before the elemental analysis was made, sample
powders were x-rayed to confirm the mineralogy of different carbonate phases. Dolomite is
characterized by nearly stoichiometric composition and well ordered structure as revealed
by comparing an ordering peak height (051) with a reference peak (011) on x-ray diffraction
pattern. Results from unit cell evaluations from XRD data confirm the major composition of
the dolomite determined by AAS. Stratigraphic variations of Mg, Sr, Na, Mn and Fe,
presented in the form of molar ratios of these elements with respect to Ca (Figures 2.1 to
2.17) appear to be related to depositional environment and diagenesis.

7.2 Comparison with Modern Counterparts


Comparison of the compositions of Chorgali limestones (almost entirely of subtidal origin)
with those of modern marine calcite; and of Chorgali dolomites (most of which are sabkha
type upper-intertidal to supratidal in origin) with those of modern sabkha dolomites, serve to
establish compositional baselines against which diagenetic - chemical enrichments and
depletions can be evaluated.

7.2.1 Chorgali Subtidal Limestones


Subtidal limestones of Chorgali Formation occur almost exclusively in the Eastern Salt
Range and eastern Potwar Plateau. Trace element variations in these Chorgali subtidal
calcites are as follows: Mg (6,600-21,300 ppm ; mean 14,400 ppm); Sr (205-692 ppm ;
mean 448 ppm); Na (245-587 ppm ; mean 461 ppm); Mn (59-467 ppm; mean 182 ppm) and
Fe (113-584 ppm ; mean 274 ppm). While comparing the compositional variations of
Chorgali subtidal calcite with those of modern marine calcite and aragonite (see tabulation
in Veizer, 1983), the elevated Mg content (mean 14.400 ppm) and significantly low Sr
content (mean 448 ppm) indicate that Chorgali subtidal calcites were originally high - Mg
calcite (HMC). This interpretation is also supported by the common occurrence of remains
of organisms of high-Mg calcite, such as, benthonic forams. echinids and ostracods.

7.2.2 Chorgali upper intertidal to supratidal dolomites


Chorgali dolomites mostly occur in the western and northwestern portions of the study area.
On the basis of the petrographic evidence, most of these dolomites belong to upper-intertidal
to sabkha type supratidal setting and originally were probably aragonitic in composition.
Trace element variation in Chorgali dolomites are as follows: Sr (94-2820 ppm; mean 852
ppm), Na (622-2406 ppm; mean 1353 ppm), Mn (73-2751 ppm; mean 403 ppm) and Fe
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(51-4824 ppm; mean 1059 ppm). Modern sabkha dolomite has a much higher Sr content
(150-2500 ppm) than regional dolomite type (30-100 ppm), supporting a hypersaline origin
for the sabkha dolomite (Behrens and Land, 1972). Sabkha dolomite also has a higher Na
content (400-1500 ppm) than the regional dolomite types (25-1500 ppm). Iron contents
range from 0.5 to 4 mol % in sabkha dolomite type and from 0.2 to 2 mol % in the regional
dolomite. Mn contents range from 220 to 780 ppm in the sabkha dolomite type and from
180 to 530 ppm in the regional dolomite. The general measured trends of trace elements of
Chorgali dolomites fall within the limits of trace elements variations of modern sabkha
dolomites. On the basis of relatively higher average Sr content, Chorgali dolomites can be
interpreted as early (penecontemporaneous) dolomites as compared to the low Sr late
diagenetic dolomites (Viezer et al. 1978; Land , 1985). These differences are also reflected
in dolomite fabric because penecontemporaneous dolomites are finer crystalline than late
diagenetic dolomites. Penecontemporaneous dolomite was interpreted to have replaced
aragonite; whereas, late diagenetic dolomite was interpreted to have replaced sediment that
lacked aragonite (Veizer et al. 1978).

7.3 Diagenetic Trends


The final concentrations of trace elements in derived calcite and dolomite depend mostly on
their partition coefficients and their concentrations in diagenetic solution. According to
Veizer (1983) the diagenetic transformation of carbonate minerals leads to enrichments or
depletions of trace elements in the final product. For a given degree of diagenetic alteration,
the magnitude of trace element repartitioning is proportional to (1) the deviation of a
distribution coefficient from unity, (2) the magnitude of differences in mMe/mCa between sea
and diagenetic water, and (3) the solute index (or water/rock ratio) of the diagenetic system.
According to Veizer (1983), all these factors, fortunately, cause trace element displacements
in compatible direction, and the trends are therefore a result of their compounding effects.
An increase in the degree of diagenetic equilibration (multiple recrystallization) only
magnifies the above trace element shifts.

7.3.1 Chorgali subtidal limestones


Relative to normal modern marine high-Mg calcite, average absolute concentration of trace
elements in Chorgali subtidal calcites are significantly depleted in Mg and Sr and enriched
in Na, Mn and Fe contents (See tabulation in Veizer, 1983). Magnesium and Sr have
partition coefficients <1 and their concentration is low in meteoric water; whereas the
partition coefficients for Mn and Fe are much greater than unity and they occur in higher
concentration in meteoric waters (Pingitore, 1978). Sodium content is little enriched as
compared to that of the modern marine calcite. One possibility for this comparatively higher
Na values could be of Na contamination from clay minerals during analysis (Baun et al.
1985). Moreover Na partition coefficients are poorly known (Land, 1980) and the element is
thought to be more mobile during diagenesis than Sr (Veizer, 1983), therefore, little
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emphasis has been placed on the interpretation of Na data. The preservation of relatively
high Mg content in these subtidal calcites might be interpreted if the recrystallization of the
original calcites took place in relatively closed diagenetic system (comparatively high
rock/water ratio), as would be expected in the presence of interbedded impermeable
mudrocks and marl.

7.3.2 Chorgali Upper Intertidal to Supratidal Dolomites


Average absolute concentrations of Sr (852 ppm), Mn (403 ppm) and Na (1353 ppm) in
Chorgali dolomites fall within the limits of the Sr (150-2500 ppm), Mn (220-780 ppm) and
Na (400-1500 ppm) contents of normal modern sabkha type dolomites; whereas, average Fe
content (1059 ppm) is much depleted as compared to those of Fe (0.5 to 4 mol %) values of
modern sabkha type dolomite. Some of the Na values of the Chorgali dolomites (See
Appendix C) are comparatively higher even for evaporite related dolomites. The
interpretation of Na contents in dolomite is generally rather difficult because Na can be held
within the dolomite lattice and also within inclusions as NaCl. Other reasons for higher Na
contents in carbonates have been described earlier while discussing diagenetic trends of
Chorgali calcites. The comparatively very low Fe contents in Chorgali dolomites suggest
probably elevated sulfide activities due to thermochemical sulfate reduction of organic
matter. The partial retention of primary Sr contents (inferring Aragonite as the precursor
sediments of the dolomite, as interpreted above) in most of the Chorgali dolomite samples
and probably complete preservation of Mn and Na contents can be interpreted in terms of
the relatively high rock/water ratios, and thus suggesting recrystallization of these dolomites
in relatively partially closed diagenetic system (as would be expected, in most of the cases,
due to occurrence of terrestrial mudstone interbeds within the carbonate sequence, especially
in northwestern portion of the study area).

7.4 Possible fluid composition during diagenesis


Trace elements data of the Chorgali carbonates allow calculations of the ratios of trace
elements (TE) to Ca in the diagenetic fluids. For the purpose of these calculations, it has
been assumed that all phases of these carbonates precipitated/recrystallized in
thermodynamic equilibrium with coexisting pore fluids. Distribution coefficients (partition
coefficients as per Morse and Bender, 1990) used for calcite are as follows: Mg = 0.044
(0.013-0.06), Sr = 0.13 (0.027-0.4), Na = 0.0000285 (0.00002-0.00003), Mn = 40 (5.4-50),
and Fe = 10 (1-20) (Veizer, 1983). Dolomite distribution coefficients calculated, based on
ionic radii (Kretz, 1982), are as follows: Sr = 0.012 (similar to the 0.0118 proposed for
stoichiometric dolomite by Vahrenkamp and Swart, 1990), Na = 0.000023, Mn = 67, and
Fe = 22.2. A partition coefficient of 0.29 was calculated for Mg, although this is very
uncertain because Mg is not a trace element in dolomite. There is a considerable magnitude
of error associated with both calcite and dolomite partition coefficients due to possible
influences of temperature, pH, diffusion rates, and poor experimental constraints (Morse and
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Bender, 1990). Even with these uncertainties, however, general characteristics of the
evolving fluids can be estimated.

7.4.1 Chorgali subtidal limestones


Calculated average compositions of diagenetic fluid of Chorgali subtidal calcite is compared
to average compositions of possible modern diagenetic fluids, such as, open sea water,
restricted sea water, lake water, river water, shallow subsurface water and oil water (Figure
7.1). It can be seen from Figure 7.1 that Mg/Ca ratio of the calculated diagenetic fluid of
Chorgali subtidal limestones are lighter than those of the open and restricted sea waters, but
heavier than rest of the fluids. Average Na/Ca ratio is comparatively very close to the Na\Ca
ratio of the restricted sea water, but heavier than the Na/Ca ratios of rest of the given fluids.
Sr/Ca ratio of the inferred diagenetic fluid is equal to the Sr/Ca ratio of shallow subsurface
water, but lighter than open and restricted sea water and oil water, and heavier than lake and
river waters ; whereas, Mn/Ca and Fe/Ca ratios are heavier than the open and restricted sea
waters, but lighter than those of the remaining fluids. The inferred diagenetic fluid of
Chorgali averages subtidal limestone, therefore, can be interpreted as a mixture of open or
restricted sea waters and the meteoric waters. This interpretation, further, supports the above
noted suggestion that these calcites were recrystallized in a comparatively closed (high
rock/water ratio) diagenetic system. The higher average Na/Ca ratio is difficult to interpret.
One possibility of this phenomenon could be the use of inaccurate partition coefficients for
Na in dolomite (Riciputi et al., 1993).

7.4.2 Chorgali Upper Intertidal to Supratidal Dolomites


Calculated average compositions of diagenetic fluid of Chorgali upper intertidal to mostly
sabkha type supratidal dolomite is compared with the average compositions of natural
waters (Figure 7.2). It can be seen from figure. 7.2 that average Mg/Ca ratio of the
calculated diagenetic fluid of the Chorgali dolomites is lighter than those of the open and
restricted sea waters, but heavier than rest of the fluids. Average Na/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios are
much heavier than average Na/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios of all the natural waters; whereas the
Mn/Ca and Fe/Ca ratios of the inferred diagenetic fluid of the Chorgali dolomites are
heavier than the open and restricted sea waters, but lighter than those of the remaining
natural fluids. Based on average values of Mg/Ca, Mn/Ca and Fe/Ca the inferred diagenetic
fluid of Chorgali dolomites can be interpreted as a mixture of open and/or restricted sea
waters and the meteoric waters. The higher average Sr/Ca value probably reflects the partial
retention of Sr content from the original aragonite sediments. This is possible if the
recrystallization occurred in a partially closed (higher rock/water ratio) diagenetic system.
The higher average Na/Ca ratio is difficult to interpret. One possibility of this phenomenon,
as mentioned above, could be the use of inaccurate partition coefficients for Na in dolomite
(Riciputi et al., 1993).
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115
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8. STABLE ISOTOPES ANALYSIS

8.1 Introduction
Carbon (13C) and oxygen (18O) stable isotope data have become an integral part of most
modern studies of carbonate diagenesis (Hudson, 1977). Isotopic composition of a solid
precipitated from solution is dependent upon the isotopic composition of the precipitating
medium. In the CaCO3-CO2-H2O system, the stable isotopes of oxygen (16O, 18O) and
carbon (12C, 13C) are incorporated into the carbonates. Distribution of stable isotopes within
a carbonate can provide valuable information concerning the nature of the medium from
which the carbonate was precipitated. Assuming that carbonate precipitated in equilibrium
with the ambient environment, the stable isotope composition of the carbonate will be
dependent upon : (1) isotopic composition of sea water and salinity ; (2) mineral phase of
the carbonate, and (3) temperature of water (the temperature dependence of the 18O/ 16O
ratio is used to measure paleotemperature). Non-equilibrium depositions may occur in
organisms which use metabolic CO2 (enriched in the lighter isotopes) for carbonate
formation, or which preferentially incorporate individual isotopes. Later alterations of the
stable isotope composition of carbonates may be caused by : (1) recrystallization of the
sediment in contact with isotopically lighter fresh water fluids; (2) reequilibration of the
carbonate - water isotopic system at higher temperatures by geothermal heat flow which
may lead to lighter isotopic values of oxygen and carbon (Anderson, 1969). During
diagenesis oxygen isotope values may show considerably larger variations than carbon
isotope values. Oxygen isotope investigations have dealt primarily with the determination of
paleotemperatures and paleosalinities of Ancient water masses; whereas carbon isotope data
have largely been used in studies of diagenesis and paleosalinity. The most thoroughly
documented diagenetic change in shallow marine carbonates, in terms of stable isotope data,
is exposure of marine sediments to near-surface meteoric water.

Single whole rock isotopic analysis of thirty five limestones, dolomite and dolomitic
limestone/calcareous dolomite samples of Chorgali Formation were carried out for C and
O as given in Appendix D. Samples were analyzed by x-ray diffraction (XRD) and atomic
absorption spectroscopy (AAS) prior to isotopic analysis to ensure the mineralogy of
samples. Comparison of the isotopic compositions of the Chorgali limestones and dolomites
with those of modern marine carbonates and supratidal dolomites respectively serves to
establish carbon and oxygen isotopic compositional standard against which diagenetic
isotopic reequilibration can be evaluated.

8.2 Chorgali Subtidal Limestones


A total of thirteen subtidal limestone samples of Chorgali Formation were analyzed for
carbon and oxygen isotope compositions. Out of these thirteen samples, ten belong to four
different localities (Dulmial, Makhial, Sethi and Jhunga) of the Salt Range; whereas
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remaining three samples were collected from two different localities (Meyal-2 well and
Hattar section) of northwestern portion of the Potwar Plateau. Carbon and oxygen isotope
compositions of Salt Range subtidal limestones are as follows: C values (-2.344 to -6.547
PDB ; mean -4.157 PDB) and O values (-7.578 to -9.817 PDB; mean -8.383 PDB);
whereas C and O values of sabkha related subtidal limestones of northwestern area are:
(1.637 to -1.249 PDB; mean -0.129 PDB) and (-4.01 to -6.237 PDB; mean -4.947)
respectively. It can be seen that carbon and oxygen isotope values of subtidal limestones of
Salt Range area are much lighter than those of the sabkha related subtidal limestones of
northwestern area. The reason for this difference could be relatively hypersaline conditions
for the northwestern subtidal carbonate deposition as compared to the normal marine
depositional environment for the Salt Range subtidal sediments. Modern, warm shallow-
marine sediments, skeletons (brachiopods, molluscs and foraminifers), non-skeletal (oolites
and peloids) grains and marine cements have mostly low negative O values (0 to -4 PDB)
and low negative to positive C values (-3 to +6 PDB); Milliman, 1974; James and
Choquette, 1983). On the other hand temperate, shallow-marine counterparts have low
positive O values (0 to +2 PDB) and positive C values (0 to +3 PDB; Rao and Green,
1983). Figure 8.1 shows that C and O values of Chorgali subtidal limestones, especially
those of Salt Range area, which are appreciably lighter than those of modern marine shallow
water lime sediments. These lighter C and O values of Chorgali subtidal limestones
probably indicate diagenetic reequilibration due to influence of meteoric water. Another
possible explanation could be the common occurrence of intercalated shale beds, which
probably brought high influx of meteoric water along with the terrigenous sediments into
the depositional basin, which probably contributed towards the low isotopic values.

The carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of Chorgali subtidal limestones, on the whole,
supports the petrographic and trace element evidences that these limestones were originally
deposited in warm, shallow-marine environment, and subsequently stabilization of these
sediments took place under a meteoric water influence. A relatively higher C values of
Chorgali subtidal limestone further support the interpretation of trace elements study that
recrystallization of these calcites took place in relatively closed diagenetic system.

8.3 Chorgali Upper Intertidal to Supratidal Dolomites


A total of sixteen upper intertidal to supratidal Chorgali dolomite samples were analyzed for
carbon and oxygen isotope compositions. Out of these sixteen samples eight belong to
northwestern (Hattar, and Chorgali Pass sections and Dakhni-3 well), four to south-western
(Dom Nala and Rassi Wan sections) and remaining four to southeastern (Chak Khushi and
Kallar Kahar sections) portion of the study area (Appendix D). Carbon and oxygen isotopic
compositions of Chorgali dolomites are as follows: C (0.82 to -3.322 PDB; mean -1.030
PDB) and O (-1.195 to -7.227 PDB; mean -2.658 PDB). It can be seen from the isotopic
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data that like Chorgali subtidal limestones, the carbon and oxygen isotopic values of
dolomites of southeastern portion are relatively lighter as compared to those of sabkha
related dolomites of the northwestern portion of the study area. Modern supratidal dolomites
have C values (0 to +2 PDB) and O values (-2 to +1 PDB; Wallace, 1990); whereas the
replacement dolomite of regional dolomite type has O values ranging from -9 to -2 (PDB);
which are significantly lower than O values from the supratidal dolomite. The general
trend of the isotopic values of Chorgali dolomites relatively match with those of the modern
supratidal dolomites as compared to the regional dolomites. Figure 8.2 shows that the C
and O values of Chorgali dolomites which are comparatively lighter than those of the
modern sabkha dolomites, indicating probably the influence of the meteoric water during
recrystallization. Interpretation of carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of the Chorgali
dolomites supports the petrographic and trace element evidences that these dolomites were
formed in mostly upper intertidal to supratidal environments, and that the stabilization of
these dolomites took place probably under the meteoric water influence. The partial
preservation of original carbon and oxygen isotopic composition supports probably high
rock/water ratio and thus supporting the interpretation based on trace element study that
recrystallization of these dolomites took place in relatively closed diagenetic system.

8.4 Chorgali Dolomitic Limestone and Calcareous Dolomite


A total of six samples of Chorgali dolomitic limestone and calcareous dolomite were also
analyzed for carbon and oxygen isotopic composition, which are as follows: C (-0.522 to
-6.305 PDB; mean -3.669 PDB) and O (-3.72 to -6.95 PDB; mean -5.139 PDB). It can be
seen that the average C and O values of Chorgali dolomitic limestone and calcareous
dolomite fall between the average isotopic values of Chorgali subtidal limestones of the Salt
Range area and the Chorgali dolomites. Therefore, the environment of deposition and the
diagenetic changes of these mixed Chorgali carbonates can be interpreted in terms of those
of Chorgali limestones and dolomites.
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120
121

9. DEPOSITIONAL SETTING

According to Kemal et al. (1991, p.92), Sakesar Limestone and Chorgali Formation,
because of the basin geometry, indicate a ramp like profile in the study area (Figure 9.1).
During the Early Eocene the Potwar and the adjacent Kohat areas changed from an open
continental shelf to a shallow sea. In the latest Early Eocene, i.e., at the time of deposition of
Chorgali sediments, the climate conditions became so arid that the Potwar basin became a
sabkha to the west, while a shallow water carbonate platform persisted to the east. At the
same time in the western adjacent Kohat area, evaporites (in the form of gypsum) seem to
have been deposited in a shallow marine environment (Wells, 1984). The extensive gypsum
deposits ( which is equivalent of Chorgali Formation) of Kohat area probably represent
areas of the platform which either underwent greater subsidence than those to the east, i.e.,
across the present Indus River (Figure 1.3), or had greater isolation. It is inferred that some
sort of carbonate/sabkha barrier existed, along a north-south line, between the Kohat
evaporites in the west and that of shallow water carbonate platform to the east in the Potwar
region (Figure 9.1). It is also interpreted that this north-south trending carbonate/sabkha
barrier, which occupied the region along the border of Kohat and Potwar areas, resulted in
the development of shallow marine type setting in the Kohat area (Figure 9.1). This
proposed shallow marine environment is supported by the presence of laminated gypsum
which persisted for a relatively long distance and associated with cyanobacterial mats and
mounts, and also by the presence of clastic textures indicating active bottom currents and
storm action (Carrozi, 1993).

Within the Chorgali shallow water carbonate sequence of eastern and southeastern portions
of the study area, isolated outcrops of tidal flat related dolomites were noticed (e.g., Chak
Khushi and Kallar Kahar localities). According to Kemal et al., (1991, p.98), in the eastern
parts of middle and northern Indus Basin, there are buried ridges and depressions with
relatively flat, broad crests and troughs (Figure 9.1). These elements have fairly abrupt,
monoclinal limbs. These structures are interpreted as products of episodic (Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic) solutions of evaporites, lying mainly in the Eocambrian
succession (Salt Range Formation). It is inferred that the tidal flat related dolomites of
Chorgali Formation of the eastern and southeastern Potwar basin were probably deposited
on the top of these buried ridges, whereas shallow water carbonates and associated marl and
shale were deposited in the adjacent depressions (Figure 9.2). Early diagenetic dolomite and
associated evaporites were formed on the supratidal setting and dolomites associated with
stromatolites on the intertidal setting (Figure 9.2)
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123

10. POROSITY EVOLUTION AND RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS

10.1 Introduction
In the past three decades there has been growing interest in the origin of dolomite porosity
because significant hydrocarbon reserves are contained in dolostone, e.g., dolomite
reservoirs account for approximately 80% of recoverable oil and gas in carbonate rocks of
North America (Zenger et al., 1980). Dolomitization commonly results in reservoirs with
unique geometry and porosity distribution pattern that bear directly on exploration and
production strategies. An understanding of the factors that control dolomitization and
porosity evolution is helpful for predicting reservoir location, geometry and continuity.
Although in general dolomites provide better reservoirs than limestones, yet not all the types
of dolomites form good reservoirs. Depending upon original depositional fabric and nature
and volume of dolomitizing fluids passing through the carbonate sediments, dolomitization
can destroy, maintain, or enhance porosity relative to the parent carbonate sediments or
rocks (Sun, 1995). Therefore, during the course of exploration and production, geologist
needs to predict not only where dolomite forms within a stratigraphic or structural
framework, but more importantly where that dolomite be of reservoir quality. According to
Sun (1995), most dolomite reservoirs were formed by early diagenetic processes in
association with extensive peritidal dominated platform or large-scale evaporitic
shelves/basins; and these early formed dolomites have been modified by post-dolomitization
diagenetic processes, notably karstification, fracturing and burial corrosion. In evaporitic
dolomites, karstification and fracturing are post-dolomitization diagenetic processes that
serve to improve reservoir properties of massively dolomitized sequence that would
otherwise make poor reservoirs, whereas in non-evaporitic dolomites, karstification and
fracturing provide fluid migration pathways for the local formation of dolomite reservoirs
along faults/fractures or unconformities.

10.2 Origin of Dolomite Porosity


Intercrystalline, moldic, vuggy and fracture porosity associated with dolomite form
important pore systems for a large number of carbonate fields world wide (Roehl and
Choquette, 1985). There have been many publications discussing the role of dolomitization
in porosity development and destruction (Landes, 1946; Murray, 1960; weyl, 1960; Lucia,
1962; Powers, 1962; Schmoker & Halley, 1982; Halley and Schmoker, 1983; Schmoker et
al., 1985; Choquette et al., 1992; Sun, 1992; Lucia and Major, 1994; Purser et al., 1994).

To explain the common association between dolomitization and porosity development,


several mechanisms have been proposed, including: (1) mole-for-mole replacement, (2)
dissolution of the calcite from a partially dolomitized rock after dolomitization , and (3)
excess solution over dolomite growth during the late stage of the dolomitizing process (Sun,
1995). However, the widely held view is that dolomitization takes place concomitantly with
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calcite or aragonite dissolution and that excess solution over dolomite growth during late
stage of the dolomitizing process was the most likely cause of dolomite porosity (Landes,
1946; Murray, 1960; Choquette et al., 1992; Sun, 1992). Porosity evolution during the
replacement of limestone by dolomite is controlled by the balance between rates of calcite
or aragonite dissolution and dolomite growth rates (Landes, 1946). If the second process
keeps up with the first, as in the case of mimetic replacement of micrite matrix and
micritized grains in many ancient evaporitic dolomites (Friedman and Sanders, 1967),
volume for volume replacement will take place with no porosity loss or gain. If rates of
dissolution exceed dolomite replacement, as in case of large scale skeletal aragonite
dissolution by hypersaline dolomitizing fluids (Sun, 1992), porosity will be increased.
However, dissolution of metastable skeletal components during dolomitization commonly
provides a major source of carbonate for the growth of dolomite cements in moldic pores
and formation of additional dolomites in the nearby micrite matrix (Choquette et al., 1992).

10.3 Porosity in Chorgali Dolomite


Generally Chorgali carbonates are tight in outcrop and core samples; however, in some of
the surface and core samples open pore spaces are present. These open pore spaces occur
almost entirely within the Chorgali peritidal dolomite and mostly confined to the samples of
outcrop sections and wells, situated in the western and north-western portions of the study
area. No preserved primary porosity is seen, thus all the existing open pore space is
secondary in origin.
Dolomite reservoirs that occur in peritidal dominated carbonate, as is the case with Chorgali
dolomites of the northwestern portion of the study area, generally have a low matrix
porosity due to the relatively fine grained nature of the sediment and over dolomitization
(Sun, 1995). Because of their relatively low matrix porosity and permeability most ancient
peritidal dolomites do not form economic reservoirs unless they were modified by post-
dolomitization diagenetic process. Karstification, fracturing and burial corrosion appear the
key factors contributing to the reservoir development of such dolomite.

In the northwestern portion of the Potwar Plateau, influence of fresh water during deposition
of overlying continental sediments of Kuldana Formation, has resulted in the widespread
development of solution breccia (due to dissolution of evaporites) and open molds created
by leaching of metastable bioclastic grains and evaporite nodules of different size; whereas,
in the remaining portion of the study area karstification has affected the Chorgali carbonates
at the major unconformity (absence of Middle to Late Eocene and whole Oligocene). Some
of the pore space in the samples of the northwestern portion, were noticed filled with
carbonate, anhydrite and silica cements. Chorgali dolomite reservoirs, of the northwestern
portion of the study area, are generally characterized by finely crystalline dolomite with
locally moderate to high permeability due to the interconnected pore network of solution
cavities, vugs, fractures and intercrystalline porosity. The other major factor which
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contributed towards the enhancement of porosity and permeability is the fracturing of the
dolomitic facies, caused by intense structural deformation in the northwestern portion (as
discussed earlier on p.12). Dissolution associated with organic or sulfuric acids is probably
one of the major late diagenetic processes responsible for porosity enhancement in many
ancient carbonate reservoirs (e.g., Hill, 1990; Mazzullo and Harris, 1992). Such a
mechanism has been invoked to explain the origin of porosity and its distribution in ancient
peritidal dolomite (Li et al., 1991). Here, the late corrosive fluids move along faults and
fractures, modifying and enlarging the preexisting pore networks. The resultant porosity is
characterized by irregularly shaped vugs, well connected small caves, solution channel and
microporosity (Sun, 1995). The lack of any cement and presence of residual hydrocarbon in
such pore space of Chorgali dolomites, encountered especially in the core samples of the
wells, such as, Dakhni-3, Meyal-1, Meyal-2, Meyal-10 and Dhulian-37, indicate that deep
burial corrosion was probably the last diagenetic event before, hydrocarbon emplacement.
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11. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The study area, i.e., Salt Range-Potwar Plateau, is part of the active foreland fold-thrust-
belt of the Himalayas in the northern Pakistan. The area exhibits compressional thin-
skinned tectonic features, which were developed due to underthrusting of Indian Plate
beneath the Eurasian Plate since Eocene time on the northern and northwestern fringes of
the Indian Plate.

During Early Eocene, after the deposition of Sakesar Limestone in the south and Margala
Hill Limestone in the north, the region which is now represented by Potwar Plateau and
Salt Range, changed from an open-marine environment to a shallow sea that became
enclosed by sabkha shore in the west and northwest and clastic shore in the east and
southeast. Overall deposition occurred on a shallow, partially restricted, low energy ramp
type of setting, in a moderately arid climate, as suggested by the occurrence of low
diversity of benthonic forams, solution-collapse breccia and evaporite minerals. In most of
the western and northwestern portion of the region and at isolated locations in Salt Range
and rest of the Potwar area, as the deposition continued, upward shoaling of the
sedimentary sequence resulted in intertidal and supratidal sedimentation. Carbonate
deposition ended during early Eocene time; tectonic activity increased and a major marine
regression resulted in the development of a prominent unconformity on the top of the Early
to Middle Eocene carbonate and clastic sediments. The upper most part of the Chorgali
Formation was severely eroded in most of the eastern and southeastern portion of the study
area, and an undetermined amount of the formation was lost.

Within the Chorgali carbonates facies changes were varied and rapid, both laterally and
vertically. In the northwestern portion of the study area the upper part of the Chorgali
Formation is mostly shaly while the lower portion is dominated by barren to sparsely
fossiliferous dolomitized micrite deposited in a shallow subtidal to mostly supratidal
setting. On the other hand in the eastern and southeastern portions of the area the lower part
of the Chorgali Formation is represented mostly by shale/marl, while the upper part
constitutes dominantly by subtidal limestone facies and represented by micrite with
different proportions of benthonic forams and other organisms. Intertidal to supratidal
facies are, however, present as isolated bodies in the eastern Salt Range as well as in
subsurface in the eastern Potwar Plateau.

The supratidal sediments are massive to well laminated, contain relatively few fossil
fragments, and have some irregularly laminated intervals that represent mostly algal
stromatolites. Evaporite facies, which is confined to the western and northwestern portions
of the region indicates sabkha type setting. These are represented by dolomitized micrite,
algal mats, anhydrite nodules and lenses, evaporite relicts, replacement chalcedony and
127

solution collapse breccias. The subtidal facies, which occupies most of the eastern and
southeastern portion of the region, consist predominantly of biomicrite. Bioclasts consist
mostly of benthonic forams, echinid and ostracod fragments. Pelecypod fragments are
sparse and occur locally. Green algae are common to abundant in two samples only.
Benthonic forams include common to sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae, Alveolinidae, smaller
Rotaliida, Nummulites, Assilina and Lockhartia.

Based on petrographic analysis, the carbonates of Chorgali Formation have been classified
into eight microfacies. Out of these eight microfacies, biomicrite is the most abundant rock
type, and is dominantly confined to the eastern and southeastern portion of the study area.
The second most common microfacies is the dolomite, which is mostly restricted to the
western and northwestern portions of the area. Intramicrite, which stands third in
abundance, is present mostly in localities of western and northwestern parts.

X-ray diffraction analysis reveals that carbonates of Chorgali Formation consist of two
minerals, i. e., calcite and dolomite. The mol % of MgCO 3 within the calcites varies from
2.73 to 0.07 with an average of 1.40. Sharp superstructure reflections indicate well-ordered
dolomites. On the basis of association with evaporite mineral, i.e., anhydrite, dolomites of
Chorgali Formation can be divided into types: 1) dolomites associated with evaporite and
2) dolomites not associated with evaporite. Evaporite associated dolomites are near
stoichiometric, whereas, the ones not associated with evaporite are generally Ca-rich
(calcian dolomite). Evaporite associated dolomites indicate an arid climate and pore fluids
with a high Mg/Ca ratio due to the precipitation of gypsum, anhydrite and aragonite. Thus
the abundance of Mg2+ ions in the pore fluids has resulted in the precipitation of near
stoichiometric dolomite. On the other hand the calcian dolomites (which are not associated
with evaporite) have precipitated from solutions with lower Mg/Ca ratio.

Based on petrographic observations, dolomites of Chorgali Formation can be divided into


three main types: 1) fabric retentive, 2) fabric destructive and 3) as cement, filling fractures
and other voids. The fabric retentive dolomites are finely to very finely crystalline and are
exclusively confined to the supratidal and upper intertidal settings. Their texture is typical
of dolomites formed under near surface, low temperature conditions. So, on the bases of
texture and inferred depositional setting, these fabric retentive dolomites have been
interpreted as of early diagenetic origin. Fabric destructive dolomites, which occupy the
lower portion of the sequence, represent most probably precursor subtidal sediments. These
dolomites were formed possibly by two ways: 1) reflux model and/or through 2)
hydrologic model. The late diagenetic fracture and other void filling dolomite cement
formed probably through fluids moving along paths of increased permeability created by
burrows, fractures and stylolites. These dolomite cements were formed possibly through
128

saline brines or through descending meteoric water, which dissolved dolomite at


unconformity.

Values of major and trace elements of the carbonates of Chorgali Formation have been
used to infer the original mineralogy of the rock components, the chemistry of the
diagenetic fluids and the degree of the chemical exchange during diagenetic alteration.
While comparing the compositional variations of Chorgali subtidal calcite with those of
modern marine calcite and aragonite, the relatively elevated Mg content and significantly
low Sr values indicate that these calcites were originally high-Mg calcite (HMC). The
preservation of relatively high Mg contents in these subtidal calcites might be interpreted if
the recrystallization of the original calcite took place in relatively closed diagenetic system,
as would be expected in the presence of interbedded impermeable mudrocks and marl. This
interpretation is also supported by the common occurrence of remains of organisms of
high-Mg calcite, such as, benthonic forams , echinids and ostracods.

The general measured trends of trace elements of Chorgali dolomites fall within the limits
of trace elements variations of modern sabkha dolomites. Relatively higher average Sr
content of these dolomites indicates precursor aragonite. The partial retention of primary Sr
content and probably complete preservation of Mn and Na contents within the Chorgali
supratidal dolomites, it can be inferred that, like subtidal calcite recrystallization, original
dolomites recrystallized in a relatively partially closed diagenetic system as would be
expected due to occurrence of terrestrial mudstone interbeds within the dolomite sequence.
The trace elements data of the inferred diagenetic fluid of Chorgali average subtidal calcite
indicate a mixture of open or restricted sea waters and the meteoric waters. Similarly based
on average values of Mg/Ca and Fe/Ca the inferred diagenetic fluid of Chorgali dolomites
can be interpreted as a mixture of open and/or restricted sea waters and the meteoric
waters.

The carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of Chorgali subtidal limestone, on the whole,
supports the petrographic and trace element evidences that these limestones were originally
deposited in warm, shallow-marine environment. The lighter C and O values of these
calcites probably indicate diagenetic reequilibrium due to influence of meteoric water.
Similarly interpretation of carbon and oxygen isotopic data of Chorgali dolomites support
the petrographic and trace elements evidences that these dolomites were formed in mostly
upper intertidal to supratidal environments, and that the stabilization of these dolomites
took place probably under the influence of meteoric water. A relatively higher C values of
subtidal limestones and partial preservation of original carbon and oxygen isotopic
composition of dolomites support the interpretation based on trace elements study that
recrystallization took place in relatively closed diagenetic system.
129

Evaporites in the form of anhydrite are present at various levels within the cores of four
wells, located in the northwestern portion of the Potwar Plateau. However, widespread
occurrence of collapse breccia, on the surface as well as subsurface, indicates presence of
some precursor evaporite minerals within the carbonate sequence. Anhydrite mostly occurs
as nodules, however, it is also present as wavy bands, randomly distributed monocrystals
and also as mold, vug and fracture fillings. Based on the petrographic features and
association with early diagenetic dolomitic facies, the evaporites (anhydrite in this study) of
Chorgali Formation have been interpreted as diagenetic emplacement within supratidal
sediments.

Collapse breccia represents significant lithology of the Chorgali carbonates in some of the
sections and wells in the western and northwestern portions of the study area. These
breccias consist predominantly of dolomite and limestone fragments. Presence of detrital
clasts of silt and clay in some brecciated intervals, indicates a near-surface solution collapse
origin.

Generally Chorgali carbonates are tight in the outcrop as well as in core samples; however,
in some of the surface and subsurface samples open pore space are noticed. These open
pore spaces occur almost entirely within the Chorgali upper intertidal to supratidal dolomite
and mostly confined to the localities of western and northwestern portions of the area. No
preserved primary porosity is seen. Therefore, all the existing open pore space is secondary
in origin. This secondary porosity is the product of two processes: 1) influence of fresh
water during deposition of overlying continental sediments of Kuldana Formation in the
northwestern portion. The fresh water has resulted in the widespread development of
solution collapse breccia (due to dissolution of evaporites) and open molds and vugs
created by leaching of metastable bioclastic grains and evaporite nodules. In the remaining
eastern and southeastern portion karstification has created secondary porosity at the major
unconformity (i.e. absence of Middle to Late Eocene and whole of the Oligocene). Some of
the samples, collected from northwestern portion, are seen filled with carbonate, anhydrite
and silica cements. Chorgali dolomite reservoirs, of the northwestern portion, are generally
characterized by the locally moderate to high permeability due to the interconnected pore
network of solution cavities, vugs, fractures and intercrystalline pore space. The other
major factor which contributed towards the enhancement of porosity and permeability is
the fracturing of the rock unit caused by intense structural deformation in the northwestern
part of the Potwar Plateau.
130

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142

APPENDIX A
Petrographic description of individual samples.

BHADRAR

CBR-01
Yellowish gray, argillaceous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and benthonic
forams with sparse ostracods. Benthonic forams consist of common Miliolidae, smaller
Rotaliida and Nummulites with sparse Soritidae, Assilina and Lockhartia. Some irregular
vugs are noticed filled with sparry calcite.

CBR-02
Yellowish brown marl.

CBR-03
Yellowish brown, argillaceous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
benthonic forams with sparse echinid and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of
common Nummulites and Assilina with sparse Lockhartia and smaller Rotaliida. Bioclasts
are represented mostly by small angular shell debris. Closer packing of bioclasts indicates
the phenomenon of pressure dissolution.

CBR-04
Yellowish brown marl.

CBR-05
Yellowish brown marl.
CHAK KHUSHI

CCK-01
Yellowish brown to light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common
Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida, ostracods and sparse echinid fragments. Soritidae tests are
highly deformed indicating compaction before segmentation. Polished surface displays
burrow looking features.

CCK-02
Light gray, chalky, calichy looking, dolomitized biointramicrite. Intraclasts are of
different shapes and size and look to be derived from reworked algal mats. Bioclasts are
mostly represented by filled molds. Sparse silt sized detrital quartz grains are scattered
throughout. Polished surface displays a few thin fractures and randomly scattered intraclasts.
CCK-03
143

Cream to yellowish gray, chalky, calichy looking dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts are
fine sand sized, subangular to subrounded, and look to be derived from reworked algal mat.
Sparse silt sized detrital quartz grains are scattered throughout. Polished surface displays a
few thin fractures and randomly scattered intraclasts.

CCK-04
Cream to yellowish gray, chalky, calichy looking dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts are
angular to subangular, fine sand sized and look to be derived from reworked algal mats.
Sparse silt sized detrital quartz grains are present throughout. Polished surface displays
randomly distributed intraclasts.

CCK-05
Cream to yellowish gray, chalky, calichy looking dolomitized intramicrite. Fine sand
sized angular to subrounded intraclasts are scattered throughout. Some broken discontinuous
bands represent algal mats. Intraclasts look to be derived from reworked algal mats.
Polished surface displays a few randomly distributed intraclasts.

CCK-06
Cream to whitish yellow, dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts are mostly very fine sand
sized and randomly distributed. Partially oxidized fine sand sized pyrite grains are locally
common. A few burrow-looking features, infilled with lighter material, occur parallel to the
lamination. Polished surface displays fine lamination.

CCK-07
Brownish gray to dark gray argillaceous, dolomitized intramicrite. Flasser texture looking
features are apparent. Intraclasts are fine sand sized and randomly scattered. Polished
surface displays vague lamination.

CCK-08
Tan to yellowish gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris and benthonic
forams. Benthonic forams are mostly smaller Rotaliida and Soritidae with sparse Miliolidae.
Other bioclasts include ostracod, echinid and pelecypod fragments. Soritidae tests are
mostly deformed indicating compaction before cementation.
144

CHAK NAURANG

CCN-01
Light gray to cream gray dolomitized intramicrite. Fine sand to silt sized, rounded,
micritic intraclasts are randomly distributed throughout. A few microstylolites and common
microfractures are present. One relatively large microvug is seen infilled with carbonate
cement. Polished surface displays common thin fractures and horizontal burrows, filled
fenestral and mud crack looking features.

CCN-02
Medium gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris, benthonic forams, echinid
and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include common smaller Rotaliida with sparse
Textulariidae, Miliolidae, Soritidae and Alveolinidae. Closer packing of bioclasts indicates
the phenomenon of pressure dissolution. Sparse filled biomolds are present. Polished surface
displays common and randomly distributed bioclasts, thin filled fractures and one well
developed stylolite.

CCN-03
Medium gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris, benthonic forams, echinid
and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include smaller Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae.
Polished surface displays common and randomly distributed bioclasts, common filled
fractures and one well-developed stylolites.

CCN-04
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris, benthonic forams and
echinids with sparse ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include common smaller
Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae. Some of the bioclasts are represented by molds filled with
sparry calcite. Polished surface display common occurrence of randomly distributed
bioclasts and locally developed dissolution scam and stylolites.

CCN-05
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris, benthonic forams, echinid
and ostracod fragments with sparse pelecypods. Benthonic forams include common smaller
Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae and Soritidae. Some of the bioclasts are represented by
molds filled with sparry calcite. Fecal pellets are locally noticed occurring in clusters. Well-
developed microstylolites are seen, marked by yellowish brown insoluble residue. Polished
surface displays common occurrence of randomly oriented bioclasts, common stylolites and
locally well-developed dissolution seams. Local occurrence of greenish gray clayey
fragments and open to filled thin fractures are also noticed on the polished surface.
CCN-06
145

Medium gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of abundant biodebris and benthonic forams
with sparse echinid, ostracod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams include abundant
Assilina and common smaller Rotaliida with sparse Textulariidae, Miliolidae, Soritidae and
Nummulites. Pressure dissolution has resulted in closer packing of bioclasts. Phenomenon of
grain contact suture is also locally present. Some of the bioclasts are represented by molds
filled with sparry calcite. Polished surface displays occurrence of abundant bioclasts due to
closer packing, caused by pressure dissolution.

CCN-07
Medium gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris, benthonic forams and
echinid fragments with sparse pelecypods. Benthonic forams include common smaller
Rotaliida and Assilina with sparse Nummulites. Mechanical compaction has resulted
deformation of elongate bioclasts. Some bioclasts are represented by molds filled sparry
calcite. Microstylolites are noticed locally. Polished surface displays occurrence of common
bioclasts and some greenish gray clayey fragments.

CCN-08
Medium to dark gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris and benthonic
forams with sparse echinid, ostracod and gastropod fragments. Benthonic forams include
common smaller Rotaliida and Nummulites with sparse Textulariidae, Miliolidae, Soritidae,
Alveolinidae and Assilina. Microstylolites are very common, marked by yellowish brown
insoluble residue. Sparse filled micromolds, microvugs and microfractures are present.
Polished surface displays common occurrence of bioclasts and thin filled fractures and
irregular dissolution seams.

CHORGALI PASS

CCG-01
Light gray biomicrite with common fresh-water green algae, ostracod fragments and sparse
Gastropods. Bioclasts are mostly represented by filled molds. Locally, intraclast looking
allochems are noticed occurring in irregular pockets filled with mostly sparry calcite
cement. Polished surface displays locally well developed stylolites and filled thin fractures.
146

CCG-02
Yellowish gray arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
rock unit constitutes mostly of quartz and clay minerals with very small percentage of
calcite.

CCG-03
Light gray to cream gray quartz sandy fossiliferous micrite with sparse bioclastic molds
filled with carbonate cement. Fine sand sized, well sorted, detrital quartz grains are very
common and occur mostly in irregular lenses. Polished surface displays locally developed
sparse thin filled fractures. Uniform sized, well sorted nature of detrital quartz grains
indicate an eolian origin.

CCG-04
Yellowish gray arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
sample constitutes mostly of dolomite with significant percentage of quartz and clay
minerals.

CCG-05
Medium gray to cream gray, slightly dolomitized biomicrite with very common bioclasts
and fossil fragments embedded in a groundmass of cryptocrystalline calcite. Bioclasts are
mainly of very small size and mostly represented by filled molds. Polished surface displays
locally well developed stylolites, filled fractures, channelways and vugs.

CCG-06
Dark maroon, arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
sample constitutes mostly of quartz and clay minerals with very small percentage of
dolomite.

CCG-07
Yellowish gray, arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
rock unit constitutes mostly of quartz and clay minerals with very small percentage of
calcite.

CCG-08
Yellowish gray, arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
sample constitutes mostly of quartz and clay minerals with no carbonate minerals.
147

CCG-09
Yellowish gray arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
sample constitutes mostly of quartz and clay minerals with no carbonates.

CCG-10
Yellowish gray arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
rock unit constitutes mostly of quartz and clay minerals with almost no carbonates.

CCG-11
Cream to buff, finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are mostly euhedral to
subhedral, embedded in a groundmass of cryptocrystalline dolomite. A few fine sand to silt
sized detrital quartz grains are noticed scattered throughout. Sparse, open to filled, randomly
distributed microvugs are present. Polished surface displays locally developed, partially
open to filled, thin fractures, and some fenestrae looking filled vugs.

CCG-12
Light yellowish brown to buff, dolomitized micrite with a few micritic intraclasts. Sparse,
fine sand to silt sized, detrital quartz grains are noticed scattered throughout. Filled fenestrae
looking, randomly distributed, microvugs are common. Local occurrence of filled
microfractures and disconnected open microvugs are present. Polished surface displays local
development of thin filled fractures.

CCG-13
Whitish, cream to buff, dolomitized micrite with very common fenestral vugs and some
mold and vug looking features. Bioclasts are represented, entirely, by filled molds; whereas
some intraclast looking allochems are noticed occurring locally in clusters and represented
by faint micritic grains. Some randomly distributed, fine sand to silt sized, detrital quartz
grains were noticed. Vugs and microvugs of different size and shapes are very common and
mostly filled with carbonate cement. Polished surface displays very common occurrence of
very small sized filled vugs, and a few thin filled fractures.

CCG-14
Greenish gray arenaceous shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
sample constitutes mostly of quartz with small percentage of clay minerals and dolomite.

CCG-15
Medium gray, laminated, sandy dolomitized micrite with a few fine sand to silt sized
intraclasts. Fine sand to silt sized detrital quartz grains are very common and randomly
distributed in the groundmass of very finely crystalline dolomite. Thin fractures and
microfractures are very common. Open and filled microvugs are common and distributed
148

randomly. Polished surface displays well developed features of collapse breccia with
common open vugs of different size.

CCG-16
Greenish gray dolomitic shale. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the
sample constitutes mostly of dolomite with minor calcite, quartz and clay minerals.

CCG-17
Brownish to buff gray partially dolomitized intramicrite with local occurrence of fine
sand sized intraclasts. Fine sand sized detrital quartz grains are randomly distributed
throughout the groundmass. Dolomitization has taken place mostly along the fracture
planes. Some isolated irregular bodies are noticed filled with dolomite crystals. Polished
surface displays common filled fractures.

CCG-18
Yellowish brown to buff, intramicrite (collapse breccia), consisting of clasts of different
size, shapes and composition. A few extraclast looking grains, consisting of different
lithology than the host, are also noticed. Open and filled microvugs are common and
distributed randomly. Polished surface displays well developed features of collapse breccia
with common open vugs of different size.

CCG-19
Yellowish brown, splintery, dolomitic shale with marl bands. Whole-rock x-ray diffraction
analysis indicates that the rock unit constitutes mainly of dolomite with minor quartz and
clay minerals.

CCG-20
Buff to light gray dolomitized intramicrite with common, fine sand sized, rounded micritic
intraclasts. Thin fractures and microfractures are common and filled with carbonate cement.
A few microvugs are noticed filled with carbonate and silica cements. Polished surface
displays common occurrence of thin filled fractures.

CCG-21
Light gray to gray dolomitized intramicrite with sparse, randomly distributed, fine sand to
silt sized intraclasts. Fine sand to silt sized detrital quartz grains are scattered throughout in
the groundmass of very finely crystalline dolomite. Microfractures, partially open to filled
with authigenic silica, are locally present. A few microvugs are also noticed filled with
authigenic silica(chert).
CCG-22
149

Cream to buff, sandy dolomitized micrite with common fine sand sized detrital quartz
grains and a few intraclast looking grains. A few thin filled fractures and microfractures are
present.

CCG-23
Medium gray, finely laminated, locally stylolitic, dolomitized fossiliferous intramicrite.
Medium sand to silt sized, mostly rounded in shape, micritic intraclasts are common and
randomly distributed throughout. A few randomly scattered, very small sized benthonic
forams are noticed. Lamination represent probably algal mat. Filled and partially open
fractures and microfractures are locally common. Polished surface displays locally common
open vugs of different size.

CCG-24
Medium gray dolomitized intramicrite. Sand sized intraclasts are common and randomly
distributed in a groundmass of very finely crystalline dolomite. A few filled fractures and
microfractures are present. Evidence of bioturbation is indicated on the polished surface by
rounded discontinuous patches of lighter material representing probably filled burrows.

CCG-25
Light to medium gray, finely laminated, dolomitized intramicrite. Sand to silt sized,
micritic intraclasts are very common and randomly distributed throughout. A few microvugs
are noticed filled with authigenic silica (chert). Mechanical compaction has resulted drape of
lamination over comparatively rigid irregular dolomitic bodies. Fractures and microfractures
are locally common and filled with carbonate cement.

CCG-26
Light gray to buff, locally stylolitic, dolomitized intramicrite. Sand to silt sized intraclasts
are common and randomly distributed throughout. Filled fractures and microfractures are
locally common. Pressure dissolution has resulted locally developed stylolites,
microstylolites and dissolution seams.

CCG-27
Light to dark gray, laminated, nodular dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts seem to be
developed through disintegration of algal mats. Sparse fine sand to silt sized detrital quartz
grains are present. Lamination is marked by alternate layers of intramicrite and micrite.
Randomly scattered, small sized, molds and vugs are noticed filled mostly by carbonate
cement and rarely by authigenic silica (chert). Polished surface displays nodular structure
and dissolution seams.
CCG-28
150

Light gray to buff, stromatolitic, locally dolomitized intramicrite. Fine sand sized
intraclasts are scattered throughout and probably formed through disintegration of algal
mats. Algal mats are broken at places indicating mudcracks. Sparse vugs, microvugs and
microchannelways are noticed filled with carbonate cement. A few thin filled and partially
open fractures and microfractures are noticed.

CCG-29
Medium to dark gray finely crystalline dolomite with sparse, fine sand to silt sized, ghosts
of pellet looking grains. A few fenestrae looking microvugs are noticed filled with
authigenic silica (chert). Polished surface displays a few thin filled fractures.

CCG-30
Light to dark gray, locally stylolitic dolomitized intramicrite. Well rounded to subangular
micritic intraclasts are common. Sparse fenestrae looking vugs are noticed filled with
authigenic silica (chert). Microfractures, filled with carbonate cement, and microstylolites
are locally common. Polished surface displays dark coloured channelways looking features,
representing probably closely spaced stylolites.

CCG-31
Yellowish brown to buff, stromatolitic dolomitized biointramicrite, with small sized fossil
fragments of mostly Miliolidae and smaller forams. Biodebris look to be transported in
nature. Laminations are well developed and marked by alternate storm deposited sediments
and algal formed thin micrite layers. Storm deposited laminae represent biomicrite; whereas
algal laminae constitute dark coloured organic substance looking material. Sparse
microfractures are noticed filled with carbonate cement. Polished surface displays well
developed stromatolites with common fenestral vugs of different size. These fenestral vugs
and channelways are mostly filled with authigenic silica (chert) and occasionally with
carbonate cement.

CCG-32
Light gray, vaguely laminated dolomitized fossiliferous intramicrite. Intraclasts of
different size are common and randomly distributed in the groundmass of very finely to
cryptocrystalline dolomite. Fossil assemblage includes common Soritidae with sparse
Miliolidae, echinid fragments and other biodebris. Lamination is indicated by colour
variation and preferred orientation of elongate Soritidae. Some irregular pockets are noticed
filled with uniform silt sized pellets. Polished surface displays abundant randomly
distributed unconnected, open vugs of different size.

CCG-33
151

Light gray to buff dolomitized intramicrite with very common fenestral and other vugs
filled with almost entirely of authigenic silica (chert). Fine sand to silt sized intraclasts are
common and randomly distributed throughout. A few thin fractures and microfractures are
seen infilled with authigenic silica (chert) and carbonate cement. Locally developed
microslylolites are marked by dark coloured opaque residues. Polished surface displays
common filled fenestral and other small to large sized vugs, a few thin filled fractures and
vague indication of burrows.

CCG-34
Dark gray to buff, well laminated dolomitized micrite. A few vague micritic intraclast
looking allochems are noticed floating randomly in the groundmass of cryptocrystalline
carbonate and represented by ghost textures. Lamination is marked by colour difference on
the polished surface; whereas in thin section it is indicated by difference in dolomite crystal
size and by the presence of dark coloured organic substance looking material. Sparse
elongate fenestral vugs are noticed filled with carbonate cement.

CCG-35
Light gray dolomitized biomicrite with very common skeletal grains. Bioclasts include
sparse Textulariidae, Miliolidae, Soritidae and echinid fragments. Bioclasts are almost
entirely micritized and scattered randomly. Randomly distributed open microvugs are very
common. Pattern of distribution of skeletal and non-skeletal grains clearly indicate a storm
deposited origin of the original sediments.

CCG-36
light gray to buff dolomitized intramicrite with common fenestral vugs filled with
authigenic silica (chert). As compared to the micritic groundmass, intraclasts are biomicritic
in composition and are medium to coarse grained and subangular to subrounded in shape.
Sparse thin fractures and microfractures are noticed filled with carbonate cement. Polished
surface gives indication of burrows represented by irregular discontinuous patches of
brownish material.

CCG-37
Gray to dark gray, arenaceous, dolomitized micrite with sparse filled and partially filled
vugs and microfractures. Vugs are mostly filled with authigenic silica (chert) and finely
crystalline dolomite. Polished surface gives vague indication of burrows through patches of
dark coloured material.
152

CCG-38
Light gray to cream white, faintly laminated, locally stylolitic dolomitized biomicrite.
Bioclasts consist of common, very small sized, echinid fragments, randomly distributed in a
groundmass of cryptocrystalline dolomite. Sparse microfractures are noticed filled with
carbonate cement. Polished surface displays mudcracks looking features and several small
fractures, partially filled with greenish clayey substance.

CCG-39
Light to dark gray slightly dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts include common echinid and
ostracod fragments embedded in the matrix of micrite. Sparse, finely crystalline dolomite
rhombs are noticed randomly distributed throughout. Polished surface gives faint indication
of burrow looking features.

CCG-40
Light to dark gray, partially dolomitized fossiliferous micrite. Dolomitized portions
constitutes finely crystalline, euhedral to subhedral, dolomite crystals embedded in a
groundmass of cryptocrystalline carbonates. Undolomitized portions consist of micrite with
locally common bioclasts and rare occurrence of fine sand sized intraclasts. Bioclasts
include sparse larger benthonic forams, echinid fragments and unidentified fossil fragments.
Some benthonic forams are represented by their ghost textures. Some finely crystalline
dolomite crystals are noticed randomly distributed within the micrite matrix. Polished
surface displays irregular light gray patches representing the dolomitized portions. These
dolomitized irregular patches indicate probably precursor burrows.

CCG-41
Medium to dark gray, locally laminated finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are
finely crystalline, equigranular and subhedral to anhedral; whereas intercrytalline space is
filled with cryptocrystalline carbonate. Most of the dolomite crystals have light-brown
cloudy centers with clear rims. Dolomitization has completely destroy the fabric information
of the precursor sediments. Polished surface displays locally developed laminations and
vague indication of burrows.

DAKHNI-3

CDI-01
Light gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Ghosts of fecal pellets and intraclasts are common
and randomly distributed. Open microvugs are very common and locally partially filled with
natural solid bitumen. Microstylolites are common. Polished surface displays occurrence of
very common vugs of different size.
CDI-02
153

Light gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Fecal pellets and intraclasts are common and
randomly distributed. Intraclasts are of different size, mostly rounded in shape and consist of
mostly fecal pellets. Open microvugs are locally common. Polished surface displays locally
common open vugs of different size.

CDI-03
light gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Ghosts of micritic intraclasts of different size and
fecal pellets are randomly distributed in the groundmass of cryptocrystalline dolomite.
Microvugs of different size are locally common and mostly open. Some of the microvugs
are partially filled with natural solid bitumen. Irregular patches are noticed filled with finely
crystalline dolomite. Microstylolites are very common. Polished surface displays locally
common open microvugs of different size.

CDI-04
Light gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Ghosts of intraclasts and fecal pellets are randomly
scattered in a groundmass of finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals have mostly
cloudy centers and clear rims. Intercrystalline and vuggy porosity is locally common. Some
of the pores are partially filled with natural solid bitumen. Open microfractures and a few
microstylolites are present. Polished surface displays very small sized common open vugs.

CDI-05
Mottled light gray to dark gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Ghosts of intraclast looking
allochems are sparse and scattered randomly. Dolomite crystals are cryptocrystalline to
medium sized, equiant and mostly subhedral to anhedral. Open microvugs are very common
which are locally filled with natural solid bitumen and occasionally by authigenic silica.
Locally, dolomite is noticed being replaced by silica. A few open microfractures are present.
Polished surface displays common occurrence of mostly very small sized open vugs.

CDI-06
Gray dolomitized intramicrite. Randomly distributed intraclast ghosts are noticed floating
in the groundmass of very finely crystalline dolomite. Fenestra looking microvugs are
common and filled with carbonate cement. Sparse thin open microfractures and locally
occurring microstylolites are present. Phenomenon of poikilotopic cement is locally seen.
Polished surface displays local occurrence of stylolites marked by natural solid bitumen.
154

CDI-07
Mottled, medium to dark gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Sparse bioclasts are represented
by very small sized molds filled with microsparite. Microvugs and thin microfractures are
common and filled with anhydrite. Collapse breccia voids are filled with larger carbonate
crystals in the form of poikilotopic cement. Polished surface displays common occurrence
of white coloured anhydrite nodules of different size and locally well developed stylolites
and very common thin filled fractures.

CDI-08
Medium gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Sparse molds, of probably some bioclasts, are
noticed filled with very finely crystalline anhydrite looking substance. Polished surface
displays locally developed stylolites.

CDI-09
Light gray dolomitized pelletiferous biomicrite. Bioclasts are represented by filled molds
of biodebris, gastropods and sparse pelecypods. Local occurrence of well developed fecal
pellets of different size are noticed, sometimes in the form of clusters. Some of the bioclasts
are completely filled with internal sediments. Polished surface displays common occurrence
of filled molds and patches of natural solid bitumens.

CDI-10
Mottled, white to dark gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Dolomicritic intraclasts are
common. Locally bioclasts are common, which are represented by molds filled with
microsparire. Collapse breccia voids are filled with larger carbonate crystals in the form of
poikilotopic cement. Polished surface displays common occurrence of abundant vugs of
different size filled with anhydrite.

CDI-11
Light to dark gray dolomite (collapse breccia), consisting of clasts of micrite, biomicrite
and biointramicrite. Bioclasts are sparse and include biodebris, Miliolidae and echinid
fragments. Phenomenon of poikilotopic cement is locally seen. Polished surface displays
occurrence of common thin filled fractures, locally developed stylolites and filled vugs.

CDI-12
Light to dark gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Ghosts of bioclasts are randomly scattered.
Bioclasts include sparse biodebris, larger Rotaliida and echinid fragments. Dolomite crystals
are equiant, subhedral to anhedral and with very common cloudy centers. Locally open
intercrystalline porosity is noticed. Dolomitization has almost entirely destroyed the fabric
information of the original sediments.
DHULIAN-37
155

CDN-01
Tan to pinkish brown dolomitized biomicrite with common randomly oriented anhydrite
filled vugs of different size. Bioclasts are common and represented by anhydrite filled
molds. Fine sand to silt sized detrital quartz grains are noticed randomly scattered
throughout in the groundmass of very finely crystalline dolomite. Polished surface displays
anhydrite filled molds and vugs and stromatolitic and fenestrae looking features.

CDN-02
Greenish gray, brecciated, quartz sandy finely crystalline dolomite with a few dolomicritic
intraclasts. Locally developed microstylolitic seams are marked by insoluble residues and
some yellowish brown ferruginous substance. Sparse microvugs are noticed infilled with
anhydrite. Some well developed dolomite rhombs are noticed scattered throughout. Polished
surface displays collapse breccia looking features with silica filled vugs.

CDN-03
Light to medium brown, mostly dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts consist mostly of
pelecypod fragments and sparse ostracods. Microstructures of pelecypod fragments are well
preserved as they escaped dolomitization. Thin section displays two distinct portions, i.e.,
light brown and medium brown, depending on the contents of ferruginous material. Some
detrital quartz grains are noticed scattered throughout. Polished surface displays well
developed flaser texture looking structure.

DOM NALLA

CDM-01
Light gray dolomitized biointramicrite. Bioclasts are abundant consisting of biodebris and
benthonic forams. Benthonic forams include Miliolidae and smaller Rotaliida. Intraclasts are
mostly of very small size and represent disintegrated algal mats. Well developed fecal
pellets are rare and occur in clusters. Open and filled molds and vugs are common and
randomly distributed. Polished surface displays locally well developed algal mat.

CDM-02
Buff to tan dolomitized biointramicrite. Bioclasts are abundant consisting of biodebris and
benthonic forams. Benthonic forams include Miliolidae and smaller Rotaliida. Intraclasts are
of different size and randomly distributed. Open and filled molds are very common and
randomly distributed. Polished surface displays sparse filled vugs and locally developed
stylolites.
CDM-03
156

Buff to gray dolomitized biointramicrite. Bioclasts are abundant consisting of biodebris


and benthonic forams. Benthonic forams include common Miliolidae and smaller Rotaliida.
Dolomicritic intraclasts of different size are randomly distributed. Randomly scattered filled
molds are very common. Polished surface displays local development of lamination,
stylolites and common occurrence of open vugs.

CDM-04
Buff to tan dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclast ghosts are irregular and larger in size
consisting of open and filled molds and vugs. Some of the molds and vugs are filled with
authigenic silica. Polished surface displays irregular dark coloured patches developed along
the locally occurring stylolites.

CDM-05
Tan to yellowish brown finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are equiant,
subhedral to anhedral with centers mostly filled with brown coloured inclusions. Locally,
intercrystalline spaces are filled with dark coloured substance. Randomly scattered a few
open molds and vugs are noticed. Locally developed intercrystalline porosity is present.

DULMIAL

CDL-01
Light gray, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and echinid
fragments with sparse smaller Rotaliida and ostracods. A few molds are noticed infilled with
sparry calcite. Polished surface displays a few burrow looking features filled with lighter
materials.

CDL-02
Light gray, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris, benthonic
forams and echinid fragments with sparse pelecypods. Benthonic forams include common
smaller Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae. A few filled molds and filled microfractures are
noticed.

CDL-03
Light gray, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris, benthonic
forams and echinid fragments with sparse ostracods. Benthonic forams include common
smaller Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae. A few filled micro-molds, open micro-vugs and
open micro-fractures are present. Polished surface displays a few locally developed partially
open small fractures.
CDL-04
157

Light gray, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and echinid
fragments with sparse benthonic forams, ostracod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic
forams consist of sparse Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida, Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida.
Ostracod tests are infilled with sparry calcite.

CDL-05
Light gray to yellowish brown, caliche looking brecciated biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of
common biodebris, benthonic forams and echinid fragments with sparse ostracods.
Benthonic forams include common smaller Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae. A few
microstylolites are noticed marked by dark brown insoluble residue. Polished surface
displays rounded to irregular pisolitic caliche looking features marked by yellowish brown
concentric layers.

CDL-06
Yellowish to whitish gray, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris,
benthonic forams and echinid fragments. Benthonic forams include common smaller
Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae and Soritidae. Forams are mostly represented by sparry
calcite and micrite filled molds. Local occurrence of fecal pellets are noticed. Polished
surface displays vague lamination and local development of stylolites marked by dark
coloured insoluble residue.

HATTAR

CHR-01
yellowish gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of biodebris and echinids with small benthonic
forams (smaller Rotaliida). Benthonic forams are mostly represented by filled molds. Local
occurrence of clotted texture looking feature are noticed. Groundmass consists of a mixture
of micrite and microsparite. Microvugs of different shapes and size are common and
probably formed through leaching. Polished surface displays some randomly distributed
small sized open vugs.

CHR-02
Light gray dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts of different shapes and size are common
and randomly distributed. Fecal pellets are rare and mostly occur in clusters. Intraclasts are
dolomicritic and of different shapes and size. Groundmass consist of very finely crystalline,
subhedral to anhedral, equiant dolomite. Polished surface displays some horizontal burrow
looking features.

CHR-03
158

Mottled, gray to light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris and common
benthonic forams with sparse echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of
common Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida. Mechanical compaction has resulted in
the preferred alignment of elongate Soritidae tests and rearrangement and closer packing of
bioclasts. Polished surface displays common occurrence of benthonic forams and some
horizontal burrow looking features.

CHR-04
Mottled, gray to light gray dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts are mostly benthonic forams
and represented by filled molds. Sparse micritic peloids are seen randomly distributed
throughout. Polished surface displays vague lamination, common occurrence of small sized
filled vugs and one well developed stylolite.

CHR-05
Yellowish brown to reddish brown biomicrite (collapse breccia). Bioclasts are sparse and
represented by filled molds of biodebris. Irregular shaped microvugs of different size are
abundant and filled with carbonate cement. Phenomenon of poikilotopic cement is common.
Polished surface displays common occurrence of stromatolites and randomly distributed
fanestrae looking filled vugs.

CHR-06
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris, benthonic forams and echinid
fragments. Benthonic forams consist of common Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida. Elongate
Soritidae tests are aligned parallel to the bedding. Bioclasts show the phenomenon of plastic
deformation. Some of the bioclastic molds are filled with mosaics of dolomite looking
crystals. Polished surface displays burrows and pressure dissolution seams looking features.

CHR-07
Light gray dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts are of different shapes and size and
represent reworked algal mats. Sparse microvugs are noticed filled with carbonate cement.
Polished surface displays stromatolites, burrow and small fenestrae looking filled vugs.

CHR-08
Yellowish brown fossiliferous micrite. Bioclasts consist of biodebris and some of them are
represented by filled molds. Phenomenon of poikilotopic cement is locally seen. Polished
surface displays well developed stromatolites, filled fenestrae and mud crack looking
features.

CHR-09
159

Gray to brown, partially dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of biodebris and


benthonic forams. Benthonic forams are almost entirely of Miliolidae. Bioclasts are mostly
represented by filled molds. Groundmass consists of micrite and microsparite. Rock unit is
represented by alternate layers of micrite and biomicrite. Polished surface displays well
developed lamination.

CHR-10
Yellowish brown partially dolomitized micrite (collapse breccia) with randomly
distributed dolomite crystals. Dolomite crystals are subhedral to anhedral, equiant with
mostly clear centers. Microvugs of different size are common and filled with carbonate
cement. Polished surface displays a few thin filled fractures and filled vugs.

CHR-11
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of abundant biodebris with common benthonic
forams, echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include Soritidae and smaller
Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae and Lockhartia. Elongate Soritidae bioclasts are oriented
parallel to bedding, indicating mechanical compaction. Polished surface displays burrow
looking features, randomly oriented bioclasts and sparse thin fractures.

CHR-12
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common benthonic forams,
echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist exclusively of smaller Rotaliida.
Ostracod tests are represented by molds filled with calcite cement. A few filled
microfractures are present. Polished surface displays common occurrence of randomly
distributed bioclasts and phenomenon of pressure dissolution.

CHR-13
Light gray micrite which gives clotted looking texture at high magnification. A few
randomly scattered dolomite rhombs are present. The clotted texture of the sample is
probably due to dedolomitization. Microfractures, filled with calcite cement, are very
common. Polished surface displays very common occurrence of thin filled fractures and
channelways.

CHR-14
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common benthonic forams,
echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of smaller Rotaliida with sparse
Soritidae and Lockhartia. Elongate bioclasts show preferred orientation and some of the
bioclasts indicate plastic deformation. A few microfractures are noticed filled with sparry
calcite. Polished surface displays vague lamination, randomly oriented bioclasts and a few
filled fractures and filled channelways.
160

CHR-15
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common benthonic forams,
echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include common smaller Rotaliida.
Ostracod tests are represented by molds filled with sparry calcite cement. Some of the
bioclasts give the phenomenon of plastic deformation. A few filled microfractures are
present. Polished surface displays one well developed filled fractures.

CHR-16
Light brown to gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common benthonic
forams, echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of smaller rotalids and
Lockhartia. A few filled microfractures are noticed. Closer packing and rearrangement of
bioclasts indicate the influence of mechanical compaction and pressure dissolution. Polished
surface displays lamination looking structures and common randomly scattered bioclasts.

CHR-17
Light gray biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common benthonic forams,
echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of smaller Rotaliida with sparse
Miliolidae. A few randomly distributed well rounded intraclasts looking allochems are
noticed. Some fecal pellets and well rounded intraclasts looking allochems are seen
occurring in clusters and cemented with sparry calcite. A few filled microfractures are
present. Polished surface displays locally common occurrence of bioclasts and one filled
channelway looking feature.

CHR-18
Tan to brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common benthonic forams,
echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of mostly common Lockhartia.
Phenomenon of grain-contact suture is locally noticed indicating the influence of pressure
dissolution. One thin filled microfracture is seen. Polished surface displays randomly
scattered very common occurrence of bioclasts.

JHUNGA

CJA-01
Tan to yellows brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
benthonic forams with sparse ostracod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams consist
mostly of smaller Rotaliida. Pressure dissolution has resulted in the rearrangement of
bioclasts. Polished surface displays local development of stylolites and a few burrow
looking features.
161

CJA-02
Yellowish brown to reddish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common
biodebris, benthonic forams and echinid fragments with sparse ostracods and pelecypods.
Benthonic forams include common smaller Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae, Lockhartia and
other larger Rotaliida. One semirounded, relatively larger, micritic intraclast is noticed.
Polished surface displays locally developed stylolites and differential pressure dissolution.

CJA-03
Yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and benthonic forams
with sparse echinid, ostracod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of
common smaller Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae, Alveolinidae, Nummulites, Lockhartia
and other larger Rotaliida. Deformed Alveolinidae tests are noticed indicating compaction
before cementation. Polished surface displays vague lamination.

CJA-04
Yellowish to dark brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris,
benthonic forams and ostracod fragments with sparse echinids. Benthonic forams include
common smaller Rotaliida with sparse Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida. Polished
surface displays stylolites and dissolution seams.

CJA-05
Light gray to yellowish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of abundant
biodebris, green algae and common benthonic forams with sparse echinid, ostracod,
gastropod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams include common Soritidae with
sparse Miliolidae, smaller Rotaliida, Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida. Bioclastic molds,
filled with sparry calcite, are common. Polished surface displays nodular and dissolution
seams looking features.

CJA-06
Pinkish to yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris, green algae
and benthonic forams with sparse echinid and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams
include common Soritidae with sparse Miliolidae, smaller Rotaliida, Lockhartia and other
larger Rotaliida. Bioclasts are generally represented by molds filled with sparry calcite and
micrite. Fecal pellets are locally noticed occurring in pockets filled with mostly sparry
calcite. Polished surface displays locally developed stylolites and dissolution seams looking
features.
CJA-07
Yellowish brown to reddish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris,
benthonic forams, echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of sparse
Miliolidae, Soritidae, Alveolinidae, Smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites, Lockhartia and other
162

larger Rotaliida. Pressure dissolution has resulted in the development of nodular structure.
Polished surface displays the phenomenon of dissolution seams.

CJA-08
Whitish to yellowish gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris and benthonic
forams with sparse echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include common
Alveolinidae, Nummulites, Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida with sparse smaller
Rotaliida. Pressure dissolution has resulted in the concentration of bioclasts. Polished
surface displays burrow and dissolution seams looking features.

CJA-09
Tan to yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and benthonic
forams with sparse echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of common
Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae, Nummulites and
smaller Rotaliida. Locally microstylolites are well developed and marked by yellowish
brown to reddish brown insoluble residue. Polished surface displays stylolites and
dissolution seams.

KALLAR KAHAR

CKK-01
Pinkish to yellowish brown dolomitized micrite with very common channels and cracks of
different size which are filled with sparry calcite cement. These channels and cracks are
probably formed through the process of dissolution and cementation in a subaerial
environment. Polished surface displays the phenomenon of non-tectonic breccia (Esteban
and klappa, 1983, p.15).

CKK-02
Whitish to yellowish gray, caliche looking dolomitized micrite with very common
channels and cracks filled with sparry and sometimes laminated cement. Polished surface
displays features similar to caliche hardpan breccia (Esteban and Klappa, 1983, p.15), which
resulted probably due to alternate shrinkage and expansion and through the process of
dissolution and cementation along the bedding planes and non-tectonic fracture.

CKK-03
Whitish gray to yellowish gray, caliche looking dolomitized micrite with common
irregular channels and cracks filled with mostly microsparite. Polished surface displays
features similar to caliche hardpan breccia (Esteban and Klappa, 1983, p.15) developed
163

probably in a subaerial environment due to alternate shrinkage and expansion, and through
the process of dissolution and cementation.

CKK-04
Tan to brownish gray dolomitized intramicrite with locally developed thin fractures filled
with calcite cement. Intraclasts are rounded to subrounded, fine to very fine sand sized and
randomly floating in the groundmass of cryptocrystalline dolomite. Polished surface
displays vague lamination.

MAKHIAL

CMK-01
Whitish gray to yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
benthonic forams with sparse echinid and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams include
common smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites and other larger Rotaliida. Differential dissolution
has resulted in the concentration of biodebris in irregular patches. Polished surface displays
irregular patches of darker material representing probably burrows.

CMK-02
Yellowish brown marl.

CMK-03
Whitish gray to yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
benthonic forams with sparse echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include
common Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites and other larger Rotaliida with sparse
Miliolidae. Differential dissolution has resulted in the local concentration of bioclasts in
pockets. Polished surface displays irregular patches of darker material representing probably
burrows.

CMK-04
Yellowish brown marl.

CMK-05
Tan to pinkish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris, benthonic forams
and echinid fragments. Benthonic forams consist of common smaller Rotaliida with sparse
Nummulites and other Larger Rotaliida. Differential dissolution has resulted in the
concentration of bioclasts in pocks. Polished surface displays burrow looking features and
dissolution seams.

CMK-06
164

Yellowish brown marl.

CMK-07
Yellowish brown marl.

CMK-08
Yellowish brown marl.

CMK-09
Tan to yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris and common
benthonic forams with sparse echinid, ostracod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams
consist of common smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites and other larger Rotaliida with sparse
Soritidae. Differential dissolution has resulted in the concentration of bioclasts in pockets.

CMK-10
Tan to yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris, abundant
benthonic forams with sparse ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of common
Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites, Assilina and other larger Rotaliida with sparse
Alveolinidae. Differential pressure dissolution has resulted in the closer packing of bioclasts.
Polished surface displays well developed phenomenon of chemical compaction.

CKM-11
Tan to pinkish gray, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
benthonic forams with sparse echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of
common Alveolinidae, smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites and other larger Rotaliida with sparse
Soritidae and Lockhartia. Differential pressure dissolution has resulted in the concentration
of bioclasts in pockets. Polished surface displays the occurrence of a few randomly oriented
greenish gray clayey fragments.

CMK-12
Tan, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include abundant biodebris, common green algae
and common benthonic forams with sparse echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic
forams consist of common Miliolidae, Soritidae, Alveolinidae, smaller Rotaliida,
Nummulites and other larger Rotaliida. Polished surface displays occurrence of a few
greenish gray clayey fragments.

CMK-13
Bluish gray marl.

CMK-14
165

Bluish gray marl.

MEYAL-1

CM1-01
Medium gray dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts are of different shapes and sizes and
seem to be developed due to disintegration and reworking of algal mats. No skeletal grain is
noticed. A few locally developed filled fractures are present. Polished surface displays
locally developed filled fractures and some indication of vague lamination.

CM1-02
Medium gray finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are mostly subhedral to
anhedral and full of brown inclusions. Some randomly scattered euhedral dolomite crystals
are also noticed. Although fabric destructive dolomitization has taken place, yet a few
bioclastic ghost textures are present. Micromolds and microvugs are common and mostly
filled with anhydrite and gypsum looking minerals. Some medium sized euhedral dolomite
crystals are noticed within the vugs filled with anhydrite. Polished surface displays
occurrence of common and randomly distributed small and uniform sized molds, which are
mostly filled with anhydrite. A few thin filled fractures are also seen on the polished surface.

CM1-03
Light to medium gray dolomite (solution breccia), consisting of clasts of dolomitized
micrite. Thin section displays well developed clotted texture. Fecal pellets are locally
common and occur in clusters. Microvugs are common filled with anhydrite. Polished
surface displays common occurrence of anhydrite nodules of different size.

CM1-04
Light gray dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts are of different shapes and size and look to
be the product of disintegrated and reworked algal mats. No skeletal grain is noticed. Some
microvugs are noticed filled with anhydrite. Polished surface displays common occurrence
of anhydrite nodules of different size. Some stylolites are present marked by dark residues.

CM1-05
Medium to dark gray finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are mostly subhedral to
anhedral and full of brown inclusions. Although fabric destructive dolomitization has
completely destroyed the original fabric information, yet a few ghosts of intraclasts are
present. Open micromolds and microvugs are common and randomly distributed. Locally
developed microfractures are noticed filled with anhydrite. Polished surface displays vugs,
molds and fractures filled with black natural bitumen.
166

CM1-06
Light to medium gray dolomite (collapse breccia), consisting of clasts of dolomitized
micrite and irregular shaped vugs filled with anhydrite and at places with black solid
bitumen. Intraclasts looking ghosts are distributed throughout. Polished surface displays
features of collapse breccia and stylolites. Some of the cracks, channelways, on the polished
surface are partially or wholly filled with black solid hydrocarbons.

CM1-07
Medium gray finely crystalline dolomite with common irregular vugs filled with anhydrite.
Dolomite crystals are mostly subhedral to anhedral and full of brown inclusions. Some
randomly scattered anhedral dolomite crystals are also noticed. Intercrystalline pore space is
commonly stained with black natural bitumen. Polished surface displays common
occurrence of vugs of different size filled with anhydrite. Locally developed stylolites are
also seen on the polished surface.

MEYAL-2

CM2-01
Gray, sandy partially dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common pelecypod
fragments and sparse ostracods and smaller benthonic forams. Most of the pelecypod
fragments are aligned parallel to the bedding plane, indicating mechanical compaction
during early diagenesis. A few intraclasts are present, consisting of the same lithology as the
host rock. Fine sand sized, mostly angular, detrital quartz grains are abundant and randomly
distributed. Fine to very finely crystalline, mostly well developed, dolomite rhombs are
common and randomly scattered. Polished surface displays well developed stylolites marked
by dark coloured residues.
167

CM2-02
Medium gray partially dolomitized fossiliferous micrite with sparse, randomly
distributed, very fine grained detrital quartz grains. Bioclasts include sparse ostracod and
some unidentified very small sized fossil fragments. Fine to very finely crystalline dolomite
crystals are common and randomly distributed in the micritic matrix. A few well developed,
medium sized, dolomite rhombs are noticed with cloudy centers and comparatively clear
rims. A few, fine sand sized, intraclasts are also present. Polished surface displays irregular
features indicating probably bioturbation.

CM2-03
Light gray dolomitized intramicrite with common anhydrite nodules. Fine sand sized
micritic intraclasts are locally common. Vugs and channelways are noticed filled with
anhydrite and authigenic silica (chert and chalcedony). Sparse very fine sand sized detrital
quartz grains are seen scattered randomly. Very finely crystalline, opaque, pyrite looking
crystals occur in clusters. Some well developed, medium sized, dolomite rhombs are noticed
within the host of anhydrite. Polished surface displays lamination, irregular anhydrite
nodules and anhydrite layers developed along the bedding planes.

CM2-04
Light gray to gray dolomitized fossiliferous intramicrite. Randomly distributed
dolomicritic intraclasts are common and represent disintegrated algal mats. Bioclasts consist
mostly of ostracod fragments, which are generally represented by molds filled with
authigenic silica. Locally occurring well developed finely crystalline dolomite crystals are
noticed, partially replaced by silica. Polished surface displays fine lamination.

CM2-05
Medium to dark gray partially dolomitized biointramicrite with common detrital, fine
sand sized, quartz grains. Bioclasts include common echinid and ostracod fragments with
sparse benthonic forams. Intraclasts consist of sand to pebble sized biomicritic allochems.
Elongate wavy stringers of carbonaceous matter are common and aligned mostly along the
bedding planes. Euhedral to anhedral, finely crystalline, dolomite crystals are common and
randomly distributed throughout. Some of the vugs are filled with authigenic silica (chert).
Mechanical compaction has resulted in rearrangement and closer packing of bioclasts.
Polished surface displays lamination.

CM2-06
Light gray dolomitized fossiliferous intramicrite. Bioclasts include sparse echinid and
ostracod fragments. Intraclasts are fine sand sized, micritic and rounded allochems floating
in the groundmass of cryptocrystalline dolomite. Some of the ostracods are represented by
168

molds filled with mosaic of dolomite cement. Euhedral to anhedral, finely crystalline,
dolomite rhombs are randomly distributed throughout.

CM2-07
Light to medium gray biomicrite with abundant bioclasts. Bioclasts include mostly smaller
benthonic forams and echinid fragments with sparse ostracods. Microstylolites, marked by
dark-brown opaque residues, are very common. Pressure dissolution has probably resulted
in the closer packing of the bioclasts. Polished surface displays burrow looking features.

CM2-08
Light to medium gray, dolomitized micrite with common anhydrite nodules. Anhydrite
nodules show the phenomenon of chickenwire features, indicating growth by displacement.
Very finely crystalline, well developed, pyrite looking crystals are locally common within
the groundmass of dolomite and anhydrite laths. Polished surface displays fine lamination
and anhydrite nodules.

CM2-09
Light to medium gray dolomitized biointramicrite. Bioclasts consist of sparse Miliolidae,
Soritidae, gastropods and other unidentified fossil fragments. Intraclasts are mostly
subangular to rounded and consist of dolomicrite and dolobiomicrite. Sparse vugs are
noticed filled with authigenic silica looking substance. Polished surface displays locally
developed stylolites and vague laminations.

CM2-10
Light to medium gray dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts include common smaller
benthonic forams with sparse echinid fragments. Bioclasts are mostly micritized and some
of them are represented by filled molds. A few microfractures are noticed filled with silica,
anhydrite and carbonate cements. Polished surface displays vague lamination and well
developed stylolites.

CM2-11
Light gray dolomitized pelletiferous biomicrite. Bioclasts are locally common and
represented by molds filled with mostly by anhydrite. Well developed fecal pellets are
locally noticed occurring in clusters. A few dolomicritic intraclasts are seen. Polished
surface displays common occurrence of randomly distributed anhydrite nodules of different
size and one thin filled fracture.
169

CM2-12
Light to medium gray biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of abundant smaller benthonic forams,
common echinid fragments and sparse ostracods and pelecypods. One pelecypod bioclast is
noticed still retaining the internal fibrous microstructure. Microstylolites are common.
Pressure dissolution has resulted in closer packing of bioclasts. Polished surface displays
well developed flaser looking structure and one thin filled fracture.

CM2-13
Gray to buff dolomitized fossiliferous intramicrite with common anhydrite filled fenestrae
looking vugs of different size. Fine sand sized, subangular to subrounded, dolomicritic
intraclasts are common and randomly distributed. Very small sized fossil fragments are
represented by molds and filled with dolomite, anhydrite and gypsum cement.
Microfractures of different size are common and filled with mainly anhydrite. Polished
surface displays common occurrence of fenestrae looking vugs filled with anhydrite.

CM2-14
Light gray dolomitized biomicrite. Bioclasts, represented by dolomite filled molds, are
common and randomly scattered. Microvugs of different size, filled with anhydrite, are
common. Polished surface displays very common occurrence of anhydrite nodules of
different size, and filled and partially filled fractures.

CM2-15
Light gray dolomitized biointramicrite. Fossil fragments, represented by dolomite filled
molds, are common and randomly scattered. Intraclasts are common and randomly
distributed. Microvugs, filled with anhydrite, are common. A few well developed fecal
pellets are noticed. Polished surface displays common and well developed filled to partially
open thin fractures.

CM2-16
Medium gray dolomitized fossiliferous intramicrite. Fine sand sized, micritic intraclasts
are common and randomly distributed. Bioclasts are mostly micritized and consist of
smaller benthonic forams. Vugs and microvugs of different size are present, filled with
anhydrite. Polished surface displays well developed burrow looking features and locally
developed filled vugs.

CM2-17
Mottled, light to dark gray finely crystalline dolomite with open and anhydrite filled
microvugs. Locally intercrystalline space is noticed filled with black bitumen looking
substance. Polished surface displays locally developed anhydrite nodules, randomly oriented
filled vugs and sparse bioclastic molds.
170

CM2-18
Mottled, medium to dark gray finely crystalline dolomite with a few well rounded
intraclasts. Dolomite crystals are equiant, subhedral to anhedral, with brown coloured
cloudy centers. Micromolds and vugs are mostly filled with anhydrite and at places with
dolomite. Locally, dark bitumen looking substances are seen filling the intercrytalline space.
Polished surface displays white coloured anhydrite nodules.

CM2-19
Gray to medium gray finely crystalline dolomite with common vugs filled with anhydrite.
A few well rounded ghosts of intraclasts are noticed. Dolomite crystals are equiant,
subhedral to anhedral, with light brown to dark brown material filling intercrystalline space.
Dolomites adjacent to anhydrite nodules are relatively finer in crystal size. Polished surface
displays anhydrite nodules and locally developed thin filled fractures.

CM2-20
Medium gray finely crystalline dolomite with very common anhydrite filled vugs of
different size. Dolomite crystals are equiant, subhedral to anhedral and with relatively clear
centers. Polished surface displays occurrence of anhydrite nodules and a few thin filled
fractures.

CM2-21
Light to medium gray finely crystalline dolomite with common anhydrite filled vugs and
channelways. Dolomite crystals are equiant, subhedral to anhedral, and with mostly brown
coloured cloudy centers. At places, intercrystalline space is filled with dark brown to black
coloured bitumen looking substances. Dolomite crystals, filling the vugs along with
anhydrite, are euhedral and relatively larger in size. Locally occurring microstylolites are
marked by dark material. Polished surface displays locally developed thin fractures and
channelways.

CM2-22
Light gray to dark gray finely crystalline dolomite with common dolomicritic intraclast
looking ghosts scattered throughout. Dolomite crystals are equiant, subhedral to anhedral,
and with brown cloudy centers. Locally developed microchannelways and microvugs are
noticed filled with anhydrite. Polished surface displays irregular dark coloured patches.
171

CM2-23
Medium gray finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are equiant, subhedral to
anhedral, and with brown cloudy centers. Locally occurring dark gray bitumen looking
substance are present. Polished surface displays burrow looking features and one well
developed stylolite marked with natural solid bitumen looking substance.

CM2-24
Light to medium gray finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are equiant, subhedral
to anhedral, and with brown cloudy centers. Open microvugs are common. Some of the
microvugs are filled with gypsum, anhydrite and dolomite. Polished surface displays
common filled channelways, open vugs of different size, a few thin filled fractures and
randomly distributed solid bitumen looking material.

CM2-25
Medium gray very finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are equiant, subhedral to
anhedral, and with centers filled with brown coloured inclusions. Sparse open microvugs
are locally present. Polished surface displays large anhydrite nodules, common anhydrite
filled vugs, channel-ways and locally well developed stylolites, marked with solid bitumen
looking material.

MEYAL-10

CM10-01
Light gray dolomitized intramicrite. Intraclasts are mostly dolobiomicritic in composition
and seem to be formed due to disintegration and reworking of algal mats. Bioclasts,
occurring within the intraclasts are benthonic forams, consisting mostly of smaller Rotaliida
and sparse Miliolidae. Preservation of primary sedimentary texture indicates fabric retentive
dolomitization. Polished surface displays well developed, stromatolites and stylolites.

CM10-02
Light gray dolomitized intramicrite. Silt to fine sand size micritic intraclasts are common
and randomly distributed. Dolomite crystals are subhedral to anhedral and full of dark
coloured inclusions. Rock fabric gives the impression of collapse breccia. Irregular vugs of
different size are common and filled with anhydrite. Polished surface displays vugs and
fractures filled with anhydrite.
172

CM10-03
Medium gray finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are subhedral to anhedral and
full of brown inclusions. Microvugs of different size and shapes are common and filled with
anhydrite. Some well developed euhedral dolomite crystals are noticed within the vugs filled
with anhydrite. A few intraclast looking ghosts are noticed floating randomly within the
groundmass of dolomite. Rock fabric gives the indication of collapse breccia. Polished
surface displays common vugs and channelways filled with anhydrite. A few cracks and
vugs, displayed on the polished surface, are partially filled with solid hydrocarbon.

CM10-04
Dark gray finely crystalline dolomite. Dolomite crystals are mostly euhedral to subhedral
with centers full of brown inclusions. Intercrystalline pore space is filled with opaque
substance. Some calcite crystals are noticed scattered randomly throughout. Dolomitization
has completely destroyed the original fabric information. Polished surface displays one
filled fracture and locally developed stylolites marked by dark residues.

RASSI WAN

CRW-01
Mottled cream to yellowish gray, microporous dolomite (collapse breccia). Brecciated
structure is apparent by distinct clasts, such as, dolomicritic and pelmicritic. Pelmicritic
clasts consist of mostly fecal pellets, sparse micritic intraclasts and bioclasts. Bioclasts are
entirely represented by filled molds. Fecal pellets, within the pelmicritic clasts, are
sometimes surrounded by microsparite.

CRW-02
Mottled, cream to yellowish gray, microporous micrite (collapse breccia). Brecciated
structure is apparent by distinct clasts, such as, dolomicrite and mostly intramicrite.
Intraclasts are of different size and dolomicritic in composition.

CRW-03
Cream to tan, chalky, microporous dolomite (collapse breccia). Brecciated structure is
apparent by distinct clasts, such as, dolomicrite and microdolosparite. A few intraclast
looking allochems are noticed randomly distributed throughout. Polished surface displays
irregular patches with common open molds and vugs.

CRW-04
Mottled cream to whitish gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Brecciated structure is apparent
by distinct clasts, such as, dolomicrite and dolobiomicrite. Biomicritic clasts consist of
sparse bioclasts, which are highly micritized. Elongate open vugs give the impression of
173

molds of rootlets. Polished surface displays development of very common open vugs and
channelways.

CRW-05
Cream to whitish gray dolomitized biointramicrite. Subangular dolomicritic intraclasts are
common and randomly distributed. Biomicritic intraclasts are sparse. Bioclasts are
represented mostly by open molds and consist of smaller benthonic forams. Open microvugs
and micromolds are very common. Polished surface gives chalky and sponge looking
appearance and displays presence of very common open vugs and molds of different size.

CRW-06
Yellowish gray to buff dolomitized biomicrite. Brecciated structure is displayed on
polished hand specimen as well as in thin section. The two distinct microfacies are
biomicrites, one with more dense texture than the other. Bioclasts are mostly represented by
molds filled generally with sparry calcite cement. Polished surface displays phenomenon of
collapse breccia and randomly scattered thin fractures.

CRW-07
Cream to yellowish gray finely crystalline dolomite with clotted texture. Dolomite crystals
are equiant, euhedral to anhedral and almost entirely full of dark coloured substance.
Intercrystalline space is at places filled with bitumen looking black substances.

SETHI

CSI-01
Tan to yellowish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of abundant biodebris common
benthonic forams and echinid fragments with sparse ostracods. Benthonic forams include
common Miliolidae and smaller Rotaliida with sparse Textulariidae and Soritidae. A few
randomly scattered microvugs and micromolds are noticed infilled with sparry calcite.
Microstylolites, marked by dark insoluble residue, are locally developed. Polished surface
displays local development of stylolites and concentration of fossil fragments in irregular
patches.

CSI-02
Tan to pinkish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include mostly biodebris with
sparse benthonic forams, echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams consist of
sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida, Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida. A few
micromolds and microvugs are noticed filled with sparry calcite. Polished surface displays
numerous thin fractures filled with dark material.
174

CSI-03
Tan to yellowish brown, porcellaneous pelletiferous biomicrite. Fecal pellets are locally
developed in pockets filled with sparry calcite and microsparite. Bioclasts include common
biodebris and echinid fragments with sparse benthonic forams. Benthonic forams consist of
sparse Textulariidae, Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida. Polished surface displays
local development of stylolites, marked by dark brown insoluble residue.

CSI-04
Tan to whitish gray porcellaneous pelletiferous biomicrite. Fecal pellets are locally
developed in pockets filled with sparry calcite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
echinid fragments with sparse benthonic forams and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams
consist of sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida. Polished surface displays some
stylolite looking features, marked by insoluble residue.

CSI-05
Tan to pinkish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
echinid fragments with sparse benthonic forams, ostracod and pelecypod fragments.
Benthonic forams consist of sparse Miliolidae, smaller Rotaliida, Lockhartia and other
larger Rotaliida. Grain contact sutures and filled microfractures are present. Polished surface
displays common thin fractures and some dark brown coloured, well rounded spots
representing probably burrows.

CSI-06
Tan to pinkish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris,
benthonic forams and echinid fragments with sparse ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams
consist of common Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida with sparse Nummulites,
Assilina Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida. Polished surface displays a few small thin
fractures and randomly scattered bioclasts.

CSI-07
Yellowish to pinkish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common
biodebris and echinid fragments with sparse benthonic forams and ostracod debris.
Benthonic forams consist of smaller Rotaliida. Some of the biomolds are filled with
microsparite and sparite. Polished surface displays very common and well developed
stylolites marked by pinkish insoluble residue.

CSI-08
Tan to yellowish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris,
benthonic forams and echinid fragments with sparse ostracod and pelecypod fragments.
175

Benthonic forams consist of common Soritidae with sparse Textulariidae, Miliolidae,


Nummulites, Lockhartia and other larger Rotaliida. Polished surface displays some stylolite
looking features, marked by brownish material.

CSI-09
Yellowish brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
echinids with sparse benthonic forams, ostracod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic
forams consist of sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida and Lockhartia. Locally
well-preserved fecal pellets are noticed occurring in cluster. Polished surface displays a few
thin filled fractures.

CSI-10
Tan, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris, benthonic forams and
echinid fragments with sparse ostracods. Benthonic forams consist of common Soritidae,
smaller Rotaliida, Nummulites and other larger Rotaliida with sparse Miliolidae and
Lockhartia. Polished surface displays the phenomenon of pressure dissolution.

CSI-11
Tan to pinkish brown biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris, benthonic forams
and echinid fragments with sparse ostracods. Benthonic forams consist of common
Nummulites with sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae, Alveolinidae, smaller Rotaliida, Lockhartia
and other larger Rotaliida. Polished surface displays locally developed stylolites and
dissolution seams.

CSI-12
Light gray porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts consist of common biodebris and benthonic
forams with sparse echinid and ostracod fragments. Benthonic forams include Nummulites
with sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae, smaller Rotaliida and Lockhartia. Some of the tests are
filled with micrite. Grain-contact suture displays the phenomenon of pressure-dissolution.
Microstylolites, marked by brown insoluble residue, are locally developed. Polished surface
displays common occurrence of stylolites.
176

CSI-13
Tan to light brown, porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and
benthonic forams with sparse echinid and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams consist
mostly of Nummulites with sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida. A few
elongate filled vugs are present. Polished surface displays a few thin filled fractures and
stylolites.

CSI-14
Light gray porcellaneous biomicrite. Bioclasts include common biodebris and benthonic
forams with sparse ostracod and pelecypod fragments. Benthonic forams consist mostly of
Nummulites with sparse Miliolidae, Soritidae and smaller Rotaliida. Some of the tests are
partially filled with micrite and partially with microsparite and sparite. Local occurrence of
well developed ooids is noticed with radiating texture. Polished surface displays a few
partially open thin fractures.

CSI-15
Yellowish brown marl.

CSI-16
Yellowish brown marl.

CSI-17
Yellowish brown marl.
APPENDIX B 
X-ray diffraction analysis data
Order Ratio CaCo3 Evaporite
Locality Sample No  015/110 d104 Ao  mol % Mineral  Association
             
Chak Khushi CCK - 01 Not applicable 3.0327 98.89 Calcite  
  CCK - 02       Dolomite  
  CCK - 03 0.56 2.8945 52.83 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCK - 04 0.67 2.8884 50.8 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCK - 05   2.9004 54.8 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCK - 06 0.5 2.9044 56.13 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCK - 07 0.67 2.9035 55.83 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCK - 08 Not applicable 3.0341 99.37 Calcite  
             
Chorgali pass CCG - 03 Not applicable 3.0323 98.77 Calcite  
  CCG - 05 Not applicable 3.0301 98.03 Calcite  
  CCG - 11   2.8905 51.5 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCG - 13   2.893 52.33 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCG - 15   2.9044 56.13 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CCG - 17 Not applicable 3.0319 98.63 Calcite  
  CCG - 20   2.8877 50.57 Dolomite  
  CCG - 21   2.906 56.67 Dolomite  
  CCG - 22   2.9062 56.73 Dolomite  
  CCG - 23   2.8895 51.17 Dolomite  
  CCG - 24   2.9066 56.87 Dolomite  
  CCG - 25 0.75 2.8904 51.47 Dolomite  
  CCG - 26   2.9013 55.1 Dolomite  
  CCG - 28 Not applicable 3.0334 99.13 Calcite  
  CCG - 29   2.9014 55.13 Dolomite  
  CCG - 33   2.8868 50.26 Dolomite  
  CCG - 36   2.8883 50.77 Dolomite  
  CCG - 37   2.8883 50.77 Dolomite  
  CCG - 38   2.8901 51.37 Dolomite  
  CCG - 41   2.9003 54.77 Dolomite  
             
Dakhni-3 CDI - 01   2.8875 50.5 Dolomite  
  CDI - 02 0.5 2.8902 51.4 Dolomite  
  CDI - 03 0.67 2.8882 50.73 Dolomite  
  CDI - 04 0.67 2.8901 51.37 Dolomite  
  CDI - 05 0.57 2.8888 50.93 Dolomite  
  CDI - 06   2.8975 53.83 Dolomite  
  CDI - 07 0.28 2.8945 52.83 Dolomite  
  CDI - 08   2.8911 51.7 Dolomite  
  CDI - 09 0.4 2.8918 51.93 Dolomite  
  CDI - 10   2.8874 50.47 Dolomite  
  CDI - 11 0.17 2.8998 54.6 Dolomite  
  CDI - 12   2.9031 55.7 Dolomite  
178

Dhulian-37 CDN - 01   2.8893 51.1 Dolomite Evap. Asso.


  CDN - 02   2.9098 57.9 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CDN - 03   2.9046 56.2 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.

Dom Nala CDM - 01 0.45 2.8875 50.6 Dolomite  


  CDM - 02 0.8 2.8882 50.73 Dolomite  
  CDM - 03 0.71 2.8848 49.6 Dolomite  
  CDM - 04   2.899 54.33 Dolomite  
  CDM - 05 0.4 2.8878 50.6 Dolomite  
             
Dulmial CDL - 01 Not applicable 3.0333 99.1 Calcite  
  CDL - 02 Not applicable 3.0301 98.03 Calcite  
  CDL - 03 Not applicable 3.0335 99.17 Calcite  
  CDL - 04 Not applicable 3.0323 98.77 Calcite  
  CDL - 05 Not applicable 3.0328 98.93 Calcite  
  CDL - 06 Not applicable 3.0341 99.37 Calcite  
             
Hattar CHR - 01 Not applicable 3.0308 98.27 Calcite  
  CHR - 02   2.9014 55.13 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CHR - 03 Not applicable 3.0315 98.5 Calcite  
  CHR - 04   2.9063 56.77 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
  CHR - 05 Not applicable 3.0323 98.77 Ca + Dol  
  CHR - 06 Not applicable 3.0281 97.37 Ca + Dol  
  CHR - 07 0.36 2.9082 57.4 Dolomite  
  CHR - 08 Not applicable 3.0337 99.23 Cal + Dol  
  CHR - 09 Not applicable 3.0333 99.1 Cal + Dol  
  CHR - 10 Not applicable 3.0338 99.27 Cal + Dol  
  CHR - 11 Not applicable 3.0277 97.23 Calcite  
  CHR - 12 Not applicable 3.0319 98.63 Calcite  
  CHR - 13 Not applicable 3.0335 99.17 Cal + Dol  
  CHR - 14 Not applicable 3.0301 98.03 Calcite  
  CHR - 15 Not applicable 3.0323 98.77 Calcite  
  CHR - 16 Not applicable 3.0311 98.37 Calcite  
  CHR - 17 Not applicable 3.0323 98.77 Calcite  
  CHR - 18 Not applicable 3.0325 98.83 Calcite  
             
Jhunga CJA - 01 Not applicable 3.0307 98.23 Calcite  
  CJA - 02 Not applicable 3.0333 99.1 Calcite  
  CJA - 03 Not applicable 3.0333 99.1 Calcite  
  CJA - 04 Not applicable 3.0334 99.13 Calcite  
  CJA - 05 Not applicable 3.0342 99.4 Calcite  
  CJA - 06 Not applicable 3.0324 98.8 Calcite  
  CJA - 07 Not applicable 3.0289 97.63 Calcite  
  CJA - 08 Not applicable 3.0335 99.17 Calcite  
  CJA - 09 Not applicable 3.0335 99.17 Calcite  
             
Kallar Kahar CKK - 01   2.8922 52.07 Dol + Cal Not Evap. Asso.
  CKK - 02   2.8958 53.27 Dol + Cal Not Evap. Asso.
  CKK - 03   2.891 51.67 Dol + Cal Not Evap. Asso.
  CKK - 04   2.9031 55.7 Dolomite Not Evap. Asso.
Makhial CMK - 01 Not applicable 3.0346 99.53 Calcite  
  CMK - 02 Not applicable 3.0353 99.77 Calcite  
179

  CMK - 03 Not applicable 3.0336 99.2 Calcite  


  CMK - 04 Not applicable 3.0351 99.7 Calcite  
  CMK - 05 Not applicable 3.0342 99.4 Calcite  
  CMK - 06 Not applicable 3.0318 98.6 Calcite  
  CMK - 07 Not applicable 3.0336 99.2 Calcite  
             
Meyal-1 CM1 - 01 0.75 2.8883 50.77 Dolomite  
  CM1 - 02 0.75 2.8875 50.5 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM1 - 03 1 2.8854 49.8 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM1 - 04 0.7 2.8861 50.03 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM1 - 05 0.5 2.8885 50.83 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM1 - 06   2.8903 51.43 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM1 - 07   2.8846 49.53 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
             
Meyal-2 CM2 - 01 Not applicable 3.0328 98.93 Cal + Dol  
  CM2 - 02 Not applicable 3.0269 96.97 Cal + Dol  
  CM2 - 03   2.9061 56.7 Dolomite  
  CM2 - 04   2.8943 52.77 Dolomite  
  CM2 - 05 Not applicable 3.0315 98.5 Cal + Dol  
  CM2 - 06   2.9038 55.93 Dol + Cal  
  CM2 - 07 Not applicable 3.0322 98.73 Calcite  
  CM2 - 08   2.8959 53.3 Dolomite  
  CM2 - 09   2.9062 56.73 Dolomite  
  CM2 - 10   2.8941 52.7 Dolomite  
  CM2 - 11   2.8822 48.73 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 12 Not applicable 3.0325 98.83 Calcite  
  CM2 - 13   2.8875 50.5 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 14   2.8878 50.6 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 15   2.8873 50.43 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 16 0.71 2.8865 50.17 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 17 0.5 2.8922 52.07 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 18   2.8882 50.73 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 19   2.8929 52.3 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 20   2.8905 51.5 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 21 0.5 2.8903 51.43 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 22   2.8846 49.53 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 23 0.75 2.8915 51.83 Dolomite  
  CM2 - 24   2.8906 51.53 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM2 - 25 0.57 2.8906 51.53 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
             
Meyal-10 CM10 - 01   2.8871 50.37 Dolomite  
  CM10 - 02 1 2.8857 49.9 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM10 - 03 1 2.8887 50.9 Dolomite Evap. Asso.
  CM10 - 04   2.9001 54.7 Dolomite  
180

Rassi Wan CRW - 01 0.8 2.8836 49.2 Dol + Cal  


  CRW - 02 Not applicable 3.0296 97.87 Cal + Dol  
  CRW - 03 0.57 2.8883 50.77 Dolomite  
  CRW - 04   2.8881 50.7 Dolomite  
  CRW - 05 0.57 2.889 51 Dolomite  
  CRW - 06 0.5 2.8916 51.87 Dol + Cal  
  CRW - 07   2.8957 53.23 Dol + Cal  
             
Sethi CSI - 01 Not applicable 3.0329 98.97 Calcite  
  CSI - 02 Not applicable 3.0338 99.27 Calcite  
  CSI - 03 Not applicable 3.0346 99.53 Calcite  
  CSI - 04 Not applicable 3.0358 99.93 Calcite  
  CSI - 05 Not applicable 3.0337 99.23 Calcite  
  CSI - 06 Not applicable 3.0328 98.93 Calcite  
  CSI - 08 Not applicable 3.0336 99.2 Calcite  
  CSI - 10 Not applicable 3.0306 98.2 Calcite  
  CSI - 11 Not applicable 3.0318 98.6 Calcite  
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
APPENDIX C
Atomic absorption analysis data.

BHADRAR

Sample # I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CBR - 01 1.53 1.68 32.37 372 570 351 132 0.086 0.5256 3.0692 0.7916 0.2927 0
CBR - 03 11.37 1.88 31.65 370 587 467 388 0.098 0.5347 3.2327 1.0771 0.8798 0

CHAK KHUSHI

Sample # I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CCK - 01 10.15 0.91 26.9 601 289 91 183 0.056 1.0219 1.8749 0.2477 0.4869 0
CCK - 02 8.37 10.35 17.43 465 923 222 972 0.979 1.2201 9.23 0.9279 4.0041 99
CCK - 03 8.8 12.3 20.62 241 1029 353 2773 0.999 0.4099 6.6596 0.9575 7.3931 100
CCK - 04 9.39 11.26 18.69 217 785 223 2485 0.994 0.5325 7.3243 0.8715 9.552 100
CCK - 05 7.62 10.9 18.21 318 871 174 995 0.987 0.7995 8.3369 0.7074 3.9212 100
CCK - 06 11.55 11.31 18.96 279 817 185 897 0.983 0.6737 7.5107 0.7139 3.3937 100
CCK - 07 28.15 12.18 20.67 273 1184 189 2427 0.971 0.6037 9.9841 0.6685 8.4284 100
CCK - 08 12.56 1.49 27.18 446 512 141 280 0.09 0.7505 3.2851 0.3777 0.7397 0

CHAK NAURANG-01

Sample# I . R . % Mg % Ca % Sr(ppm) Na (ppm) Mn (ppm) Fe (ppm) Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CCN - 01 16.86 12.38 21.28 1056 840 488 612 0.959 2.2698 3.1156 1.6741 2.0639 100
CCN - 02 12.11 1.75 28.1 510 560 152 440 0.103 0.8301 3.4736 0.3949 1.1238 0
CCN - 03 13.93 1.85 26.05 528 582 144 418 0.117 0.9271 3.8941 0.4035 1.1516 0
CCN - 04 10.97 1.68 33.42 502 522 122 398 0.083 0.6871 2.7225 0.2665 0.8547 0
CCN - 05 24.18 1.92 30.16 498 498 132 400 0.105 0.7553 2.878 0.3195 0.9518 0
CCN - 06 25.81 1.78 31.37 480 502 90 440 0.094 0.6999 2.7892 0.2094 1.0066 0
CCN - 07 44.97 1.82 31.65 452 488 112 488 0.095 0.6532 2.6875 0.2583 1.1066 0
CCN - 08 13.64 1.7 33.3 492 440 80 200 0.084 0.6758 2.3031 0.1754 0.431 0
CCN - 09 7.07 1.9 30.66 440 468 90 170 0.102 0.6564 2.6605 0.2143 0.3979 0

CHORGALI PASS

Sample# I . R . % Mg % Ca % Sr(ppm) Na (ppm) Mn (ppm) Fe (ppm) Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CCG - 01 1.32 2.13 27.36 316 512 2657 357 0.128 0.5285 3.2601 7.0891 0.9356 0
CCG - 03 18.12 2.66 18.86 471 1429 3541 423 0.098 0.4807 5.5523 5.7617 0.6761 1
CCG - 05 11.29 5.81 18.73 529 1774 3653 3135 0.235 0.5937 7.5917 6.5484 5.5241 8
CCG - 11 15.15 11.76 20.62 94 1409 2751 2580 0.988 0.1455 8.2857 6.7746 6.2464 100
CCG - 12 16.15 10.92 21.12 197 848 956 2052 0.999 0.3369 5.5324 2.6136 5.5139 100
CCG - 13 9.56 11.23 21.25 171 1533 1113 2058 0.898 0.2701 9.2043 2.7976 5.0879 95
CCG - 15 26.15 10.94 20.42 397 1639 659 3176 0.889 0.5883 9.2602 1.5606 7.3884 98
CCG - 17 11.03 10.4 19.23 316 1648 879 1142 0.437 0.3683 7.3221 1.6357 2.0893 20
CCG - 18 3.05 2.58 28.53 486 486 356 533 0.088 0.4579 1.7448 0.5353 0.7886 0
CCG - 20 11.42 11.21 21.82 157 1489 563 1237 0.989 0.2433 8.7977 1.3941 3.0102 99
CCG - 21 23.8 11.62 20.82 387 1662 499 1984 0.907 0.5546 9.0726 1.1402 4.46 100
CCG - 22 23.95 10.2 21.47 418 1752 427 1867 0.901 0.6078 9.7036 0.9914 4.2587 100
CCG - 23 15.12 10.69 21.22 298 1651 595 1586 0.987 0.4367 9.2175 1.3911 3.6452 98
CCG - 24 18.84 11.61 19.28 534 1146 378 929 0.974 0.6374 5.2181 0.7213 1.7416 100
CCG - 25 18.19 10.11 21.34 180 799 594 1669 0.888 0.2201 3.7313 1.1613 3.2066 98
CCG - 26 12.79 10.27 20.87 706 1256 546 678 0.902 0.8311 5.6321 1.025 1.2512 97
CCG - 27 2.94 9.07 20.3 165 865 381 1369 0.868 0.2198 4.3968 0.8111 2.8642 99
CCG - 28 6.38 12.34 20.46 2213 488 474 340 0.411 2.0469 1.7204 0.7 0.4929 20
CCG - 29 24.46 12.22 20.58 355 1623 680 3001 0.952 0.4099 7.1472 1.2549 5.4414 99
189

CCG - 30 3.03 11.8 20.74 627 1784 192 932 0.865 0.7598 8.2393 0.3709 1.7726 95
CCG - 31 2.35 11.84 19.82 279 856 105 719 0.888 0.3461 4.0533 0.2091 1.4014 97
CCG - 32 1.87 12.2 20.88 251 731 85 434 0.879 0.3027 3.3622 0.163 0.8225 95
CCG - 33 15.74 11.88 21.39 336 673 796 684 0.926 0.4341 3.3141 1.6426 1.3862 100
CCG - 34 4.64 11.22 21.62 171 708 99 758 0.891 0.2473 3.9022 0.2276 1.7209 98
CCG - 36 11.79 11.17 21.71 503 622 617 830 0.958 0.6632 3.1251 1.2969 1.7157 100
CCG - 37 38.24 11.34 20.43 181 792 465 774 0.966 0.2277 3.7881 0.9311 1.5247 100
CCG - 38 6.96 10.95 19.61 287 650 440 954 0.979 0.3906 3.3723 0.9548 2.038 100
CCG - 39 2.08 7.4 21.25 1427 529 100 304 0.253 1.3524 1.9108 0.1514 0.4526 12
CCG - 40 1.75 12.59 21.26 791 582 111 276 0.484 0.7819 2.1936 0.1751 0.4279 25
CCG - 41 7.89 11.51 20.18 376 685 381 388 0.865 0.4621 3.2112 0.7481 0.748 98

DAKHNI-3

Sample # I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CDI - 01 1.19 12.92 20.84 311 1847 202 161 0.925 0.348 7.8835 0.3618 0.2828 100
CDI - 02 1.74 11.37 19.29 337 915 197 115 0.929 0.3562 3.6869 0.3332 0.1908 100
CDI - 03 0.52 11.04 20.49 381 773 215 51 0.999 0.6579 5.0868 0.5929 0.1389 100
CDI - 04 1.66 10.91 21.96 297 717 238 60 0.997 0.4857 4.4684 0.6212 0.1539 100
CDI - 05 4.28 10.73 20.87 358 779 195 113 0.989 0.588 4.8736 0.5116 0.2905 100
CDI - 06 7.04 11.81 21.3 687 1652 194 500 0.96 0.9733 8.9147 0.4376 1.1113 95
CDI - 07 8.62 9.74 21.26 544 1429 189 404 0.967 0.8222 8.2312 0.4567 0.9578 99
CDI - 08 10.33 10.43 20.95 396 1415 310 298 0.993 0.626 8.5193 0.781 0.738 100
CDI - 09 1.08 12.19 20.86 399 767 175 129 0.982 0.6328 4.6337 0.4423 0.3218 100
CDI - 10 1.1 11.81 20.54 567 927 207 140 0.961 0.8497 5.2925 0.4955 0.3279 95
CDI - 11 19.13 11.83 20.38 622 1693 228 408 0.975 0.9437 9.7133 0.5509 0.9714 100
CDI - 12 0.5 10.56 21.9 442 625 73 63 0.968 0.6765 3.6442 0.1791 0.1519 99

DHULIAN-37

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CDN - 01 4.22 10.93 19.16 1272 1953 1655 1160 0.887 1.6541 9.6817 3.4354 2.3674 100
CDN - 02 55.37 9.27 21.26 1154 2406 1024 4824 0.796 1.0502 8.3439 1.4873 6.8883 100
CDN - 03 17.55 11.68 20.63 1024 1652 432 775 0.579 1.049 6.4518 0.7062 1.2462 75

DOM NALA

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CDM - 01 2.77 9.96 21.77 335 1625 391 693 0.984 0.4827 8.9153 0.898 1.5659 99
CDM - 02 1.77 10.37 19.83 945 1608 483 787 0.973 1.3162 8.5373 1.0729 1.7202 98
CDM - 03 0.81 11.58 21.64 593 1531 697 493 0.989 0.8306 8.1757 1.5578 1.0838 99
CDM - 04 1.53 11.65 19.78 4636 1816 487 1256 0.979 7.2984 9.1009 1.0231 2.592 99
CDM - 05 4.72 9.59 20.14 508 1842 362 569 0.994 0.6805 9.4042 0.7742 1.1979 100

DULMIAL

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CDL - 01 1.34 1.47 32.08 375 460 358 221 0.076 0.5347 2.5002 0.8142 0.4943 0
CDL - 02 6.27 1.3 29.09 368 496 229 238 0.074 0.5787 2.9721 0.5755 0.5869 0
CDL - 03 7.44 1.32 29.35 417 468 217 251 0.074 0.6498 2.7778 0.54 0.6128 0
CDL - 04 6.53 1.25 28.59 205 530 265 312 0.072 0.3287 3.2289 0.6775 0.7843 0
CDL - 05 7.78 1.46 29.6 214 514 102 291 0.082 0.3301 3.0263 0.2513 0.7045 0
CDL - 06 6.95 1.35 29.42 427 508 226 262 0.076 0.6639 3.0097 0.5608 0.6391 0

HATTAR

Sample # I. R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dol. %
                           
                           
CHR - 01 7.43 0.81 39.67 375 754 749 174 0.027 0.3452 2.6459 1.1002 0.2716 0
CHR - 02 8.03 11.63 20.28 626 1906 274 167 0.768 0.647 7.5036 0.4518 0.2943 100
190

CHR - 03 5.13 0.81 35.06 1809 869 223 86 0.028 1.7579 3.2166 0.3466 0.1382 0
CHR - 04 5.82 9.5 21.49 675 1863 310 137 0.731 0.6369 6.6979 0.4667 0.2153 95
CHR - 05 1.87 1.02 35.81 364 741 307 123 0.289 0.3632 2.8191 0.4888 0.1964 15
CHR - 06 9.71 1.21 32.76 1348 894 341 116 0.139 1.2389 3.1306 0.5004 0.1853 10
CHR - 07 2.84 8.09 20.31 1000 1945 413 260 0.731 1.0099 7.4836 0.6649 0.4239 90
CHR - 08 5.5 12.59 36.56 192 780 684 156 0.568 0.2396 3.7181 1.3649 0.324 30
CHR - 09 4.87 2.39 33.72 429 775 659 233 0.323 0.5201 3.5802 1.2757 0.466 20
CHR - 10 8.03 1.07 36.88 398 794 706 217 0.316 0.4935 3.7511 1.3967 0.4591 20
CHR - 11 3.73 1.43 36.99 2166 838 320 131 0.054 2.2519 3.3214 0.5309 0.2219 0
CHR - 12 4.51 1.23 36.08 1642 778 282 77 0.057 2.0819 3.7592 0.57 0.1604 0
CHR - 13 6.7 1.59 34.46 120 740 680 197 0.133 0.1235 2.8994 1.1158 0.3408 5
CHR - 14 3.7 1.74 37.99 1611 772 350 129 0.061 1.5678 2.8619 0.5437 0.2046 0
CHR - 15 5.43 1.32 38.71 2242 777 310 107 0.048 2.2431 2.9635 0.4948 0.1776 0
CHR - 16 5.12 1.53 37.04 1020 765 262 182 0.055 1.0136 2.897 0.4161 0.299 0
CHR - 17 4.95 1.53 36.43 1943 799 280 180 0.054 1.9144 2.9978 0.44 0.2927 0
CHR - 18 4.04 1.56 36.74 1444 814 349 188 0.058 1.4767 3.1709 0.5696 0.3143 0

JHUNGA

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CJA - 01 2.32 1.3 29.53 402 483 163 251 0.073 0.6231 2.8516 0.4023 0.6095 0
CJA - 02 3.99 1.32 31.48 251 483 175 378 0.069 0.3648 2.6762 0.4058 0.8621 0
CJA - 03 3.39 1.31 30.56 360 471 102 223 0.071 0.5392 2.6865 0.2448 0.5227 0
CJA - 04 2.51 1.2 28.36 411 462 163 382 0.07 0.6633 2.8367 0.4198 0.9655 0
CJA - 05 1.98 1.29 31.01 334 467 155 178 0.069 0.492 2.6259 0.365 0.4108 0
CJA - 06 3.87 1.32 30.45 515 492 101 379 0.072 0.7735 2.8167 0.2419 0.8729 0
CJA - 07 7.84 1.32 30.92 590 463 91 584 0.071 0.8731 2.6114 0.2151 1.3548 0
CJA - 08 3.24 1.21 29.35 592 528 71 246 0.068 0.9228 3.1362 0.1773 0.6014 0
CJA - 09 6.11 1.13 35.15 564 377 59 248 0.1 0.7346 1.8698 0.1217 0.5067 0

KALLAR KAHAR

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CKK - 01 3.43 10.99 21.66 511 710 367 531 0.766 0.9869 5.2328 1.1309 1.6112 70
CKK - 02 4.07 11.21 21.64 705 756 380 429 0.816 1.4236 5.818 1.2267 1.3613 85
CKK - 03 4.5 12.38 21.28 1057 842 487 601 0.959 2.2712 6.8965 1.6705 2.0273 90
CKK - 04 6.64 11.96 19.98 1631 1095 243 876 0.987 3.7352 9.5525 0.8885 3.1478 100

MAKHIAL

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CKM - 01 5.99 0.66 25.6 406 266 127 162 0.043 0.7259 1.8176 0.3609 0.4532 0
CMK - 02 6.68 0.69 25.29 497 279 95 188 0.045 0.8993 1.9276 0.2753 0.5322 0
CMK - 03 9.59 0.77 25.74 522 296 108 311 0.05 0.9278 2.0074 0.3074 0.8666 0
CMK - 04 8.95 0.79 26.03 689 292 219 181 0.05 1.212 1.9563 0.616 0.4996 0
CMK - 05 4 0.75 26.17 663 252 247 113 0.047 1.1599 1.6792 0.6887 0.3085 0
CMK - 06 4.47 0.84 26.5 607 279 224 143 0.052 1.0478 1.838 0.6169 0.3883 0
CMK - 07 3.23 0.98 26.19 692 245 235 187 0.062 1.2089 1.6295 0.6537 0.5124 0

MEYAL-1

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CM1 - 01 3.02 11.35 21.28 2062 943 264 2102 0.937 2.9218 5.0918 0.597 4.6733 100
CM1 - 02 5.93 10.4 20.43 1506 856 91 1019 0.808 2.1917 4.7471 0.2114 2.3268 100
CM1 - 03 4.97 12.2 21.5 961 1388 161 2048 0.945 1.3121 7.2217 0.3508 4.3875 100
CM1 - 04 6.56 11.83 21.28 1285 1712 207 2989 0.858 1.7146 8.7048 0.4408 6.2577 100
CM1 - 05 2.82 12.78 20.15 864 963 91 1465 0.963 1.2292 5.2209 0.2066 3.2703 100
CM1 - 06 1.85 11.73 21.78 1318 1796 108 1794 0.983 1.7333 9.0007 0.2267 3.7019 100
CM1 - 07 11.93 10.78 20.83 672 1106 110 2018 0.964 0.9086 5.6984 0.2374 4.281 100

MEYAL - 2
191

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CM2 - 01 24.63 3.74 33.1 536 1738 1296 1774 0.585 0.7406 9.1521 2.8586 3.8458 25
CM2 - 02 28.41 2.97 35.79 460 2108 2252 1399 0.443 0.5154 9.0007 4.03 2.4627 20
CM2 - 03 37.33 11.92 21.92 2161 1815 788 3159 0.747 3.002 9.6098 1.748 6.888 100
CM2 - 04 34.9 10.18 20.3 1290 1818 1719 2210 0.999 1.7722 9.5158 3.7678 7.3158 100
CM2 - 05 14.16 273 32.8 591 1542 556 890 0.424 0.7146 7.1103 1.0731 1.6897 20
CM2 - 06 13.98 11.82 21.76 1924 1517 431 925 0.778 2.3306 7.0025 0.8338 1.7588 100
CM2 - 07 19.58 1.11 38.47 1743 867 771 2169 0.098 1.5196 2.8788 1.0725 2.9659 0
CM2 - 08 17.86 11.4 21.11 2398 1515 614 1248 0.684 3.5986 7.1157 1.2071 2.4134 100
CM2 - 09 17.93 10.81 20.1 2349 1882 716 1167 0.996 2.9763 9.0867 1.4487 2.3204 100
CM2 - 10 23.62 10.46 20.02 2324 1962 1016 1997 0.963 3.0354 9.7652 2.1177 4.0968 100
CM2 - 11 5.01 9.4 19.61 1628 965 297 332 0.952 2.2156 5.0057 0.6447 0.708 100
CM2 - 12 8.28 1.73 38.98 1525 877 841 1749 0.072 1.1828 2.5903 1.0403 2.1278 0
CM2 - 13 2.26 11.92 20.18 2820 943 339 412 0.99 3.8875 4.9554 0.7451 0.8918 100
CM2 - 14 10.23 12.42 19.96 961 856 119 294 0.539 1.1583 3.9279 0.2292 0.5559 100
CM2 - 15 6.69 10.77 21.47 1094 1388 264 504 0.965 1.4109 6.8193 0.5425 1.0191 100
CM2 - 16 8.36 12.74 20.59 489 1711 291 502 0.989 0.6464 8.6215 0.6148 1.0414 100
CM2 - 17 1.6 11.05 21.38 726 862 90 90 0.962 0.9653 4.369 0.192 0.1888 100
CM2 - 18 4.14 9.65 18.83 508 1709 118 309 0.958 0.6869 8.8052 0.2544 0.655 100
CM2 - 19 6.85 11.65 20.59 1285 1506 94 166 0.626 1.5229 6.8023 0.1787 0.3094 100
CM2 - 20 2.93 10.09 19.72 1224 935 131 236 0.954 1.6124 4.6963 0.2751 0.4877 100
CM2 - 21 1.64 10.76 21.21 1369 952 104 186 0.926 1.7791 4.7111 0.215 0.3792 100
CM2 - 22 3.96 9.78 21.4 864 954 144 399 0.976 1.1834 4.9769 0.314 0.8568 100
CM2 - 23 4.15 10.19 20.69 389 1855 113 166 0.968 0.5445 9.8906 0.2516 0.3642 100
CM2 - 24 1.1 11.79 19.52 1872 1837 83 80 0.919 2.41 9.0143 0.1704 0.1614 100
CM2 - 25 1.26 9.79 20.67 619 1831 100 155 0.969 0.8267 9.4786 0.2173 0.3302 100

MEYAL-10

CM10 - 01 2.14 11.83 19.35 443 862 238 1873 0.931 0.6076 4.5051 0.5209 4.0306 100
CM10 - 02 2.74 10.29 21.65 1171 1718 86 1640 0.876 1.7475 9.7699 0.2048 3.8401 100
CM10 - 03 3.19 9.73 19.8 526 1506 106 1172 0.992 0.7335 8.0029 0.2359 2.5644 100
CM10 - 04 2.28 11.6 21.4 765 935 218 2069 0.977 1.1144 5.1901 0.5068 4.7289 100

RASSI WAN

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CRW - 01 6.24 9.69 21.42 644 1614 497 588 0.846 0.8089 7.7223 0.9961 1.1579 90
CRW - 02 7.31 0.92 39.94 402 1708 341 304 0.12 0.3412 5.5183 0.4614 0.4048 1
CRW - 03 4.1 11.17 21.09 231 1329 723 518 0.982 0.32 7.0004 1.5944 1.1241 100
CRW - 04 2.43 11.77 19.95 199 1653 516 339 0.989 0.276 8.744 1.1421 0.7389 100
CRW - 05 3 10.73 21.35 449 1821 646 202 0.999 0.3176 9.5173 1.0274 1.8296 100
CRW - 06 2.64 9.66 21.23 448 1396 644 201 0.975 0.6165 7.3224 1.4148 0.4348 98
CRW - 07 1.38 10.75 21.61 1018 1551 174 87 0.941 1.3455 7.811 0.3679 0.1808 95

SETHI

SAMPLE# I.R. % Mg % Ca % Sr ppm Na ppm Mn ppm Fe ppm Mg/Ca Sr/Ca*10 Na/Ca*10 Mn/Ca*10 Fe/Ca*10 Dolo.%
                           
CSI - 01 3.5 1.68 33.42 349 435 110 381 0.083 0.4779 2.2699 0.2399 0.8189 0
CSI - 02 3.7 1.61 33.3 306 422 91 259 0.08 0.4203 2.2045 0.2001 0.5567 0
CSI - 03 5.04 1.65 32.6 274 431 99 278 0.084 0.3836 2.2996 0.2213 0.6112 0
CSI - 04 3.39 1.68 32.37 456 417 90 146 0.085 0.6451 2.2463 0.2031 0.5462 0
CSI - 05 5.7 1.98 29.18 272 503 75 171 0.112 0.4271 3.0021 0.1883 0.4199 0
CSI - 06 6.84 1.85 26.05 578 579 152 219 0.117 1.0139 3.8709 0.4271 0.6032 0
CSI - 07 4.45 1.72 27.5 340 460 106 340 0.103 0.5655 2.9156 0.2814 0.8873 0
CSI - 08 9 1.98 30.16 514 548 127 368 0.108 0.7798 3.1685 0.3085 0.8758 0
CSI - 09 15.5 1.82 28.2 360 508 126 366 0.106 0.5988 3.1399 0.3262 0.9315 0
CSI - 10 10.37 1.86 31.65 533 556 109 436 0.097 0.7707 3.0596 0.2522 0.9891 0
CSI - 11 8.02 1.87 30.66 678 568 97 332 0.101 1.0121 3.2264 0.2304 0.7762 0
CSI - 12 11.85 1.75 28.42 406 488 130 308 0.102 0.6534 2.9929 0.3339 0.7777 0
CSI - 13 15.57 1.8 26.75 295 500 98 286 0.111 0.5044 3.2579 0.2674 0.7673 0
192

CSI - 14 2.95 1.84 27.5 335 440 122 202 0.11 0.5572 2.7888 0.3238 0.5272 0
193

APPENDIX D
Stable isotope data.

Locality Sample # Carbon Oxygen Lithology


Dulmial CDL-03 -4.077 -9.817 Limestone
Dulmial CDL-01 -4.899 -9.586 Limestone
Makhial CMK-07 -2.936 -8.173 Limestone
Makhial CMK-03 -2.936 -7.578 Limestone
Sethi CSI-01 -4.656 -7.742 Limestone
Sethi CSI-07 -2.855 -8.069 Limestone
Sethi CSI-09 -2.344 -8.485 Limestone
Jhunga CJA-02 -6.420 -8.210 Limestone
Jhunga CJA-04 -6.547 -8.440 Limestone
Jhunga CJA-07 -4.202 -7.734 Limestone
Meyal-2 CM2-12 1.637 -6.237 Limestone
Hattar CHR-18 -0.774 -4.010 Limestone
Hattar CHR-16 -1.249 -4.675 Limestone
Hattar CHR-04 0.711 -1.640 Dolomite
Hattar CHR-02 -0.120 -1.682 Dolomite
Chorgali CCG-41 0.104 -2.947 Dolomite
Chorgali CCG-38 -0.608 -1.791 Dolomite
Chorgali CCG-24 -0.928 -1.302 Dolomite
Chorgali CCG-22 0.820 -1.195 Dolomite
Chorgali CCG-11 -2.512 -4.048 Dolomite
K.Kahar CKK-04 -3.322 -3.293 Dolomite
Dom Nala CDN-05 -0.553 -3.391 Dolomite
Dom Nala CDN-04 -3.127 -4.418 Dolomite
Rasi Wan CRW-04 -1.210 -1.637 Dolomite
Rasi Wan CRW-03 -1.939 -1.832 Dolomite
Dakhni-3 CDI-06 -1.337 -2.227 Dolomite
C.Khushi CCK-04 -1.524 -7.227 Dolomite
C.Khushi CCK-05 -0.727 -2.151 Dolomite
C.Khushi CCK-07 -0.214 -1.748 Dolomite
Meyal-2 CM2-01 -2.253 -3.960 Dolo/Lst.
Meyal-2 CM2-02 -3.085 -6.950 Dolo/Lst.
Hattar CHR-06 -4.211 -3.720 Dolo/Lst.
K.Kahar CKK-01 -6.305 -6.345 Dolo/Lst.
K.Kahar CKK-03 -5.635 -5.760 Dolo/Lst.
Dhulian-37 CDN-03 -0.522 -4.104 Dolo/Lst.

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