Describing Ancient Coins

The Vocabulary of Classical Numismatics

This site has been dedicated to the spreading of the 'word' on ancient coins. While some attempt has been made
to do this in comprehensible English, it has been necessary to use a specialized vocabulary that might not be
understood fully by every person. This series of pages will attempt to correct this problem. We will present
terms needed to describe coins by showing examples that illustrate those words. The order will be somewhat
random as they occur on our examples. The purpose of this list is assisting the students' understanding not the
simple memorization of an alphabetical vocabulary list. Words considered significant will be presented in bold
type. Words defined in more detail on other pages of this site will show hyperlinks. Some explanations of the
needed vocabulary are too extensive to repeat on this page so readers are encouraged to visit these additional
pages. In most cases, only the first presentation of a term has been highlighted. Much of this material will seem
obvious to most collectors but my mail suggests that there is a great variety of backgrounds of people newly
interested in ancient coins. Perhaps this page will facilitate communications by leveling the playing field.

This site has been named "Ancient Greek & Roman Coins". Paragraphs below and on following pages will
consider Greek & Roman. Ancient is used to separate time periods before the fall of Rome (traditional date
476 AD) and later which are termed medieval and modern. Unfortunately, pigeonholing history is not all that
simple. Rome did not fall with a crash when the last emperor (Romulus Augustus) was deposed. By that year,
the center of the Roman world had been moved East to Constantinople and would continue more or less
uninterrupted until 1453 AD when the Byzantine empire fell to the Ottoman, Muhammad the Conqueror. Many
collectors choose not to separate the Eastern Roman and Byzantine periods and collect both even thought they
do not collect medieval coins from western Europe or the rest of the world. The simple fact is that there is no
clear line separating antiquity and the middle ages and students will encounter references that consider dates
in this period in quite different manners. Is it possible for a Byzantine event of 500 AD to be considered ancient
while the same year in France is medieval? Perhaps it is better to understand that history does not come in the
neat little packages some would prefer.

Coins are pieces of metal of pre-determined value used to facilitate commerce and represent wealth. Before
coins existed, lumps of metal were weighed and used as items of value. Standardized lumps made it
unnecessary to weigh the metal before each transaction. The next step was to mark the lumps with a sign that
they were appropriate for commerce at the standard value. These steps took place over a period of centuries
(roughly the 7th and 6th centuries BC). Exactly where along this timeline lumps of metal became 'coins' is not a
matter of full agreement among students of numismatics (the study of coins). Stamped ingots of various
weights and standard sized but unmarked lumps are included or excluded by persons of differing opinions. If
you were seeking a precise date and place for the invention of coinage you won't find it here. Having failed to
define either Ancient or Coins we will proceed to see if we fare better with Greek and Roman.

Greek
Ancient Greek coins included issues from far beyond the borders of modern Greece. Coin producing cities
throughout the Mediterranean and as far East as India can be considered, to some degree, Greek. While hardly
correct, there seems to be a tendency to classify all ancient coins that are not Roman as Greek. Many (not all) of
these 'not-so-Greek' Greek coins bore legends in Greek to facilitate trade with the Greek speaking world. Greek
colonies were founded throughout the Mediterranean. These cities were thoroughly Greek in culture. Cities in
Southern Italy and Sicily produced some of the most famous 'Greek' coins. Collectors separate Greek coins into
periods by date. This page will discuss Greek coins while a second covers coins that are sometimes included in
books on Greek coins but that are better considered separately. Example coins will be discussed introducing
terms as they become appropriate.
Aigina, AR(silver) stater, c.500 BC, 12.0g
The earliest Greek coins are termed Archaic.
Generally produced before the middle of the 5th
century BC, Archaic coins are characterized by
thick, often lumpy, fabric frequently with a
simple punch mark on the reverse of the coin.
The stater is one of the common denominations
of Greek coins but several different weight
standards were used across the Greek world so
not all coins termed 'staters' are the same weight.
The design on a coin is termed the type. This coin shows the type of a sea turtle, the badge of the island city
Aigina. The turtle was engraved in reverse into a metal die which was placed on an anvil. A lump of silver was
placed on the die, covered with a punch and struck with a hammer. Even in the Archaic period, flans, the
blanks on which coins were struck, were usually more regular (rounded) than our example. Most flans were
produced by casting in molds with no design (the type being added by striking). A very few coins were cast in
detailed molds rather than struck in the process described above. Some Archaic coins replaced the reverse
punch with another die allowing two sided coins which became the standard by the next period.

Athens, AR Obol c.480 BC, .7g

While large silver coins are more popular with collectors, more
of the day to day commerce probably utilized several fractional
denominations which also varied greatly from place to place.
Our obol (1/6 drachm) was joined in circulation by
denominations as small as its eighth (the hemitartemorion)
weighing less than 0.1g! Such small silver was need for daily
commerce in the days before bronze coinage was issued for this
purpose. The example shown here is the most famous type of
ancient Greek coin: the Owl of Athens. The same design was
used on the 17g tetradrachm worth 24 obols. The coin shows the head of Athena while the punch has been
decorated with an owl and the city name ΑΘΕ (the theta being very weak on our coin). Abbreviations are
much more commonly found on Greek coins than fully spelled out legends (words or letters used as part of the
coin design). The punch was considerably smaller than the blank on which it was struck placing the reverse
design in an incuse square. Athens used this same type, with minor variations, for several centuries. The Owls
served as the standard currency for much of the Greek world and tetradrachms survive in huge numbers.
Fractions are somewhat more scarce since most hoards (groups of coins buried together for safekeeping by
their ancient owners) were made up of the larger denominations and the tiny silver was more likely to be used
up in daily commerce. Literature refers to these easily lost coins being carried in the mouths of their pocketless
owners but the extent of this practice is not certain. While far from certain, the coin on the right in our
illustration appears to have a tooth mark in the center.

Akragas, Sicily, AE (bronze) Tetras, 425-406 BC, 6.8g

To correct the difficulties caused by such small silver coins,
many cities issued minor denominations in bronze. Collectors
use the term 'bronze' to mean any alloy of copper due to
uncertainty on which of many variations was used for any given
coin. This distinction is made much more difficult by the fact
that copper alloys take on a natural surface coating, the patina,
that prevents seeing the original color of the metal. Here we see
a coin of the city Akragas located in Sicily. It is coated with a
green patina (the most common color) with blotches of red
overlaying. Patina can add great beauty to a coin if it is smooth and even but can detract if rough, thick or
unevenly colored. Red rarely covers a whole coin surface and usually detracts. Here it might be said to look like
splattered blood from the scene of the (Akragas) eagle eating the (enemy) hare. :) Between the crab and shrimp,
appropriate types for an island city, there are three dots that indicate the denomination. Each dot represents
1/12th of the standard litra (usually a silver coin not too different in size from the obol used in the Athenian
system but sometimes a larger bronze coin). Three dots equals 3/12ths or 1/4 (tetras). Four dots would be 1/3 or
a trias. A very common mistake for beginners is to confuse these two names. Remember the words are fractions
of twelve not a count of the dots. Other common denominations are the onkia (one dot), hexas (two dots) and
hemilitron (six dots).

Corinth, AR stater, 350-325 BC, 8.3g

From the middle of the 5th century until the time of Alexander
the Great (died 323 BC), Greek coins were produced in
Classical style. This was the period of finest art in Greek
coinage. Many cities used types featuring the city badge,
frequently a patron god or animal of local importance. Our
example shows the winged horse Pegasus on the obverse (anvil
side of the die) and the head of Athena on the reverse (punch
side). Some collectors simplify the definition of obverse and
reverse into 'heads' and 'tails' in which case this coin's sides
would be given the opposite identities. This is a minor point not really worth the arguments that it has caused
among collectors. In most cases, the more important type was placed on the obverse and given the anvil
position (anvil dies lasted longer than punch dies). A few coins such as our example allow discussion of which
was the more important type. Technically, the striking process caused the reverse field (blank area surrounding
the types) to be slightly concave while the obverse tends to be more flat. Under Pegasus (in the lower obverse
field) is qoppa the initial letter of the city (then spelled Qorinth). Behind the head of Athena (in the right
reverse field) is a small figure of victory used as a minor type or symbol. Minor types are small elements of
the design that were used to indicate series within an issue, magistrates responsible for the coin production or
to define other matters of internal mint organization. They do not necessarily relate to the main type and often
are found in a huge variety on different coins of the same design. There are hundreds of versions of this
Corinthian coin made different by minor types on one or both sides. Similarly, there are hundreds of other cities
which issued coins during the Classical period. A complete collection of Greek coins is an unattainable goal.

Alexander III, AR Tetradrachm, 336-323 BC, Salamis mint, 17.2g

Son of Philip II, king of Macedon, Alexander the Great
expanded his territories to extend from the Mediterranean to
India. The armies to make such conquests required huge
quantities of coins and, in turn, added huge fortunes to the royal
treasury. As was the case of the Athenian Owls in earlier times,
the coinage of Alexander became the standard trade currency of
his era and centuries to follow. Alexander, during his lifetime,
issued coins from several mints. Following his death, coins of
his types were issued by many authorities wishing to take
advantage of the high esteem in which these coins were held by tradesmen of the day. Reliably good silver and
weight, Alexander type coins were issued by the millions. Showing a head of Herakles on the obverse and a
seated Zeus holding his eagle on the reverse, these varieties can be separated by specialists using the minor
types and initials (here a bow). Later coins of this series are believed to model the features of Herakles after
Alexander himself but the time for open portraiture on coins was still to come in the Greek world. Our
example represents the most common large silver coin of the Greeks. The tetradrachm or coin of four
drachms was, like the stater, also issued under several different weight standards. Single drachms (1/4 the size
but otherwize similar to our example) were also issued by Alexander in great quantity. While some cities issued
other multiples of the drachm, the tetradrachm is by far the most common. Many of these coins probably never
circulated but were coined as a method of accounting for stocks of silver bullion. Again like the Owls, today
they exist in quantities sufficient to allow at least one in every collection. A coin so popular and trusted was an
obvious target for counterfeiters. Our example was tested to be certain it was pure silver to the core with a test
cut (perhaps, here, made by a chisel). Collectors strongly discriminate against coins with this damage but it
must have been reassuring to the man on the street who expected
full value of good silver to be in each and every coin.

Ptolemy I, Egypt, 305-283 BC, AR tetradrachm, 13.7g

Following the death of Alexander the Great, the Greek world
was divided up among his generals. Each formed a separate
kingdom and attempted to found a dynasty in their own region. Greek history from this time until the Roman
conquest is known as the Hellenistic age. During this period it became fashionable to place a portrait of the
ruler on the coins. Our example shows Ptolemy I whose Dynasty ruled in Egypt until the last of his line,
Cleopatra VII (the famous one), lost Egypt to Caesar Augustus (Octavian) in 31 BC. Male rulers of this line
were all named Ptolemy and most females of the family were named Cleopatra. Confusion in the minds of
students is virtually certain. Modern historians have applied Roman numerals to separate these people sharing a
name but coins were never marked in this manner. Hellenistic portraits are often brutally realistic portraying the
real faces that ruled their world. The obverse is anepigraphic (without legend) but the eagle on the reverse is
flanked by Greek legend "of Ptolemy the King". The left reverse field contains two monograms (letter or group
of letters formed into one design) used to indicate mint and magistrate information (in place of minor types
used for the same purposes by other issues). The right fields on both sides bear countermarks or bankers
marks in this case signifying that the coin had been tested and found to be good by the person applying the
mark. Other countermarks were used to revalue an issue or extend its acceptability to a different region. These
marks varied from simple punches to ornate designs of extreme artistic merit in their own right.

Antiochos VI Dionysos, AE21 (Bronze coin of 21mm diameter), 145-142 BC

The dynasty ruling Syria and surrounding regions during the
Hellenistic period was the Seleukids (descendants of
Alexander's general Seleukos). Many male rulers of this line
were named Seleukos or Antiochos so, as with the Ptolemies,
students need to use care to keep the names and numerals
straight. Making matters better or worse, depending on one's
point of view, many of these kings are also named by Epithets
or descriptive nicknames. Examples are 'the Great', 'Savior', 'who
loves his father' or (as here) 'Dionysos' (after the god). Our
example is a 21mm diameter bronze coin of less than certain denomination. Collectors traditionally refer to
Greek bronzes by the abbreviation AE followed by the measurement of the greatest diameter of the coin. This,
at least, identifies the size of the coin if it fails to tell where the value was fixed in commerce. Some Seleukid
bronzes were struck on blanks that had been cast in molds with what some scholars call serrated edges. This
term is, to this student, inadequate to describe the projections on the edge of these coins. This student prefers to
refer to these coins with the (no more accurate) term bottle caps. Rather than being grooves cut into the edge as
suggested by 'serration', these are three dimensional prongs protruding around the perimeter. Casting errors,
damage from the striking process and trimming of the waste from casting (removal of sprues) often leave the
projections missing or uneven on part of the edge. There is probably no section of ancient Greek and Roman
Coins that better shows the ignorance of this student than the Seleukid series. There is a vast amount of material
from several mints. Many issues have extensive legends written in tiny, hard to read letters. The reverse of this
coin has four lines reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ / ΑΝΤΙΟΞΟΥ / ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ / ∆ΙΟΝΥΣΟΥ with a monogram behind
the elephant. Many Seleukid coins bear year dates in Greek numerals giving the years since the founding of the
dynasty but these are lost on this specimen. The boy whose portrait was on the obverse was soon murdered
leaving little of note besides a considerable number of coins including this 'elephant on a bottle cap'.

The many words of this page only begin to describe these examples of Greek coins. While selected to represent
each of their periods, these coins can hardly be called representative of such a varied group of coins. The Bold
and Linked (do consider visiting the links) words provide a few of the basic terms needed to communicate with
other students of these coins. This page is the first in a series covering even more numismatic terms. While each
will present its own vocabulary, most terms can be applied to coins of all of the periods. As promised at the top
of this page, we have not presented an easily memorized alphabetical list. Instead, I hope we have encouraged
understanding of the basic concepts represented by these words.