ADANA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

ELECTRICAL – ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS LABORATORY – I

EEE 209

EXPERIMENT-4

Operational Amplifiers I
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Objectives

Operational amplifiers (op amp) are used extensively in a variety of electronic

circuits, from audio systems, filters, and engine control to appliances. In this lab
we introduce the operational-amplifier (op-amp), an active circuit that is designed
for certain characteristics (high input resistance, low output resistance, and a large
differential gain) that make it a nearly ideal amplifier and useful building-block
in circuits.

The goal of this experiment is to study operational amplifier (op amp) and its
applications. Some basic op‐amp circuits, including the four most common types,
i.e., the inverting, non‐inverting, differencing, and summing amplifiers will be
introduced, simulated and applied on a board.

Introduction

An operational amplifier is one of the most important integrated circuit. Many

integrated circuits are much larger: a computer's microprocessor can contain
several million separate elements. However, in this laboratory, we will show how
the functioning of op-amp circuits can be understood without knowing anything
about the individual transistors of which op-amps are composed.
In many electronic circuits, the signals (voltage differences) that are generated
and manipulated are very small. Therefore, amplification is often essential. When
playing a CD for instance, the signals generated in the CD player are quite small
and will not adequately drive a speaker system. The signals from the CD player
are therefore passed into the stereo amplifier (which often comes as a
tuner/amplifier combination in modern home stereo systems). The heart of the
stereo amplifier is the operational amplifier, or op-amp, which takes low level
voltage signals as inputs and produces large output voltages that vary linearly with
the input voltage.
The op-amp symbol is depicted as in Figure 1. The device has two input
terminals: a non-inverting and an inverting terminal, vp and vn, respectively. An
interesting property of the op-amp is that the output voltage is only a function of
the difference of the two input terminals, as follows:

Vout  (V p  Vn ) Av (1)
+Vcc
Vn
Inverting input
- Vout
+
Vp
Non-inverting
-Vcc
input

Figure 1. Op-amp symbol

The device is characterized by a very large amplification (gain) Av, a large
input resistance, and small output resistance. A typical value of the gain Av is
200,000. As a result of the large amplification Av, the required input voltage
difference (vp - vn) to obtain a finite output voltage is very small.
Another aspect of the op-amp is that the maximum output voltage is always
limited to a certain value determined by the power supplies. This is true for both
open-loop, and, as you will find out in lab, closed-loop configurations. The open-
loop configuration effect is schematically indicated in Figure 2. The
corresponding input voltage range to keep the op-amp in the active region is then
given by,

Vcc / Av  vi  Vcc / Av (2)

Figure 2. Op-amp open-loop input/output transfer characteristic

Where Av is the open-loop voltage gain and +VCC and –VCC are the positive
and negative DC power supply voltages, respectively. There is no internal
"ground" or "common" connection; voltages are measured relative to the common
connection of the two power supplies.

The numbers on the diagram refer to the pin numbers on the 741 (dual in-line
package) integrated circuit (IC) package as shown in Figure 3. Pins 1 and 5 are
used for nulling the offset voltage. We will not use these pins in this lab. Pin 8 is
not connected (NC) to the internal circuits of the op-amp. One of the more popular
op-amps is the UA741, specs.

Figure 3. View of an op-amp DIP package.

 It is clear from the Figure 2 that the input should be kept very small in order
to stay in the active (or linear region). This makes it difficult to use op-amps in
this open-loop configuration. It is for this reason that op-amps are rarely used in
open-loop. Two popular feedback configurations are the inverting and non-
inverting op-amp circuits as shown in Figure 4.

circuit circuit
components components

- +
+ -

Negative feedback--stable Positive feedback --unstable

Figure 4: Feedback structure of op amp devices

A much more useful way to use op-amps is in a negative

feedback configuration. This involves connecting the output back to
the inverting input of the op-amp. The feedback will keep the differential input
voltage (vp – vn) close to zero. With feedback, the overall gain is called the closed-
loop gain, which will be drastically reduced as compared to the open-loop gain.
A major advantage of using feedback is that the gain is now a function of the
resistors only and is independent of the op-amp open-loop gain Av, which can
vary from device to device.

Notice that in both cases the output voltage is feedback to the negative input
terminal. The only difference is the connection of the input voltage to the inverting
or non-inverting input terminal. Feedback can be positive (returned to the non-
inverting input) or negative (returned to the inverting input), but negative
feedback is used primarily in analog circuits because it yields stable, controllable
outputs, and we will concentrate on it. For positive feedback, an increasing output
Vout drives the inputs even further positive, resulting in a still more positive Vout.
(A similar argument can be made that once Vout swings negative, it will result in
a large negative swing.) As a result, the device will always be in saturation. While
this can be useful for some purposes (e.g. for making oscillators and in digital
circuits), we shall concentrate on "negative feedback" here.

In the case of negative feedback, we assume that the input terminals

are virtually short-circuited. This is an important property that we will make use
of extensively to analyze op-amp circuits. Also, because the input resistance is
very large the input current will be very small. This gives us the two important
assumptions we have to remember when working with negative-feedback op-amp
circuits:

1. The input current is zero. (this is true for open-loop also)

2. The two input terminals are virtually shorted together (the voltage
difference between the inverting and non-inverting inputs is zero) when the
amplifier is used with negative feedback.

Both of these rules are idealizations which assume that the op-amp is "ideal";
however, the assumptions are usually very good approximations of "real" op-
amps. The reasons we say that the two input terminals are "virtually" shorted is
because there is no current flowing between them (if it were a real short, there
would be current flow).
An inverting amplifier:
Using the golden rules, the negative feedback "inverting amplifier" circuit shown
in Figure 5a can be analyzed. From golden rule number 1, the voltage at the
inverting input must be at ground because V+ is at ground. (The inverting input
isn't actually connected to ground, rather the internal circuitry of the op-amp
labors to keep it very near ground. We call such a voltage a virtual ground.) From
golden rule number 2, all of the current through R1 must flow through R2, because
no current flows into the op-amp inputs. We arbitrarily take the direction of the
conventional (positive) current to be to the right. Then applying Kirchoff's laws
gives
Vin  IR1  0  IR1  Vin (3a)
0  IR2  Vout (3b)

The closed loop gain G is defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the input
voltage. Dividing (3b) by (3a) gives

Vout R
G  2 . (4)
Vin R1
This means that you can choose the gain by selecting the values of the resistors!
Also, the gain is not dependent on the details of the particular op-amp (e.g. the
exact value of the open loop gain A0), but rests only on the open loop gain being
large, and on the values of the resistors. (The largeness of A0 is the underlying
justification for Golden Rule 1.) Since the output is negative for positive inputs,
the amplifier called an inverting amplifier.
 R2
R2

R1 +Vcc
R1 +Vcc -
-
+
+ Vout
Vout -Vcc
Vin -Vcc Vin

Figure 5. (a) Inverting op-amp and (b) non-inverting op-amp circuit.

A noninverting amplifier:
An op-amp connected in a closed-loop configuration as a non-inverting amplifier
is shown in Fig 3b. The input signal is applied to the non-inverting (+) input. The
output is applied back to the inverting (-) input through the feedback circuit
(closed loop) formed by the input resistor R1 and the feedback resistor Rf. This
creates –Ve feedback as follows. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage-divider
circuit, which reduces VO and connects the reduced voltage Vf to the inverting
input. The feedback is expressed as
R1
Vf  Vo (5)
( R1  R2 )
The difference of the input voltage, Vin and the feedback voltage, Vf is the
differential input of the op amp. This differential voltage is amplified by the gain
of the op-amp and produces an output voltage expressed as
R2
Vo  (1  )Vin (6)
R1
The closed-loop gain of the non-inverting amplifier is, thus
R2
ACL ( NI )  1  (7)
R1
Differencing amplifier:
The function of a subtractor is to provide an output proportional to or equal to the
difference of two input signals. A basic differential amplifier or a subtractor
circuit is shown in Fig. 6.
R2

R1
V1
+Vcc
-
+ Vout
V2 R1 -
Vcc

R2

Figure 6. A subtractor or differential amplifier

The output voltage of the differential amplifier can be expressed as

R2
Vo  (V2  V1 ) (8)
R1
Thus it can be seen that the output voltage depends on the difference of the input
voltages. (V2-V1) can be suitably amplified choosing the values of R2/R1. The
circuit also behaves as a subtractor if R2=R1.
A summing amplifier:

RF

R1
V3
R2
V2
+Vcc
V1 -
R3
+ Vout
-Vcc

Figure 7. A subtractor or differential amplifier

 Rf Rf Rf  n R
   V1  V2  V3    Vi
f
Vout (9)
 R1 R2 R3  i 0 Ri

An integrator:

By adding a capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor R2 in an inverting

amplifier as shown in Figure 8, the op-amp can be used to perform integration.
1
R1C 
An ideal or lossless integrator (R2 = ∞) performs the computation Vout  Vin dt .

Thus a square wave input would cause a triangle wave output. However, in a real
circuit (R2 < ∞) there is some decay in the system state at a rate proportional to
the state itself. This leads to exponential decay with a time constant of τ = R2C.
Figure 8. An integrator

Differentiator
By adding a capacitor in series with the input resistor R1 in an inverting amplifier,
the op-amp can be used to perform differentiation. An ideal differentiator (R 1 =
dVin
0) has no memory and performs the computation Vout   R2C . Thus a triangle
dt
wave input would cause a square wave output. However, a real circuit (R 1 > 0)
will have some memory of the system state (like an lossy integrator) with
exponential decay of time constant τ = R1C

Equipment
Breadboard
Cables & Wires and connectors
Operational Amplifier UA741
Digital Oscilloscope,
Multimeter
Signal Generator,
DC Power Supply,
Resistors
Potentiometer
Preliminary work (Calculation and simulation section)
Important NOTE: Please check and read the following documents for grasping the
theoretical part of the operational amplifier and its applications.

[1] http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-
002-circuits-and-electronics-spring-2007/video-lectures/

[2] http://www.ti.com/lit/an/sboa092a/sboa092a.pdf

[3] https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/LTspice/info

1) Consider the circuit of Figure 5a with Vin= 1V, R1 = 1kOhm and R2 =

4.7kOhm. Simulate the circuit of Fig.5a with these values. Find the value of
the amplification A=vo/vi. Indicate how you got your result.
2) a) Derive the expression of the amplification for the non-inverting amplifier
of Figure 5b, using the rules given above. Simulate the circuit of Fig.5b with
these values.

b) What value of feedback resistor R1 is needed to give an amplification

equal to 2 when R2=10kOhm.

3) Figure 9 shows the circuit schematic of a summing amplifier. Prove that the
output voltage is given by

Vo  [( RF / R1 )V1  ( RF / R2 )V2  ( RF / R3 )V3 ] (10)

 RF

R1
V3
R2
V2
+Vcc
V1 -
R3
+ Vout
-Vcc

Figure 9. Summing amplifier

4) Derive the gain (Vout/Vin) expression in terms of R1 and R2 for the

subtractor or difference amplifiers as given in Fig. 6.

5) Show the relation of output and input voltage of the following circuit
(Integration)

Figure 10. View of an inverting amplifier

6) Simulate the circuit of Fig.11, Fig12, and Figure 14 record all the voltage and
current values as described in related tables. (Note: In order to use
potentiometer please check the tutorial which is given in [3].)
In-Lab Experimental Work

1) Please construct the op amp circuit which is given in Fig.5a. The following
voltage and resistor values should be considered for each experiment.

a) Vin=5V, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k,

b) Vin=-5V, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k

For each conditions, measure and record the desired values to the Table.1.

Table.1.
a b
Vo
IR1
IR2

2) Please construct the op amp circuit which is given in Fig.5b. The following
voltage and resistor values should be considered for each experiment. Compare
experimental results with your simulations and theoretical results.

a) Vin=5V, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k,

b) Vin=-5V, R1=1k, R2=2.2k
c) Vin=2V, R1=4.7k, R2=10k

Table.2
a b c
Vo
IR1
IR2
3) Summing Amplifier 1: Please construct the op amp circuit which is depicted
in below. The following voltage and resistor values should be considered for
each experiment.
R1
R3

Ra
+Vcc +Vcc
V1 -
-
+
V2 R2 + Vout
-Vcc
-Vcc
Rb

Figure 11. View of an inverting amplifier

a) V1=5V, Ra=1k, Rb=1k, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k, R3=1k measure V2, Vout

b) Vin=-5V, Ra=1k, Rb=1k, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k, R3=2.2k measure V2, Vout
c) Vin=5V, Ra=2.2k, Rb=1k, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k, R3=2.2k measure V2, Vout
d) Vin=5V, Ra=2.2k, Rb=1k, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k, R3=1k measure V2, Vout

Table.3
a b c
V1
V2
Vout
4) Difference Amplifier:
R3
R1

+Vcc
Ra
+Vcc -
V1 -
+ Vout
+
V2 R2 -Vcc
-Vcc
Rb
R4

Figure 12. View of an difference amplifier

Wire the above circuit, using 10 kΩ for all four resistors. if we

let R3=R1 and R4=R2, then we have Vout=(R2/R1)(v2-v1) i.e.

Using the DC power supply for V1 and the 0-6 V power supply for V2 (or vice
versa), verify that Vout is indeed the difference of v1 and v2 with the expected
sign. Substitute 100 kΩ resistors for R2 and R4 and verify that the gain changes
as expected.

a) Ra=1k, Rb=2.2k, V1=4V Measure V2, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k, R1=R3 and

R2=R4
b) Ra=1k, Rb=1k, for V1=5V measure V2, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k
c) Ra=2.2k, Rb=1k, for V1=6V measure V1 and V2, R1=2.2k, R2=2.2k
 Table.2
A b c
V1
V2
Vo

5) Non-inverting Operational Amplifier:

a) Build the circuit of Figure 13. Notice that this is the same non-inverting
amplifier as the one in Figure 5b. The input voltage is derived from the
power supply by a potentiometer, used as a voltage divider. Measure the
actual values of the resistors R1 and R2 and the potentiometer and record
them in your lab notebook. Compute these values and record them.

Figure 13. View of an noninverting amplifier

b) When you finish building the circuit, set the power supply to 10 and −10V
(from the +/− 25V). It is important that the Vcc and −Vcc are exactly equal
in magnitude. Set the current limiter to 100 mA. Double check the
connection of the board before connecting and switching on the power
supply to your circuit.
 c) Measure the input-output characteristic of the op-amp circuit: vary the input
voltage Vin between –6V and +6V in steps of about 1V by adjusting the
potentiometer. Measure the actual value of Vin and the corresponding
output voltage Vo with the multimeter. Make a table with entries Vin, Vo
(measured), and Vo (calculated). Note that the output voltage saturates
above a certain input voltage. You can fill in the measured values now and
do the calculations later for your report.

d) For your report, make a plot of the measured and calculated output voltage
versus the input voltage. You can use your favorite plotting tool (e.g. a
LTspice or Matlab) to make the plot. Indicate on the graph the transition
between the active and saturated regions of the circuit. Find the slope of the
graph (i.e. the amplification) and compare it with the calculated one, based
on measured resistance values. Note also the maximum and minimum
output voltage (i.e. the saturation levels).

6) Summing Amplifiers:
a) Build the summing amplifier of Figure 14. First, sketch how you will layout

the circuit on your board. For voltage source V2 use the 6V power supply.
Make sure you connect all the grounds together to get a common ground.
This is a crucial step in any circuit. Explain why common ground is important
in your report.
Figure 14. View of a summing amplifier

b) Measure and record the actual values of the resistors.

c) Write the expression of the output voltage as a function of the input voltages

V1 and V2.
d) Make the voltage V1=1V and V2=2V and measure the output voltage. Next,

change the voltage V1=3V and measure the output voltage. How do the
measured values compare to the calculated ones?
e) For V1=1V and V2=2V, measure vn to verify that the inverting input

terminal is virtually shorted to ground.

Report Instructions

Besides the general guidelines, report the following for this lab:

 The lab report should be segmented into 4 parts:

o Inverting amplifier
o Non-inverting amplifier
o Differencing amplifier
o Summing amplifier
 Each part should be comprised of the circuit design with LSpice Capture and the
simulated voltages at each node as well as the closed-loop gain,

 the analytical equation for each amplifier and the calculated output voltage
and gain,
 the experimental voltage readout with a description of the experimental
procedure ,
 a table of all three values for the op-amp terminal voltages: from simulation,
theory, and experiment,
 a table of all three values for the closed-loop op-amp gain seen by Vout: from
simulation, theory, and experiment,
 and your explanation of the variations between the three values of the last
two steps.

 Answer the questions in the analysis section

References

http://eecs.oregonstate.edu/education/docs/tutorials/Simulating%20an%20op%2
0amp.pdf

http://www.mathworks.com/help/physmod/simscape/examples/op-amp-circuit-
inverting-amplifier.html

http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-002-
circuits-and-electronics-spring-2007/video-lectures/

http://www.ti.com/lit/an/sboa092a/sboa092a.pdf