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BASICS OF DESIGN

BY
K. PALANIYAPPAN
TECHNICAL CONSULTANT
CONTENTS
1. Design
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basics Principles of Design
1.3 Failure Criteria in Machine parts

2. Engineering Materials
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Technical Properties
2.3 Material Selection
2.4 Heat Treatment

3. Design for X
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Design for Manufacture (DFM)
3.3 DFM Approach
3.4 Design for Assembly
3.5 DFA Approach
3.6 Design for Quality
3.7 Design for Cost
3.8 Design for Safety
3.9 Design for Reliability

4. Drawing Practice
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Drawing Standards
4.3 Drawing Numbering System
4.4 Bill of Materials
4.5 Alterations and Modifications
4.6 Filing of Drawings
4.7 Manual Preparation
4.8 Documentation
4.9 Archives

5. Reverse Engineering
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Construction of 3D Model
5.3 Applications

i. Further Reading
DESIGN
Introduction:
Design is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of machines/
products and expressing those ideas in the form of plan and drawings. The idea
may be almost entirely new, as in the case of an invention or an improvement
upon existing machinery/ product; or it may be only partially new, as when a
product or a machine part is to differ in size, load or materials from those already
existing.

For a machine/ product to be well – deigned the parts must be strong


enough for the duty required by them and must be adequate for the functions
they must perform, but they must not involve unnecessary expenditure of
material or prohibitive cost of construction.

To design well any machine or part, the designer


1. Must have working knowledge of the elements of machine construction.

2. Must know how to analyze the applied loads and their reactions.

3. Must know how to determine the resulting stresses.

4. Must possess sufficient information about materials.

5. Must understand the influence of shape, method of assembling, and


working conditions of parts upon the operation and maintenance of the
machine.

Thus modern design involves the application of the principles of


fundamental engineering subjects like Mathematics, Mechanisms, Mechanics,
Strength of Materials, Engineering Materials, Advanced Technology in
Production and Manufacturing and finally Drawing Standards and its Practice. In
addition, possession of or access to experimental data on the performance of
similar machines already existing is of great value.

“The more a man gives of himself to his work, the more he will get out of it, both in
wages and satisfaction”.

“Co operation is not a sentiment. It is an economic necessity”.


Basic Principles of Design:
The following considerations should be made in designing an element or a
system.

1. Functional Requirement: The function that the element or the system


has to perform is the most important one and correspondingly. Links.
Gears, belt drive, etc., can be chosen to perform a particular function in
combination with prime-movers.

2. The Strength Requirements should never be sacrificed. Depending upon


the forces, the dimensions of the parts should be so chosen that the
strength of the materials of parts is taken care of. The strength also
includes the static stiffness and dynamic rigidity of the parts.

3. Alignment of Parts: Depending upon the mating parts or the rotating


parts, the dimensions of parts or distances between parts should aim at
the proper alignment of bearings or sliding parts, etc.,

4. Use of Indigenous Materials and their proper choice. As far as possible,


indigenous materials should be selected to avoid undue delay in
procurement and in production and in maintenance.

5. Use of Standard Sizes of components, Standard Speeds and Preferred


Numbers. The use of standard size of components e.g. bolts nuts, etc.,
standard speeds of prime-mover and preferred numbers of various sizes,
speeds, etc., result in reduced cost.

6. Existing Facilities for Manufacture: In the already existing works, the


existing facilities for manufacture should be utilized for a new product
design to start with.
7. Facilities for Wear Adjustment and
Protection from Environment conditions.
In the case of mating parts with relative
motion, the wear adjustment facility results
in longer life. Wherever necessary,
environmental conditions (eg. in mines,
chemical plants, etc.,) should be taken
care of in design.

8. Ease of Assembly, Inspection, and Maintenance: Assembly


requirements should be considered in design to reduce wastage. The
inspection of various parts subject to wear; Fracture or failure should be
convenient and so should be the de-assembly

9. Lubrication and cooling: Wherever necessary the Lubrication and


cooling of parts with relative motion be provided for in the design.

10. Location of Controls Conforming to


Standards and should be within the
reach of operator. This requires the
proper selection of direction, force, and
distance.

11. Built in Safety Devices: The design


must include built-in safety devices for
overload protection and for the safety of
the operator. Safety should not be by
accident.

12. Overall Weight and Available Space: As for as possible, efforts be made
to reduce the weight of the element or the system be made to the size for
a given available space.

13. Manufacturing Tolerances: For all parts, depending upon the specific
use, proper tolerances need to be determined.

14. Aesthetic Appeal: An


effort should be made to
give the product modern
appearances which are
best described by words
such as ‘Smooth.”
‘Rounded’, ‘Un cluttered’,
or ‘stream lined’, etc.,
15. Transportation and Erecting facilities: For proper safe transportation
and erection of the machine or subassemblies provision needs to be made
in the design for handling purpose like eye bolts, etc.,

16. Cost: The optimized design by compromising with conflicting


requirements, combined with reasonable profits, results in the least cost.

17. Reliability: The


reliability of the
performance of the
machine depends
on a number of
factors and should
be the optimum.

Failure Criteria in Machine parts:


Almost every type of machines consists of a combination of machine
elements. Design requires that an element functions without failure for its
required life. It is not always necessary, economically feasible, or possible to
design for infinite life.

Under certain conditions


it is economically possible to
design a part to have infinite
life, whereas some parts are
designed with a finite life. A
shaft can be designed to
operate without breaking.
Gears and bearings however
can only be designed with a
limited working life, since there
is no way of avoiding wear.

Aircraft transmissions are


designed to meet economic and
weight criteria different from
transmissions on buses. Aircraft
are limited by severe weight
restrictions, whereas maintenance
is critical for buses. Aircraft parts
are designed with a much shorter
useful life. It is more economical to
pay increased maintenance costs
and carry larger pay loads.
Failure of machine parts is of two types: functional failure and fracture.

Machine parts fail in their function in many ways. Failure is not always
overt or permanent in nature; it may be reversible or irreversible. A shaft which
fails to function owing to excessive deflection may perform its function at reduced
loads. A spring, which deforms permanently under overload has failed
permanently if, as result, it fails to meet the preload of free-length requirements.

Failure may appear as change of the kinematic relationships, noise above


a tolerable limit, decrease in mechanical efficiency, increase in heat generation,
fire, explosion, or inability of the machine to respond to its controls by either
stopping or starting.

Failure of a machine part is due to one or more primary causes like


deformation, wear, or corrosion. It is possible, by proper design, to prevent
excessive deformation at normal temperatures and, in many cases, to eliminate
corrosion; the effect of wear and deformation that are due to high –temperature
creep, however, can only be mitigated and taken into account in design, but
never avoided. Since a machine always includes moving parts, wear always
exists as the life-limiting factor.

“There is nothing more disappointing than failing to accomplish a thing unless it is


to see somebody else accomplish it”.

“The out standing leaders of every age are those who set up their own quotas and
constantly exceed them”.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Introduction:
The selection of material is one of the decisions that a designer is
supposed to make and the selection of the proper material has always been a
difficult problem and is one that require an increasing amount of experience as
the variety of materials available is constantly increasing.

The proper material to be used is one that meets the engineering


requirements of the designers, the production and heat treating requirements of
the production department and the cost requirement of the purchase agents. It is
important that materials be used in such a way to take full advantage of their
characteristics. Thus it is usually desirable to think of design change when
selecting materials.

Technical properties:
The properties of materials used in machinery may be classified as:

I Mechanical Properties

ƒ Tensile Strength
ƒ Compressive Strength
ƒ Bending Strength
ƒ Bearing Strength
ƒ Shear Strength
ƒ Torsion Strength
ƒ Impact Strength
ƒ Damping Properties, etc.,

II Physical Properties

ƒ Wear Resistance
ƒ Coefficient of Friction
ƒ Hardenability
ƒ Thermal Conductivity
ƒ Specific Gravity
ƒ Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, etc.,

III Technological Properties

ƒ Machinability
ƒ Formability
ƒ Weldability
ƒ Castability
ƒ Malleability, etc.,
Strength: The strength of a part depends on the type and nature of loading. The
static strength of a material is expressed by the corresponding elastic limit stress
Se. The impact strength is measured by the corresponding modulus of resilience
u. The endurance strength is expressed by the corresponding endurance limit
Sen.

Stiffness or rigidity: Stiffness or rigidity is measured by the modulus of


elasticity, E Being used for tension or compression and G being used for shear.

Ductility: A material is ductile if it is capable of undergoing a large permanent


deformation without rupturing. There is no absolute measure of ductility. The
percentage of elongation or the percentage of reduction of area during a tensile
test carried to rupture is used as a relative measure. Ductility helps to relieve
localized stress concentration through local yielding. It is necessary
characteristic of a material used to sustain live loads, especially where
concentrated stress may occur.

Brittleness: Brittleness is a characteristic opposite to ductility and toughness. A


material may be considered brittle if it is elongation at rupture through tension is
less than 5 percent in a specimen 50 mm long. Usually brittleness and hardness
are closely associated, and very hard materials are brittle.

Salient features of most widely used engineering materials and their applications
are discussed below:

CAST IRON
Cast Iron is primarily an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. Carbon content is
between 1.7 to 4.5%. The physical properties of the casting mainly depends
upon the relative amount of graphite or cementite that is present in the cast iron.
Also manganese, chromium, nickel, phosphorus, sulphur, etc., are alloyed with
cast iron to give special properties.

The general term Cast Iron CI includes Grey Cast Iron, Meehanite, Malleable
Iron, spheroidal Graphite Iron (SG Iron), etc.,

Grey Cast Iron is the least expensive of all the metals that could be used for
casting. The major structural components of machine tools, gear boxes,
brackets, housings, covers, pulleys, etc., are made of grey cast iron in preference
to steel due to its excellent castability and better damping properties against
vibration. The components made of grey cast iron are normally hardened either
by flame or induction hardening to 450 – 500 HBN.

“I don’t think much of a man who is not wiser today than he was yesterday”.
- Abraham Lincon
STEELS
Steel is very widely used for components as it can be manufactured and
processed into number of different specifications each of which has a definite
use. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.

Depending upon the carbon content it is classified as:


ƒ Low carbon steel (Carbon Content less than 0.3%)
ƒ Medium carbon steel (Carbon Content 0.3% to 0.6%)
ƒ High carbon steel ((Carbon Content more than 0.6%)

Depending upon the application steel can be classified as:


ƒ Free Cutting Steel
ƒ Carbon Steel
ƒ Alloy Steel

FREE CUTTING STEEL


These steels have good machinability and a good surface finish can be achieved
on the components. 14Mn1S14 and 40Mn2S12 are preferred steels of this
category and are used for handles, levers, spacers, hydraulic fittings, screws,
etc.,

Higher Sulphur content in the composition imparts this property of good


machinabilty.

MILD STEEL (MS)


MS is a low carbon steel with no precise control over the composition or
mechanical properties. This type of steels are used for end plates, covers, sheet
metal works, tanks, fabricated items, etc.,

STRUCTURAL STEEL
This is typical steel where the main criterion in the selection and inspection of the
steel is the tensile strength which is used as the basis of design. Generally load
carrying welded structures such as frames, trolleys, racks, machinery structures
etc.,

St 42W is a weldable quality structural steel with high tensile strength, this is a
frequently used structural steel in many applications.

CARBON STEEL
Steels like C40, C45, C55, C75, C80, C85 fall under this group. C45 is the
preferred steel of medium carbon steel category and is suitable for application
such as shafts, gears, keys, pins, clutchs, threaded fasteners requiring high
strength. C75 is the preferred steel of high carbon steel category and can be heat
treated to a high hardness in the range of 60 – 64 HRC.

“One man with courage makes majority”. - Andrew Jackson


ALLOY STEELS
Apart from iron and carbon certain alloying elements such as nickel, manganese,
chromium, tungsten, molybdenum etc., are added to enhance certain desirable
properties of steel. Alloy steels could be mainly grouped as direct hardening
steels and case hardening steels.

The table below gives the different types of Carbon Steels, Alloys Steels and
their applications. Only important Alloy Steels frequently used in Engineering
Design are discussed below.

Alloy Steel Application Remarks


10Cr1 Bearing Races, Guide Strips, High Carbon Low
(EN31) Tools, Dies, etc., Chromium Alloy Steel
Hardness Max. 225 HBN

40Ni2Cr1Mo28 Shafts, Gears, Etc., Medium Carbon Alloy


(EN24) Components with high wear Steel
Resistance Hardness 45 – 50 HRC

15Ni2Cr1Mo15 Spindles, Cams, Lead Screws, Case Hardening Steel


(EN354) and critical components where (Carburising)
the case should be hard and Hardness 55 – 60 HRC
wear resistant, leaving the core
tough.
40Cr2Al1Mo18 Components requiring high Case Hardening Steel
resistance to abrasion, higher (Nitriding)
surface hardness. Hardness Max. 250 HBN

EN1A Low Duty Bolts Nuts, studs Free Cutting Carbon


SAE 1113 etc., Steel
EN3 Air Craft Sockets, Highly Free Cutting Carbon
SAE 1017 stressed levers, bolts, and Steel
nuts.

EN8 Crank Shafts, Connecting Free Cutting Carbon


SAE 1040 Rods, and parts requiring high Steel
strength and wear resistance.

EN12 Axle Shafts, Crank Shafts, Nickel Steel


Connecting Rods, and Stearing
Levers

“I think and think, for months, for years, ninety nine times the conclusion is false,
the hundredth time I am right”. - Albert Einstein.
Alloy Steel Application Remarks
EN20A, B Thermal Applications Chromium Molybdenum
Steel

EN30A Spindles, Aero Engines, Nickel Chromium Steel


Connecting Rods, and high
duty bolts.

EN32A Can Shafts, Lightly Stressed Case Carburizing Steel


SAE 1010 Gears, Gudgeon Pins, etc.,

EN42B, C Springs Spring Steel


SAE 1064

EN56A Turbine Blades Chromium Rust


SAE 51410 resistance Steel.

ALLOYS:
The elements most often alloyed with steel, singly or two or more together, are
besides carbon, nickel, chromium, silicon, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium,
tungsten, and aluminum.

Carbon increases the hardness and strength of steel but decreases its ductility.

Nickel increases the hardness, toughIless, corrosion resistance, and (up to a 12


per cent content) also the elastic limit of steel, but decreases its ductility slightly.
The ratio of elastic limit to ultimate strength increases gradually with increasing
nickel content up to about 4 percent, and with a further increase it begins to
decrease.

Nickel steels are the most important of the commercial alloy steels. Their nickel
content varies from 0.50 to 5.25 per cent, while the usual carbon content ranges
from 0.30 to 0.60 per cent. The chief uses of nickel steels are for structural
shapes, rails, steel castings, engine forgings, and automotive parts.

Chromium increases the elastic limit and hardness of steel. It is added either
alone or in conjunction with nickel or vanadium. It also increases the resistance
to corrosion. Chrome steels are used for ball and roller bearings, gears, and
other machine and automotive parts where hardness is essential. Chrome steels
are always heat-treated. Steels with chromium content of 11 percent or more-in
some cases. Over 20 per cent-are known as stainless steels because of their
resistance to corrosion.

“If you want to have success, display enough courage to welcome failure.”
Chrome-nickel steels combine high strength with great hardness. They are
produced with a chromium content from 0.6 to 1.2 percent, a nickel content from
1.5 to 3.5 per cent, and various carbon contents. Steels with a carbon content up
to 0.2 per cent are used only when case hardened; those having a content of
0.25 to 0.6 per cent are used for structural parts of automobiles; and those
having a content of 0.5 per cent and more are used for gears and automotive
parts in place of plain chrome steel.

Silchrome steel contains 0.5 per cent C, 0.30 per cent Mn, 3.50 per cent Si, 8.0
per cent Cr, not more than 0.02 per cent P, and not more than 0.02 per cent S.
This steel is used for exhaust valves in internal combustion engines. It is tough,
is hard (even at high temperatures), and has a high resistance to scaling and
corrosion. Its drawback is the difficulty of machining it.

Silicon-manganese steel contains 0.45 to 0.65 per cent C, 0.60 to 0.90 percent
Mn, and 1.8 to 2.0 per cent -Si. It has a high elastic limit and is used extensively
for springs and gears. This steel must be given a suitable heat treatment, the
type depending on the kind of service for which the steel is intended.

Vanadium added to carbon steel nickel steel, or chrome steel, even in such a
small amount as 0.15 to 0.25 per cent, increases the elastic limit and resilience.
Chrome-vanadium steel is used especially for automotive springs. Steel that has
an average composition of 0.47 per cent C, 0.84 per cent Mn, 0.032 per cent S,
0.026 per cent P, 0.10 per cent Si, 1.06 per cent Cr, and 0.15 per cent V.

Tungsten and molybdenum are sometimes added to machine steels for strength
and toughness, but their chief use is in the production of high-speed cutting tools.

Aluminum in small amounts, about 0.10 per cent, increases the fluidity of steel.
Aluminum is also added to a ferrous alloy used as stock for nitriding. This alloy,
known as nitralloy, has an approximate composition of 0.2 to 0.4 per cent C 0.5 -
per cent Mn, O.Z to 0.5 per cent Si, 0.5 to 0.6 per cent Ni, 1.5 to 1.7 per cent Cr,
0.2 per cent Mo, 0.9 to 1.3 per cent Al, and about 95.5 to 96 per cent Fe.

NON FERROUS METALS


Following are the main non ferrous metals frequently used, owing to their unique
characteristics such as low specific gravity, high wear resistance, low coefficient
of friction, anticorrosive properties, etc.,

“We need to teach a man that it is not a disgrace to fail and that he must analyze
every failure to find its cause. He must learn how to fail intelligently, for failing is
one of the greatest arts in the world.”
- Charles F Kettering.
ALUMINUM
Aluminum and its alloys have been used in machine tools owing to their light
weight, corrosion resistance, castability into intricate shapes and thin wall
thickness, forgeability and ability to be extruded and rolled. Some of these alloys
respond to solution treatment and precipitation hardening by means of which the
mechanical properties are improved. Aluminum and its alloy castings are
standardized as per IS 617. The grades of Aluminum which are frequently used
are 4223M & WP (A4), 4600M (A6) and 2280W & WP (A 11) for general castings
and 5230M (A5) where decorative anodizing is necessary.

COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS


Copper: Copper in its pure form is used in electrical industry since it has the best
electrical conductivity of any commercially priced metal. It also possesses good
resistance to corrosion and can be formed into any shape easily. Owing to their
good corrosion resistance, good thermal conductivity, ductility and ease with
which they can be brazed, copper tubes find an application for oil circulation in oil
hydraulics.

Brass: It is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is resistant to corrosion by water and


atmosphere. Brass tubes are used for hydraulic cylinders. Brass strips are used
for guide way wipers. Brass also finds application where free cutting steels are
not permitted as in the case of fittings and other threaded fasteners in corrosive
atmospheres.
Bronze: It is used as bearing material for worm wheels and lead screw nuts. It is
an alloy of copper and tin. It is heavier, stronger and more resistant to corrosion
than brass.

Phosphor bronze: A small percentage of phosphorous is added to bronze to act


as a cleanser to the metal so that sound castings can be produced. Cast
phosphor bronze to grade 2 of IS 28 is used for bearing bushes, lead screw nuts
and worm wheels.

Aluminum bronze: It is harder, stronger and more wear resistant than phosphor
bronze. It is also costlier than phosphor bronze. This is used for bearing bushes,
air craft engine valve seats and for lead screw nuts where strength and wear are
important.

Manganese bronze: This is in reality a brass, consisting of copper and zinc.


Manganese is used only as a deoxidizer, and the finished product often contains
only traces of it. The term bronze is applied generally because of the alloy's red
color.

Manganese bronze has high strength, is ductile, and resists corrosion in salt
water. Cast manganese bronze is used for such parts as ship propel1ers, heavy
gears, and heavy-duty bearings. Manganese bronze can be wrought like Tobin
bronze.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
Properties absent in a particular material can be achieved by intimate
combination of materials of different properties.

Composite materials have the following advantages:


1. Save costly or rare materials by plating the costly material on to the cheaper
one such as steel or cast iron plated with copper, bronze or carbide.

2. Impart desirable properties to a material, especially at its surface such as


higher tensile strength-reinforced concrete, wire reinforced glass, fiber reinforced
plastics, wear resistance as composite rail with hard head. Chemical stability-
composite pipes with rust proof surface; electrical or thermal conductivity-
composite contact material; low weight with high strength-aluminium carbide
composite, poor conductivity, good sliding properties, reflective properties, facility
for joining, etc.

3. Achieve new properties such as bimetal as heat indicator and sintered


carbides.
The combination is brought about by casting, welding, soldering or glueing, by
sintering, diffusion, spraying, rolling or by galvanic means.

MATERIAL SELECTION:
In selecting the material, the requirements concerning the functions, stressing
and life of the component are to be considered first; then those concerning the
shape and manufacture. And last but not the least, the prime cost. Often the
procurement question is also important.

Ordinary carbon steels are used for simple axles and shafts keys and pins. High
quality steel or special cast iron is used for crankshafts.

Gray cast iron for stands, base plates, and housings. If the stresses are high than
special cast iron, cast steel or welded steel are used.

Hardened steel for parts subjected to high rolling contact pressure (ball bearings,
cams, heavily loaded gear teeth). Cast iron, cast steel, steel with carbon 0.2% to
0.6%, heat treated steel, in special cases, plywood ,plastics and non ferrous
metals are used for gear wheels.

Plastics, soft cast iron, bronze, white metal, Zinc and aluminum alloys are paired
for sliding surfaces.

Spring steel, rubber are useful for elastic spring.

Free cutting or die cast alloys are used for small mass produced components.
Heat resisting or non-scaling steel or ceramics are used for components
subjected to heat or fire.

Material selection becomes a problem when the available experience is not


sufficient i.e. if new considerations, viz. new requirements, new materials, etc.,
arise. Then close scrunitiny is needed with regard to:

1. The requirements on the component (function, Loading, Life).


2. The conditions for production (number of pieces, shape, Method of
production and cost)
3. The material properties, followed if necessary by tests with materials in
question.

In these cases it is advisable for the designer to discuss with material and
production experts and with user. The decision is simple if only certain few
material properties are of consequence. If several requirements are more or less
fulfilled by a number of materials, the decision becomes difficult.

The problem of selecting the most suitable material for the body of a motor car —
wood, plywood, plastics, light metal as aluminum alloy or sheet steel, for example
is thus to be solved by evaluating the influencing factors viz reliability, life,
sensitive to environmental conditions, case of forming to required shape, weight,
maintenance, repair and cost, etc.,

“Any man’s success hinges about 5% on what others do for him and 95% on what
he does, with the emphasis on the does.”

“No one ever attains very eminent success by simply doing what is required for him,
it is the amount and excellence of what is over and above the required, which
determines success.”

“Inventing is quite commonly a process of slowly and determinedly eliminating the


impossible solutions until the real one is found. Then see an attorney.”
The mechanical properties of some of the commonly used materials are
given in the table below:
Coefficient of Friction for various material combinations are given in the
table:

“The man who will use his skill and constructive imagination to see how much he
can give for a dollar, instead of how little he can give for a dollar is bound to
succeed.”
- Hendry Ford.

“Movement in a new direction helps you find new cheese.”

“When you move beyond your fear, you feel free.”


HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment is generally applied to steels to impart specific mechanical
properties such as increased strength or toughness or wear resistance. Heat
treatment is also resorted to relieve internal stresses and to soften hard metals to
improve machinability. Heat treatment is essentially a process of heating the
steels to a predetermined temperature followed by a controlled cooling at a
predetermined rate to obtain desired end results.

The heat treatment process can be classified into four important groups:

i) Re crystallization annealing which is employed to relieve internal


stresses reduces the hardness and to increase the ductility of strain
hardened metal. At first, upon an increase in the heating temperature
the elastic distortions of the crystal lattices are eliminated. At higher
temperature new grains form and begin to grow (re crystallization).
ii) Full annealing which involves phase re crystallization and is achieved
by heating alloys above the temperature required for phase
transformation. This is followed by slow cooling. Full annealing
substantially changes the physical and mechanical properties and may
refine a coarse grained structure.
iii) Quenching wherein hardening alloys are heated above the phase
transformation temperature and are then rapidly cooled (quenched).
iv) Tempering involves the reheating of hardened steel to a temperature
below that required for phase transformation so as to bring it nearer to
an equilibrium state.

ANNEALING
Annealing is the process necessary to obtain softness, improve
machinability, increase or restore ductility and toughness, relieve internal
stresses, reduce structural non-homogeneity and to prepare for subsequent heat
treatment operations.

The process consists of heating the metal to the required temperature


depending upon the carbon content and other alloying elements of the steel and
then cooling in the furnace at a slow rate. Most of the cast iron components are
annealed at a low temperature before final machining.

NORMALIZING
This is the process necessary to eliminate coarse-grained structure
obtained in previous working, to increase the strength of medium carbon steels to
a certain extent (in comparison with annealed steel), to improve the machinability
of low carbon steels, to reduce internal stresses; etc.

More rapid cooling in air used in normalizing causes the, austenite to


decompose at lower temperatures. This increases the disparity of the ferrite-
cementite mixture (pearlite) and increases the amount of eutectoid constituent.
Therefore normalized steel has a higher strength and is harder than annealed
steel.

HARDENING AND TEMPERING


In this process steel is heated to a predetermined temperature and then
quenched in water, oil or molten salt baths.

HARDENABILITY
Hardenability is defined as the capacity to develop a desired degree of
hardness usually measured in terms of depth of penetration. The depth of
hardness depends upon the critical rate; since this is not the same for the whole
cross-section, full hardening may be , achieved if the actual cooling rates, even
at the core, exceed the critical values. The higher the carbon content, the harder
a steel will be after hardening owing to a martensitic structure.

Hardening followed by tempering is done to improve the mechanical


properties of steel. The aim in structural steels is to obtain a good combination of
strength, ductility and toughness. Hardened steel is in a stressed condition and is
very brittle so that it cannot be employed for practical purposes. After hardening,
steel must be tempered to reduce the brittleness, relieve the internal stresses
due to hardening and to obtain predetermined mechanical properties. In spite of
the high hardness, hardened steel has a low cohesive strength, a lower tensile
strength and particularly a low elastic limit, due to the stress conditions after
hardening. The impact strength, relative elongation and reduction of area art:
also considerably reduced by hardening.

Tempering the steel at a suitable temperature will enable the steel to


attain the desired mechanical properties. Tempering consists of reheating the
hardened steels to a temperature below lower critical values followed by cooling
at a desired rate. At low tempering temperatures, the hardness changes only by
a small extent but the true tensile strength and bending strength are attained. As
the tempering temperature is gradually increased, the steel regains its true
strength and resistance to shock with a gradual decrease in hardness value.
However where toughness is the criterion, tempering in the range of 230-400°C
is avoided to overcome the condition of temper brittleness.

SURFACE HARDENING
This is a selective heat treatment in which the surface layer of metal is
hardened to a certain depth whilst a relatively soft core is maintained. The
principal purpose of surface hardening is to increase the hardness and wear
resistance of the surface. Surface hardening may be accomplished with or
without changing the chemical composition of the surface. While carburizing and
nitriding correspond to the first type, flame and induction hardening correspond to
the second type, i.e. without changing the chemical composition. Steels with
carbon content less than 0.25% can be generally carburized while steels with a
minimum carbon content of 0.4% only can be flame or induction hardened.
INDUCTION HARDENING
Induction hardening has the advantage that it reduces the time required
for heat treatment. Parts may be hardened with practically no scaling, so that
allowance for further machining can be reduced. Deformation due to heat
treatment is only marginal. In comparison with other processes for a given tensile
strength, induction hardened steels have higher hardness, wear resistance,
impact strength and fatigue limit. The increase in the fatigue limit after induction
hardening is associated with the appearance of residual compressive stresses in
the hardened layer. These stresses reduce the effect of tensile stresses arising
from the application of external forces.

FLAME HARDENING
In this process, the surface of the part to be hardened is heated by an oxy-
acetylene flame at temperature of 30000-32000C. The large amount of heat
transferred to the surface rapidly heats it to a hardening temperature before the
core is appreciably heated. Subsequent quenching hardens the layer.

CARBURIZING
This is a process for saturating the surface layer of low carbon steels with
carbon. Several methods are employed for this purpose such as pack
carburizing, gas carburizing and liquid carburizing. The advantages of gas
carburizing over pack carburizing are:
i) Possibility of better regulation of the process and of obtaining
more accurate case depth.
ii) Less time is required for the process
iii) The operation is clean and simpler and
iv) Process can be mechanised

Liquid carburizing has the advantage that it provides a uniform heating


combined with least deformation of the part. After carburizing, regardless of the
process employed, the material is heat treated to produce a hard surface
resistant to wear.

NITRIDING
This is a process of saturating the surface of steel with nitrogen, by
holding it for a prolonged period at a temperature from 480° to 650°C in an
atmosphere of ammonia. Nitriding increases the hardness of the surface to a
high degree. It also increases the wear resistance and fatigue limit. When high
hardness and wear resistance are the chief requirements the part is made of
steel containing aluminium, chromium and molybdenum in steel impart an
exceptionally high hardness and wear resistance to the nitrided case.

“In a positive environment, a marginal performer’s output goes up. In a negative


environment, a good performer’s output goes down.”
DESIGN FOR X
INTRODUCTION:
Although the cost of design as such is a small fraction of the cost of
product development (only about 8%), a major part of the product's cost (about
80% ) is committed at the design stage (The concept or architecture of the
product alone determines 60% of the cost!). The decisions arrived at this stage
greatly influence the ease or hardship with which subsequent activities of product
development and manufacture are carried out. Apart from these activities, the
design decisions also influence other activities during the life of the product up to
recycling it. Reorienting the design process so as to make these activities during
the product development and product life cycles is referred as Design for X
(DFX).

Here, X refers to a number of factors such as


™ Manufacture
™ Assembly
™ Mass Customization
™ Safety
™ Serviceability
™ Environment etc.

Design for X involves the designer with other functional departments, such
as marketing, manufacturing, and engineering services, via Concurrent
Engineering (CE) methods. In fact, DFX is often considered as a subset of CE.
Since the other departments involve themselves at the early stages of design
and help designers detect and correct flaws, such a CE environment is
increasingly being referred as Collaborative Engineering.

DFX can be defined as a knowledge-based approach that attempts to


design products that maximize all desirable characteristics -such as high-quality,
reliability, serviceability, safety, user friendliness, environmental friendliness, and
short-time-to-market in a product design while at the same time minimizing
lifetime costs, including manufacturing costs.

Historically, designers have tended to underemphasize or overlook the


preceding factors, and have concentrated their efforts on only three factors, viz.,
the function (performance), features and appearance of the product that they
develop. They have tended to neglect the "downstream" considerations that
affect the usability and cost of the product during its lifetime.

Henry Ford introduced many features which gave the Model the
competitive advantage. He designed the product so that it was easy to drive by
virtually anyone. He designed the product to be repairable by any farmer with
tools readily available. He designed the parts of the product to be
interchangeable and easy
to attach to other parts.
He designed the
interchangeable worker
within the production
system. He designed the
movable production line.
The combination of these
sub-designs led to the
super-design of mass
production, for which he is
known. The salient point
here is that, in order to
capture the competitive advantage, he designed for many different
characteristics.
In other words, Henry Ford designed for X.

The three elements of competitiveness are;


ƒ Timeliness: Can the product be delivered to the market just in time to meet
the customer's demand?
ƒ Quality: Will the product perform well as intended?
ƒ Affordability: Do customers wish to buy the product?

These three dimensions largely determine the value of a product to the


customer. To gain the competitive advantage one must design for X. During
design, one often focuses on the final product, and not its manufacture. DFX
philosophy suggests that a design be continually reviewed from the start to the
end to find ways to improve production and other non-functional aspects. These
rules are nothing new, they are just common sense items written down, but they
can be a good guide through the design process.

Advantages of these techniques are as follows:

ƒ Shorter production times


ƒ Fewer production steps
ƒ Smaller parts inventory
ƒ More standardized parts
ƒ Simpler designs that are more likely to be robust
ƒ They can help when expertise is not available, or as a way to reexamine
traditional designs
ƒ Proven to be very successful over decades of application.

“Imagining myself enjoying new cheese, even before I find it, leads me to it.”
In the subsequent sections, each feature of DFX will be reviewed.

DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE


Designing a machine part means putting down on paper the dimensioned
shape that the part must have to properly fulfill its functions. In order to be able to
layout and draw this raw materials. Such knowledge requires a thorough
understanding of the various manufacturing methods. These methods may be
advantageously divided into two groups: (1) preliminary shaping of the machine
parts, mostly, although not always, by using heat; and (2) final shaping by means
of cold machining.

Under the first grouping come the processes of casting, welding, riveting,
and forging. Each of these methods of forming machine parts has different
possibilities, but it also has different limitations, which influence the design of a
part. The designer must know and keep in mind these possibilities and
limitations. The main features of each method from the standpoint of machine
design will be discussed in separate chapters in the order indicated above. The
first group includes also such processes as rolling, drawing, extruding, and
stamping. However, their purpose is not to produce machine parts as such, but to
produce stock material used widely in industry.

Among the methods under the second grouping are a great number of
different operations which give he piece the exact dimensions required and
produce the surface conditions necessary for its functioning. The main methods
in this group are turning, boring, milling, planning, shaping, drilling, reaming, spot
facing, broaching, grinding, honing, and polishing. There are additional
machining processes, such as screw –cutting, tapping, and gear cutting, which
are special adaptations of the basic methods. Some of the machining operations
fulfill the same object and are often interchangeable. Examples are milling,
planning, and shaping. Other operation is very helpful to a machine designer.
However, such knowledge can be acquired only by working in a machine shop,
and type of machining operation does not have too much effect on the shape of a
part during its design. In practice the proper operation often is selected after the
designer consults the man in charge of the machine shop. Therefore no attempt
will be made here to give any information about the differences between the
various types of machining operations, and no suggestions will be given for
selecting the best type of operation for a specific case. The information that must
be given to a beginning designer is how to make simpler and easier the
machining of the parts he is designing is how to determine the degree of
accuracy in machining that he should prescribe on his drawings.

Production conditions: The design of a machine part depends on the


facilities of the shop where the part will be built. The facilities in a small jobbing
machine shop are naturally different from those in a large plant manufacturing
some special machinery.
Also, the design will not be the same when the part will be produced in
quantities as when only one piece, or at most a few pieces, must be made. For
instance, for quantity production it may be proper to make a part as a die casting,
whereas a single piece may be machined from a block. As another example,
when it is necessary to replace large sand – molded casting that was produced in
quantity, the single piece may be produced more quickly and more cheaply by
wielding.

Limitations: The designer must know the limitations of the machine shop in
which the part that he is designing will be machined. Such limitations are the
biggest diameter and the greatest length or height that can go in the lathe and
boring mill and the greatest length or width that can be handled by the planner.
He must know for what pitches hobs are available in the shop for cutting gear
teeth, as very few shops have all standard hobs in stock. He must have similar
information concerning other tools, such as taps, reamers, and broaches.

The designer should know which sizes of cold-rolled and hot –rolled steel
material are standard and which standard sizes are kept in stock in the shop
where his design will be executed. However, if the design of his part really
requires a standard size which the shop is not carrying in stock, he should not
hesitate to call for such material. He should not try to use available stock sizes
that involve extra machining.

Design for manufacture (DFM) is the process of proactively designing


products to

i. Optimize all the manufacturing functions such as fabrication, assembly,


test, procurement, shipping, delivery, service, and repair.

ii. Assure the best cost, quality, reliability, regulatory compliance, safety,
time-to-market, and customer satisfaction.

DFM is a proven design methodology that works for any size company.
Early consideration of manufacturing issues shortens product development time,
minimizes development cost, and ensures a smooth transition into production for
quick time to market. Quality can be built in with optimal part selection and proper
integration of parts, for minimum interaction problems. By considering the
cumulative effect of part quality on product quality, designers are encouraged to
carefully specify part quality. Many costs are reduced, since products can be
quickly assembled from fewer parts. Thus, products are easier to build and
assemble, in less time, with better quality. Parts are designed for ease of
fabrication, and commonality with other designs. DFM encourages
standardization of parts, maximum use of purchased parts, modular design, and
standard design features. Designers will save time and money by not having to
"reinvent the wheel." The result is a broader product line that is responsive to
customer needs.
In order to design for manufacture, everyone in product development team
needs to:

ƒ In general, understand how products are manufactured through experience in


manufacturing, training, rules/ guidelines, and/ or multi-functional design
teams with manufacturing participation.

ƒ Specifically, design for the processes to be used to build tile product he/ she
is designing. If products will be built by standard processes, design teams
must understand them and design for them. If processes are new, then
design teams must concurrently design the new processes as they design the
product.

Before DFM, "I designed it; you build it!" syndrome existed.
Design engineers worked alone or only in the company of other design engineers
in "The Engineering Department." Designs were then thrown over the wall
leaving manufacturing people with the dilemma of either objecting (but its to late
to change the design!) or struggling to launch a product that was not designed for
manufacture. Often this delayed both the product launch and the time to ramp up
to full production, which is the only meaningful measure of time-to-market.

One way to assure manufacturability is by developing products in multi-


functional teams with early and active participation from manufacturing,
marketing ( and even customers), finance, industrial designers, quality, service,
purchasing, vendors, regulation compliance specialists, lawyers, and factory
workers. The team works together to not only design for functionality, but also to
optimize cost, delivery , quality, reliability, ease of assembly, testability; ease of
service, shipping, human factors, styling, safety, customization, expandability,
and various regulatory and environmental compliance.

Paradoxically, one of the first decisions the team has to make is the
optimal use of off-the-shelf parts. In. many cases, the architecture may have to
literally be designed around the off-the-shelf components, but this can provide
substantial benefit to the product and the product development process.

Off-the-shelf parts are less expensive to design considering the cost of


design, documentation, prototyping, testing, the overhead cost of purchasing all
the constituent parts, and the cost of non-core-competency manufacturing. Off-
the-shelf parts save time considering the time to design, document, administer,
and build, test, and fix prototype parts.

Suppliers of off-the-shelf parts are more efficient at their specialty,


because they are more experienced on their products, continuously improve
quality, have proven track records on reliability, design parts better for DFM,
dedicate production facilities, produce parts at lower cost, offer standardized
parts, and sometimes pick up warrantee/service costs. Finally, off-the-shelf part
utilization helps internal resources focus on their real missions: designing
products and building products.

Some Key DFM Guidelines

1) Understand manufacturing problems/


issues of current/ past products: In order to
learn from the past and not repeat old
mistakes, it is important to understand all
problems and issues with current and past
products with respect to manufacturability,
introduction into production, quality,
repairability, serviceability, regulatory test
performance, and so on. This is especially
true if previous engineering is being
"leveraged" into new designs.

2) Design for easy fabrication,


processing, and assembly:
Designing for easy parts
fabrication, material processing,
and product assembly is a primary
design consideration. Even if labor
cost is reported to be a small
percentage of the selling price,
problems in fabrication,
processing, and assembly can
generate enormous costs, cause
production delays, and demand the
time of precious resources.

3) Adhere to specific process design guidelines: It is very important to use


specific design guidelines for parts to be produced by specific processes such as
welding, casting, forging, extruding, forming, stamping, turning, milling, grinding,
powdered metallurgy (sintering), plastic molding, etc. Some reference books are
available that give a summary of design guidelines for many specific processes.
Many specialized books are available devoted to single processes.

4) Avoid right/ left hand parts: Avoid designing mirror image (right or left hand)
parts. Design the product, so the same part can function in both, right or left hand
modes. If identical parts (cannot perform both functions, add features to both
right and left hand' parts to make them the same. Another way of saying this is to
use "paired" parts instead of right and left hand parts. Purchasing of paired parts
(plus all the internal material supply functions) is for twice the quantity and half
the number of types of parts. This can have a significant impact with many paired
parts at high volume. At one time or another, everyone has opened a briefcase or
suitcase upside down because the top looks like the bottom. The reason for this
is that top and bottom are identical parts used in pairs,

5) Design parts with symmetry: Design each part to be symmetrical from every
"view" (in a drafting sense) so that the part does not have to be oriented for
assembly. In manual assembly, symmetrical parts cannot be installed
backwards, a major potential quality problem associated with manual assembly.
In automatic assembly, symmetrical parts do not require special sensors or
mechanisms to orient them correctly. The extra cost of making the part
symmetrical (the extra holes or whatever other feature is necessary) will probably
be saved many times over by not having to develop complex orienting
mechanisms and by avoiding quality problems. It is a little known fact that in felt-
tipped pens, the felt is pointed on both ends so that automatic assembly
machines do not have to orient the felt.

6) If part symmetry is not possible. Make parts very asymmetrical:


The best part for assembly is one that is symmetrical in all views. The worst part
is one that is slightly asymmetrical which may be installed wrong because the
worker or robot could not notice the asymmetry .Or worse, the part may be
forced in the wrong orientation by a worker (that thinks the tolerance is wrong) or
by a robot (that does not know any better). So, if symmetry cannot be achieved,
make the parts very asymmetrical. Then workers will less likely install the part
backward because it will not fit backward. Automation machinery may be able to
orient the part with less expensive sensors and intelligence.

7) Design for fixturing: Understand the


manufacturing process well enough to be able to
design parts and dimension them for fixturing.
Parts designed for automation or mechanization
need registration features for fixturing. Machine
tools, assembly stations, automatic transfers and
automatic assembly equipment need to be able to
grip or fixture the part in a known position for
subsequent operations. This requires registration
locations on which the part will be gripped or
fixtured while part is being transferred, machined,
processed or assembled.

8) Minimize tooling complexity by concurrently


designing tooling: Use Concurrent Engineering of
parts and tooling to minimize tooling complexity,
cost, delivery lead-time and maximize throughput,
quality and flexibility.
9) Specify optimal tolerances for a Robust Design: Design of
Experiments can be used to determine the effect of variations in all tolerances on
part or system quality. The result is that all tolerances can be optimized to
provide a robust design to provide high quality at low cost. Tolerance also
depends of the assembly process adopted. As shown in Figure 8-5, automatic
assembly, manual assembly and selective assembly respectively are in the
increasing order of tolerances.

10) Specify quality parts from reliable sources: The "rule of ten" specifies that it
costs 10 times more to find and repair a defect at the next stage of assembly.
Thus, it costs 10 times more to find a part defect at a sub-assembly; 10 times
more to find a sub- assembly defect at final assembly; 10 times more in the
distribution channel; and so on. All parts must have reliable sources that can
deliver consistent quality over time in the volumes required.

11) Minimize Setups: For machined parts, ensure accuracy by designing parts
and fixturing so all key dimensions are all cut in the same setup (chucking).
Removing the part to reposition for subsequent cutting lowers accuracy relative
to cuts made in the original position. Single setup machining is less expensive
too.

12) Minimize Cutting Tools: For


machined parts, minimize cost by
designing parts to be machined
with the minimum number of
cutting tools. For CNC "hog out"
material removal, specify radii
that match the preferred cutting
tools (avoid arbitrary decisions).
Keep tool variety within the
capability of the tool changer.

13) Understand tolerance step functions and specify


tolerances wisely: The type of process depends on the
tolerance. Each process has its practical "limit" to how
close a tolerance could be held for a given skill level on
the production line. If the tolerance is tighter than the limit,
the next most precise (and expensive) process must be
used. Designers must understand these "step functions"
and know the tolerance limit for each process.
He should remember that the smaller the tolerance, the more accurately a
machine part will be finished and the smoother will be the operation of the
mechanism that he is designing—at least within certain limits. On the other hand,
the smaller the tolerance, the more expensive the machining of the part will be.
As a first approximation one may assume that the product of the cost of
machining and the tolerance is constant. When this statement is expressed
graphically, you can see how fast the cost goes up with a decrease of tolerance.
There fore the designer should carefully analyze what tolerance is permissible for
every dimension and should not specify a tolerance smaller than that really
necessary.

In the shop it is much more difficult to obtain a certain tolerance with a


large dimension than with small one.

DFM APPROACH
i) Simplify the design and reduce the number of parts: Because for each
part, there is an opportunity for a defective part and an assembly error,
the probability of a perfect product goes down exponentially as the
number of parts increases. As the number of parts goes up, the total
cost of fabricating and assembling the product goes up. Automation
becomes more difficult and more expensive when more parts are
handled and processed. Costs related to purchasing, stocking, and
servicing also go down as the number of parts are reduced. Inventory
and work-in-process levels will go down with fewer parts. As the
product structure and required operations are simplified, fewer
fabrication and assembly steps are required, manufacturing processes
can be integrated and lead-times further reduced. The designer should
go through the assembly part by part and evaluate whether the part
can be eliminated, combined with another part, or the function can be
performed in another way.
To determine the theoretical minimum number of parts, the
following need to be asked:
a. Does the part move relative to all other moving parts?
b. Must the part absolutely be of a different material from the other
parts?
c. Must the part be different to allow possible disassembly

ii) Standardize and use common parts and materials: This is required to
facilitate design activities, to minimize the amount of inventory in the
system, and to standardize handling and assembly operations.
Common parts will result in lower inventories, reduced costs and
higher quality. Operator learning is simplified and there is a greater
opportunity for automation as the result of higher production volumes
and operation standardization. Limit exotic or unique components
because suppliers are less likely to compete on quality or cost for
these components. Group technology (GT) and Component Supplier
Management (CSM) systems can be utilized by designers to facilitate
retrieval of similar designs and material catalogs or approved parts lists
can serve as references for common purchased and stocked parts. GT
can also be used to guide in the development of manufacturing cells
for common part or product families, thereby minimizing inventory and
providing improved effectiveness through manufacturing focus. For
example, if different types of fasteners are avoided, a single spanner or
screwdriver will be adequate.

iii) Design for ease of fabrication: Select processes compatible with the
materials and production volumes. Select materials compatible with
production processes and that minimize processing time while meeting
functional requirements. Avoid unnecessary part features because
they involve extra processing effort and/ or more complex tooling.
Consider specific guidelines appropriate for the fabrication process
such as the following for machineability:

a. For higher volume parts, consider


castings or stampings to reduce
machining.

b. Use near net shapes for molded and


forged parts to minimize machining and
processing effort.

c. Design for ease of fixturing by providing


large solid mounting surface and parallel
clamping surfaces.

d. Avoid designs requiring sharp corners or


points in cutting tools -they break easier.

e. Avoid thin walls, thin webs, deep


pockets or deep holes to withstand
clamping and machining without
distortion.

f. Avoid tapers and contours as much as


possible in favor of rectangular shapes.

g. Avoid undercuts, which require special


operations and tools.
h. Avoid hardened or difficult-to-machine materials unless essential to
requirements.

i. Put machined surfaces on


same plane or with same
diameter to minimize number
of operations.

j. Design work-pieces to use


standard cutters, drill bit
sizes or other tools.

k. Avoid small holes (drill bit


breakage greater).

l. Avoid length to diameter


ratio > 3 (chip clearance &
straightness deviation).

iv) Design within process capabilities and avoid unneeded surface finish
requirements: Know the production process capabilities of equipment
and establish controlled processes. Avoid unnecessarily tight
tolerances that are beyond the natural capability of the manufacturing
processes. Otherwise, this will require that parts be inspected or
screened for acceptability. Determine when new production process
capabilities are needed early to allow sufficient time to determine
optimal process parameters and establish a controlled process. Also,
avoid tight tolerances on multiple, connected parts. Tolerances on
connected parts will "stack-up" making maintenance of overall product
tolerance difficult. Design in the center of a component’s parameter
range to improve reliability and limit the range of variance around the
parameter objective. Surface finish requirements likewise may be
established based on standard practices and may be applied to interior
surfaces resulting in additional costs where these requirements may
not be needed.

“Dissatisfaction with existing designs coupled with determination to improve them


has produced many inventions.”

“Winners don’t do different things, they do things differently.”


DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
Experience shows that it is difficult to make large savings in cost by the
introduction of automatic assembly in the manufacture of an existing product. In
those cases where large savings are claimed, examination will show that often
the savings are really due to changes in the design of the product necessitated
by the introduction of the new process. It can probably be stated that, in most of
these instances, even greater savings would be made if the new product were to
be assembled manually. Undoubtedly, the greatest cost savings are to be made
by careful consideration of the design of the product and its individual component
parts.

When a product is designed, consideration is generally given to the ease


of manufacture of its individual parts and the function and appearance of the final
product. Although for obvious reasons it must be possible to assemble the
product, little thought is usually given to those aspects of design that will facilitate
assembly of the parts and great reliance is often placed on the dexterity of the
assembly operators. An operator is able to select, inspect, orient, transfer, place,
and assemble the most complicated parts relatively easily, but many of these
operations are difficult, if not possible, to duplicate on the machine. Thus, one of
the first steps in the introduction of automation in the assembly process is to
reconsider the design of the product so that the individual assembly operations
become sufficiently simple for a machine to perform.

DFA APPROACH
1) Design for ease of
assembly: Simple patterns
of movement and minimizing
the axes of assembly are
recommended. Complex
orientation and assembly
movements in various
directions should be
avoided. Part features
should be provided adequate chamfers and tapers. The product design
should enable assembly to begin with a base
component with a large relative
mass and a low center of gravity
upon which other parts are added.
Assembly should proceed vertically
with other parts added on top and
positioned with the aid of gravity.
This will minimize the need to re-
orient the assembly and reduce the
need for temporary fastening and
more complex fixturing. A product
that is easy to assemble manually will be easily assembled with
automation. Assembly that is automated will be more uniform, more
reliable, and of a higher quality.

2) Fool-proof product design and assembly: The assembly process should


be unambiguous. Components should be designed so that they can only
be assembled in one way; they cannot be reversed. Notches,
asymmetrical holes and stops can be used to fool-proof the assembly
process. Design verifiability into the product and its components is
required. For mechanical products, verifiability can be achieved with
simple got no go tools in the form of notches or natural stopping points.
Products should be designed to avoid or simplify adjustments. Electronic
products can be designed to contain self-test and/ or diagnostic
capabilities. Of course, the additional cost of building in diagnostics must
be weighed against the advantages.

3) Design for Parts orientation and handling: This is required to minimize


non-value-added manual effort and ambiguity in orienting and merging
parts. Basic principles to facilitate parts handling and orienting are:

9 Parts must be designed to consistently orient themselves when fed


into a process.

9 Product design must avoid parts, which can get entangled, wedged
or disoriented.

9 Avoid holes and tabs and designed "closed" parts. This type of
design will allow the use of automation in parts handling and
assembly such as vibratory bowls, tubes, magazines, etc.

9 Part design should incorporate symmetry around both axes of


insertion wherever possible. Where parts cannot be symmetrical,
the asymmetry should be emphasized to assure correct insertion or
easily identifiable feature should be provided.

9 With hidden features that require a particular orientation, provide an


external feature or guide surface to correctly orient the part.

9 Guide surfaces should be provided to facilitate insertion.

9 Parts should be designed with surfaces so that they can be easily


grasped, placed and fixtured. Ideally this means flat, parallel
surfaces that would allow a part to picked-up by a person or a
gripper with a pick and place robot and then easily fixtured.
9 Minimize thin, flat parts that are more difficult to pick up. Avoid very
small parts that are difficult to pick-up or require a tool such as a
tweezers to pick-up. This will increase handling and orientation
time.

9 Avoid parts with sharp edges, burrs or points. These parts can
injure workers or customers, they require more careful handling,
they can damage product finishes, and they may be more
susceptible to damage themselves if the sharp edge is an intended
feature.

9 Avoid parts that can be easily damaged or broken. o Avoid parts


that are sticky or slippery (thin oily plates, oily parts, adhesive
backed parts, small plastic parts with smooth surfaces, etc.).
Suitable dispensers can be used for applying these.

9 Avoid heavy parts that will increase worker fatigue, increase risk of
worker injury, and slow the assembly process.

9 Design the workstation area to minimize the distance to access and


move a part.

9 When purchasing components, consider acquiring materials


already oriented in magazines, bands, tape, or strips.

4) Minimize flexible parts and interconnections; Avoid flexible and flimsy


parts such as belts, gaskets, tubing, cables and, wire harnesses. Their
flexibility makes material handling and assembly more difficult and these
parts are more susceptible to damage. Use plug-in boards and back-
planes to minimize wire harnesses. Where harnesses are used, consider
fool-proofing electrical connectors by using unique connectors to avoid
connectors being misconnected. Interconnections such as wire harnesses,
hydraulic lines, piping, etc. are expensive to fabricate, assemble and
service. Partition the product to minimize interconnections between
modules and co-locate related modules to minimize routing of
interconnections.

5) Design modular products: This is required to facilitate assembly with


building block components and sub-assemblies. This modular or building
block design should minimize the number of part or assembly variants
early in the manufacturing process while allowing for greater product
variation late in the process during final assembly. This approach
minimizes the total number of items to be manufactured, thereby reducing
inventory and improving quality. Modules can be manufactured and tested
before final assembly. The short final assembly lead-time can result in a
wide variety of products being made to a customer's order in a short
period of time without having to stock a significant level of inventory
.Production of standard modules can be leveled and repetitive schedules
established.

6) Design for automated production: Automated production involves less


flexibility than manual production. The product must be designed in such
way that it can be easily handled with automated equipment. There are
two automation approaches: flexible robotic assembly and high speed
automated assembly. Considerations with flexible robotic assembly are:
design parts to utilize standard gripper and avoid gripper/ tool change, use
self-locating parts, use simple parts presentation devices, and avoid the
need to secure or clamp parts. Considerations with high speed automated
assembly are: use a minimum of parts or standard parts for minimum of
feeding bowls, etc., use closed parts (no projections, holes or slots) to
avoid entangling, consider the potential for multi-axis assembly to speed
the assembly cycle time, and use pre-oriented parts.

7) Design for efficient joining and fastening: Threaded fasteners (screws,


bolts, nuts and washers) are time-consuming to assemble and difficult to
automate. Where they must be used, standardize to minimize variety and
use fasteners such as self-threading screws and captured washers.
Evaluate other bonding techniques with adhesives. Match fastening
techniques to materials, product functional requirements, and
disassembly! Servicing requirements.

8) Design printed circuit boards for assembly: With printed circuit boards
(PCB's), guidelines include: minimizing component variety, standardizing
component packaging, using auto-insert- able or place able components,
using a common component orientation and component placement to
minimize soldering "shadows", selecting component and trace width that is
within the process capability, using appropriate pad and trace
configuration and spacing to assure good solder-joints and avoid bridging,
using standard board and panel sizes, using tooling holes, establishing
minimum boarders, and avoiding or minimizing adjustments.

DESIGN FOR QUALITY


Quality is the most effective factor a company can use in the battle for
customers. Design for Quality (DFQ) emphasizes on the role of quality in the total
production cycle, including customer inputs, competitive benchmarking,
performance specifications, product and process design, manufacturing
variability and product reliability.

To be competitive, we must satisfy the customers. In order to be more


competitive, we must delight the customer. Quality is defined here as the
measure of customer delight. Note that customer satisfaction is a region on the
scale of customer delightment. To delight the customer, we must design for
quality.

The domain of DFQ includes: anticipating and satisfying customer


expectations; a fundamental understanding of "variability" and the way it affects
production processes; the new product life cycle and how to lower costs through
merging design specifications and production; and more advanced topics such
as robust design and the optimization of manufacturing processes.

Kaizen, a Japanese concept for continuous improvement, provides the


philosophy and driving force for DFQ. Total Quality Control provides the
implementation. The concepts are elegant. If quality is made the global driving
force, then the customers will obtain the best value possible.

DESIGN FOR COST


One of the most important things that the designer must keep in mind at all times
is the cost of any part and assembly of parts depends on the material used; the
amount of labor involved in machining and assembling; and in any multiple
reproduction, features of standardization and sales appeal.

Materials .As a result of the metallurgical developments of the last years a great
numbers of material are available for every machine part. These materials vary in
quality and in price. A good designer will select the least expensive material that
will be satisfactory for the duty of the part. For example, he will use more –
expensive alloy steels only when ordinary low carbon steel cannot give
satisfactory service. When forced to use alloy steel he should compare the
properties and costs of different kinds and should again follow the same
principle.

In selecting materials the designer must consider not only their strength but also
their rigidity and their resistance to wear. The permissible wear of a part depends
on its duty and also on the length of service that must give. If a part is subjected
to severe wear when in operation but is operated intermittently and nit very often,
a comparatively inexpensive material may be satisfactory; whereas a similar part
in continuous operation will require a more wear-resistant material. The expected
life of a part or a machine must also be taken into account .The longer the
intended life; the better should be the grade of the material used.

The same consideration applies to parts purchased from other manufactures,


such as bolts, setscrews, bushings, and ball bearings. For instance, if the
intended life of a certain machine is 3,000 hr, its cost will be unnecessarily
increased by using in it ball bearings with an expected life of 10,000 hr.
Whenever possible, standard stock sizes of rolled and extruded materials should
be used without changing their cross-sectional dimensions.
Effective product cost management requires a Design for Cost (DFC)
philosophy as its basis since a substantial portion of the product's cost is dictated
by decisions at the design. Design for cost is a management strategy and
supporting methodologies to achieve an affordable product by treating target cost
as an independent design parameter that needs to be achieved during the
development of a producl. A design for cost approach consists of the following
elements:

9 An understanding of customer affordability or competitive pricing


requirements by the key participants in the development process.

9 Establishment and allocation of target costs down to a level of the


hardware where costs can be effectively managed.

9 Commitment by development personnel to development budgets and


target costs.

9 Stability and management of requirements to balance requirements with


affordability and to avoid creeping elegance.

9 An understanding of the product's cost drivers and consideration of cost


drivers in establishing product specifications and in focusing attention on
cost reduction

9 Product cost models and life cycle cost models to project costs early in the
development cycle to support decision-making

9 Active consideration of costs during development as an important design


parameter appropriately weighted with other decision parameters

9 Creative exploration of concept and design alternatives as a basis for


developing lower cost design approaches.

9 Access to cost data to support this process and empower development


team members

9 Use of value analysis / function analysis and its derivatives (e.g., function
analysis system technique) to understand essential product functions and
to identify functions with a high cost to function ratio for further cost
reduction

9 Application of DFMA principles as a key cost reduction tactic

9 Meaningful cost accounting systems using cost techniques such as


Activity-Based Costing (ABC) to provide improved cost data
9 Consistency of accounting methods between cost systems and product
cost models as well as periodic validation of product cost models

9 Continuous improvement through Value Engineering to improve product


value over the longer term.

Machining:
Any kind of machining should be specified only where it is necessary to
permit the part to function properly. Informer years it was considered necessary
to machine the outsides of parts that were to be put together in contact, such as
the top of a cylinder and the outside of the cylinder head, in order to match them
accurately. This is not necessary, and the method is less expensive and Justas
good. Finishing cover plates on the edges and from the top is another waste of
machining.

All that is necessary is to spot-face around the holes for the nuts.

Where machining is necessary it should be done by the least expensive


method that is consistent with the purpose of the machining. If, for example a
part must be turned for the sake of balancing, rough turning is satisfactory ,and
specifying finish turning would be a mistake .Similarly ,if planning is satisfactory,
more expensive milling should not be specified on the drawing, and reaming
should not be specified if simple drilling is satisfactory.

Where fitting of parts requires tolerances, the specified tolerances should


not be closer than those absolutely, do not specify a smaller rms roughness than
that actually necessary.

In order to reduce the cost of assembling a machine, the parts of the


machine should as far as possible be so designed and built that they will place
and align themselves automatically when brought together. Usually, the more
complicated a machine is, the more important it is that the case and cost of
assembling be given careful consideration. If bench work and hand fitting cannot
be avoided, they should be reduced to a minimum.

The number of machines to be built has an important bearing on the


design of a machine and its parts. If only one machine or a few machines of a
certain kind and size are to be built, the limitations of the available plant
equipment should be kept in mind in the design. The capacity of the equipment of
the foundry or machine tools at hand may limit the methods of machining and
thus influence the design. In Certain cases it maybe found more economical to
weld a frame than to make a large, expensive pattern for it.

On the other hand, mass production or interchangeable manufacture


justifies the use of special molding machines in the foundry, special jigs and
fixtures, special production and inspection gages, and special tools, dies, and
machines in the welding and machine shops.

Standardization:
The purpose of standardization is to establish mandatory of obligatory
norms or standards to which the different types, grads, parameters, quality
characteristics, test methods, rule of marking, packing and storage of finished
items, raw materials and semi finished products to conform. Its aim is to minimize
variety so that the number of types, dimensions and size etc., are limited to a
definite number of models. Standardization is of great importance in mechanical
engineering.
If a part is made in lots, especially if the part is manufactured on a mass –
production basis, it is important to follow certain standards. Once a part is
designed and developed, it should be considered standardized; and no changes
should be made that would make the part not interchangeable with the original
design. Standard stock parts should be used without any additional machining.

Preferred numbers:
When a machine is to be made in several sizes having different powers or
capacities, it is necessary to decide what capacities will cover a certain range
efficiently with a minimum number of sizes. When a larger similar machine is
built, its relation to the original smaller machine is complicated. When preferred
numbers are used, fewer stock sizes can cover certain ranges. Such a reduction
would mean a great saving in inventory and probably in manufacturing cost too.
There is a wide field for the application of preferred numbers in various fields,
and machine designers can contribute a good share to our economy by using
them for serial designs in proper places.

DESIGN FOR SAFETY


Design for Safety (DFS) of an engineering system is a process of
identifying the possible failure events (top events) and the associated
consequences, estimating them and finally evaluating them. It provides the
designer with a systematic approach to identify high-risk areas and attain explicit
levels of safety by identifying and implementing ways to reduce the hazard
frequency of occurrence and the extent of respective consequences. In such a
process risk identification and risk- assessment may be the most difficult and
important steps that always attract a great deal of attention by safety
researchers.

“Success doesn’t mean the absence of failures; it means the attainment of ultimate
objectives. It means winning the war, not every battle.”

“To a positive thinker, attitude can be a stepping stone to success. To a negative


thinker, it can be a stumbling block.”
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
Reliability consideration has tended to be more of an after-thought in the
development of many new products. Many companies' reliability activities have
been performed primarily to satisfy internal procedures or customer
requirements. Where reliability is actively considered in product design, it tends
to be done relatively late in the development process. Some companies focus
their efforts on developing reliability predictions when this effort instead could be
better utilized understanding and mitigating failure modes, thereby developing
improved product reliability. Organizations will go through repeated (and
planned) design/ build/ test iterations to develop higher reliability products.
Overall, this focus is reactive in nature, and the time pressures to bring a product
to market limit the reliability improvements that might be made.

Specific Design for Reliability guidelines includes the following:

9 Design based on the expected range of the operating environment.


9 Design to minimize or balance stresses and thermal loads and/or reduce
sensitivity to these stresses or loads.
9 De-rate components for added margin.
9 Provide subsystem redundancy.
9 Use proven component parts & materials with well-characterized reliability.
9 Reduce parts count & interconnections (and their failure opportunities).
9 Improve process capabilities to deliver more reliable components and
assemblies.

“How much easier our work would be if we put forth as much effort trying to
improve the quality of it as most of us do trying to find excuses for not properly
attending to it.”

“Queer thing, but we always think every other man’s job is easier than our own,
and the better de does it, the easier it looks.”

“If you are sufficiently disgusted with a present design to do something about it, you
are on the right road, to create an invention.”
DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICE
INTRODUCTION
Drawing is the universal language of the engineers. It is a graphic
language used to describe the size and shape of individual components or
to describe the mutual disposition of a group of components. It can also be
a schematic representation, drawn by using clearly defined or
standardised symbols, explaining or detailing a function. Engineering
drawing is such an important means of communication.

The drawings are the final output of any design activity. This forms
the basic document for the further manufacture of components,
procurement of bought out items, inspection, subassembly and assembly
of the products. Drawings should contain the complete information in clear
unambiguous forms for further processing. ISO (International Organisation
for Standardisation) has brought out a series of standards dealing with all
aspects, which guide in the preparation of drawings. The same has been
adopted by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) as Indian Standards.
Adoption of these standards during preparation of drawings will ensure
aligning the individual company drawings to the international practices, so
that they are easily interpreted by all users nationally and internationally
and these have minimized misunderstanding and consequent delays
among all concerned.

Engineering office practice involves methods adopted for the


systematic preparation of engineering drawings and their documentation
and archiving.

They can be listed under the following main groups:

♦ Drawing standards
♦ Drawing numbering system
♦ Documentation
♦ Archiving
♦ Procedure for effecting alterations/modifications

To ensure complete compliance to the accepted drafting standards, to


ensure manufacturability and suitable inspection, to effect economy at the
design stage itself by ensuring the variety reduction of bought out
(standard parts) components and tools & tooling, and to make sure that
the drawings are indeed complete in all respects as a means of providing
effective and unambiguous communication, it is necessary to check the
design drawings for these possible deviations or deficiencies before they
are released for manufacture.
DRAWING STANDARDS:
Drawing standards comprise of standards for:

Drawing sheets
The drawing sheets are standardized and designated as A0, A1, A2, A3 & A4
The following table gives the sheet size of standard drawing sheets available.

Two successive format of a series of sizes


are obtained by halving along the length or
doubling along the width. The areas of the
two sizes are in the ratio 1:2 as shown in
the figure

“The three essentials to achieve anything


worthwhile are: hard work, courage and
common sense.”

“Progress is impossible without change, and


those who cannot change their minds cannot
change anything.”
The above figure shows a typical drawing sheet layout.

Scales, lines and lettering


Since manufacturing drawings convey technical information, for correct
interpretation, they have to be drawn by lines of standard thickness and
types, with standard lettering practice and to recommended standard
scales.

For engineering drawings, the types of lines recommended are as follows:

A. Continuous thick: Visible outlines


(outlines to be bold & dark)
B. Continuous thin: Dimension lines,
leader lines, extension lines, construction
lines, outlines of adjacent parts & hatch
lines.
C. Continuous thin wavy: Irregular
boundary lines, short break lines.
D. Short dashes medium: Hidden outline
& edges.
E. Long chain thin: Center lines, pitch
circles, extreme positions of movable
parts.
F. Long chain thick at ends & thin
elsewhere: Cutting plane lines
G. Long chain thick: To indicate surfaces
which are to receive additional treatment.
H. Short zigzag thin : Long break lines.
The fiure above shows the application of different types of lines.

The scales have to be chosen


depending upon the complexity of the
object and the size of the drawing sheet.
In all cases, the selected scale should
be just large enough to permit easy and
clear interpretation of the information
depicted. The choosen scale must be
indicated in the title block.
The table below gives the preferred
Scales that can be used in the drawings.

All engineering drawings consist of some written details to convey the


technical information. Writing of these particulars and dimension figures for
indicating the sizes of the object is called lettering. The height of the letters for
different applications may be selected from the table given below.
♦ Projection, sectioning & conventional representation
♦ Dimensioning and tolerancing of dimensions (to be discussed in
detail)
♦ Tolerancing of form and position (to be discussed in detail)
♦ Surface roughness and surface treatment (to be discussed in detail)
♦ Symbols and symbolic representation (to be discussed in detail)
♦ Folding of prints etc,.

Title Block
On any drawing, the title block is of great significance. It contains all the
details pertaining to the component represented on the drawing. The title block is
normally placed at the right hand bottom corner of the drawing and includes such
details as the title of the component, the drawing number, the scale, drawing
number of the immediate assembly into which the component/sub assembly
goes, material, surface roughness, number of pieces required for the assembly,
etc,. and it provides space to indicate future alterations on the drawing.

ABC ABC INC.

DRAWING NUMBERING SYSTEM


Project Number
Each project taken up by the design department should have a unique
project number which could be a 3 digit number with the prefix of the year in
which it is taken up Eg. 98.205, 99.206 etc,. Project code is also to be given in
the title block for eg,. Drilling machine, radial, 25 mm capacity could be indicated
as DR25.

A good drawing numbering system provides for a systematic and good


scientific coding method that enables the designer to identify drawings based on
the mutual relationship, size and technological features of the component and
avoid duplication.

Drawing numbering system may differ from industry to industry and from
company to company depending on the products/machine manufactured etc,.
Drawing numbering can be broadly be classified into:

♦ Numbering of part drawings


♦ Numbering of assembly drawings

Numbering of Part Drawings


Numbering of parts drawings provides an easy identification of a
component, which may be based on the technological features of the component
such as size or weight, shape, machining features, material etc,. the size of the
drawing sheet and the serial number with the required number of digits. In order
to give the serial number, particular project will be assigned a particular project
number and all the components intended for that project may be numbered
serially starting from, say 0001.

Numbering of Assembly Drawings


Assembly drawings are essentially numbered, independently of the part
drawings. The assembly drawing number could be a three digit number
beginning from 001 for overall assembly.

Nature of Assembly
Number corresponding to the nature of the assembly is selected, as follows:

♦ Overall assembly (Main assembly of machine/ product.)

♦ Sub-assembly (All sub assemblies coming in a group or main assembly other


than those indicated below)

♦ All sub assemblies involving welding, brazing, riveting operations etc,.

♦ Auxiliary drawings (Erection drawings, tubing assembly, etc,.)

♦ Circuits and schematics (Electric circuits, hydraulic schemes, kinematic


schemes, etc,.)

♦ Dimensional sketches of the machines.

♦ Operating and instruction manuals, servicing manuals etc,.

“The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find new cheese.”

“Give a man a fish, you feed him for a day; teach him how to fish you feed him for a
lifetime.”

“Experience is what you get when you don’t get what you want.”
Number Register
For each design, a separate number register is prepared containing the
list of assemblies and list of parts, both serially numbered. This enables
documentation of drawings prepared for a particular design. The number register
also provides for an easy location of the part drawing, clearly indicating the group
in which it is used. A specimen format for no. register, which is being used, is
attached for information.

NUMBER REGISTER
Assy / Part Dwg No. Name Used in Assy

Project No. Prepared By


Project Name Approved By LOGO
Date
Revision
PART LIST (BILL OF MATERIALS)
Part list is a list giving the material number, and size of all sub assemblies,
manufactured parts, procured parts, and standard parts that go into an assembly,
arranged in that order. The arrangement in that order makes the process
planning work and purchase of raw material and standard parts easier.

Every assembly shall have a corresponding part list or a set of part lists,
depending on the size of the assembly and the number of parts. A welded
assembly having a few individual parts may have only one part list, while group
assembly or the main assembly having several sub-assemblies and a number of
individual parts followed by some standard parts, will have a set of part lists, as
illustrated in enclosed specimen part list.

In the part list, the individual parts, sub-assemblies and standard parts are
incorporated in a methodical way, which makes the process planning work, as
well as the purchase of the raw materials and standard parts, more easier. A
specimen format of part list is enclosed for information. A schematic for
distribution of part lists in a particular design is indicated below
PART LIST / BILL OF MATERIAL
Sl No. Name Dwg No. Materia Qty Size Std Remarks
l No.

Project No. Prepared By


Project Name Approved By LOGO
Assy/ Sub-assy Date
No.
Revision
ALTERATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS
Procedure on effecting alterations/modifications on a drawing depends on
whether the main features of the component are altered or modified.

When alterations/modifications do not alter the main features of a


component, the alterations are effected on the drawing and are marked by
indices a, b, c, etc,.. These alterations/modifications are entered in the
appropriate column in the title block by giving reference to the area in which
alterations/modifications are affected and the corresponding index.

If the alterations/modification is such that it alters the main features, then a


new drawing under the same drawing number is prepared and the old drawing is
superceded. In the title block of superceding drawings, a clear mention of the
drawing number and the date of superceded drawing is made at an appropriate
place. Likewise, a mention of the drawing number and the date of superceding
modifications should be made also on all the assembly drawings in which the
part is used, in part list and number register and other related places.

FILING OF DRAWINGS
Order of filing of drawing sheets, part lists and no. register for a particular
design is as given below. This method of filing helps in easy identification of
drawings and makes it possible to file all drawings, assemblies, sub-assemblies
and part lists belonging to a group at one place.

Order for Filing for Project


♦ Number register.
♦ Overall Assembly drawings.
♦ All parts lists, in a serial order
♦ All part drawings filed in the same serial order as listed in the no. register.

MANUAL PREPARATION
Each and every machine is provided with an instruction manual with a
view to enable the customer to get accustomed to the machine regarding its
installation, use and proper upkeep. The instruction manual should contain all
information necessary so that installation, operation and maintenance of the
machine is possible without further guidance from the manufacturer. Sometimes
separate manuals are prepared for maintenance, installation, spare parts, safety
etc,.

The Instruction manual, should contain the following:


♦ A perspective view of the machine.
♦ Detailed technical specifications, with the list of extra accessories and special
accessories.
♦ General description of the machine indicating the operational features. If
necessary the operational features of the sub-units, accessories and
additional equipment, to be given in detail.
♦ Kinematic diagram for the machine tool as a whole and if necessary for each
and every sub-units and accessory.
♦ Clear description of all the auxiliary systems such as hydraulic, pneumatic or
electric circuits, lubrication, etc,. Schematic diagrams, with universally
accepted or standardised symbols, are to be given.
♦ A brief note, giving the details of the possible faults, their detection and
rectification.
♦ A description of all such items, which require frequent attention for
maintenance, such as belt transmission, brakes, hydraulic seals, etc,.
♦ Spare parts with their identification numbers. This should also clearly indicate
the method of specifying spare parts, while ordering.
♦ Clear instructions for handling, transportation and lifting of machine. If
possible detailed instruction with diagrams should be given for do’s and don’ts
during handling and transportation.
♦ Foundation plan, method of installation and precautions while installing the
machine.
♦ Clear instructions for initial starting and running of the machines.
♦ Lubrication chart using standardised symbols, indicating the type of lubricant
to be used, frequency, and points, which are to be lubricated.

The following points are to be borne in mind while preparing the instruction
manual:

♦ The information given should be complete in all respects and should not
make the customer feel lacking in information. The information should be brief
and clear and should not contain ambiguous statements.
♦ All drawings, diagrams and symbolic representations should confirm to
standard conventions and methods.
♦ The instruction manuals, for the machine for export, should be prepared in the
language of that country.
♦ Information given in the manual should be consistent with the actual machine
tool that is being supplied. If there is any difference, due to developmental
and technological advances, it should be clearly indicated.
♦ The instruction manuals should preferably be on A4 size and printed on
quality paper and bound so that any removal of intermediate sheets can be
easily detected. Blue printing or cyclostyling is also permissible.

“Unless you try to do something beyond what you have already mastered, you will
never grow.”
DOCUMENTATION
As far as drawing office practice is concerned, documentation relates to
collection of all drawings and related documents and supplying copies of the
same for further processing, whenever required.

The following are the list of documents that have to collected:


• Dimensional sketch of the machine with the main specifications.
• Number register.
• All group assembly, sub-assembly and welding assembly, drawings with
corresponding part lists.
• All circuit diagrams and schematics.
• All part drawings.
• Instruction and operating manuals.
• All auxiliary drawings, such as special fixtures, which are exclusively prepared
for components called for in the project, or tubing assembly drawings etc,.
• Test certificate format.
• Test reports.
• Typified lists of standards (Company standards referred to in the part lists).

ARCHIVES
Originals of all the documents are stored in the archives.
The following points are to be noted while storing:

• The originals are so arranged that they can be easily located when required,
and can be produced with unreasonable delay.
• The originals are protected against burglary, heat, fire hazards, insects, dust
and dampness.

The drawing filing containers used for storing the originals must be capable of
storing an A0 size unrolled. If required, it must be capable of being suitably
partitioned to enable storing of different sizes of sheets from A4 to A1. The
equipment used should not unnecessarily require undue physical effort, for
locating, inserting, and extracting the originals.

If required, suitable arrangements should be made for safe storing and


identification of microfilms and all necessary precautions against damage or loss
of these microfilms must be taken.
If however the drawings are prepared on CAD systems, they could be stored in
hard discs, floppies, CDs or optical discs.

“If you do not change, you can become extinct.”

“There is always something about your success that displeases even your best
friends.”
REVERSE ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION:
Reverse engineering (RE) is the process of creating a mathematical
representation or CAD model of an object from its physical form. RE is necessary
when

• A part is first modeled in clay, wood or foam and needs to be transferred


into CAD
• Only 2D drawings or master models of physical tooling exist
• A Competitor’s product needs to be analyzed
• A change in a physical part or tool must be captured in CAD
• Final parts have to be verified against the original CAD design.

The process consists of first scanning the object to create clouds of points
(Cops) that represent the skin of the object. These points on the boundary of the
object are used to create the surface model of the object using software such as
surfacer. If enough topological details are available, the surface model can be
converted into solid model. Otherwise, user can provide the necessary
information to convert it into a solid model. The solid model thus created can be
then used for analysis, documentation and NC cutter path generation or for
prototyping. RE essentially consists of two steps

I. Acquiring point data


II. Constructing 3D model.

Acquiring point data is carried out by an appropriate hardware and the


construction of 3D model from the acquired data is carries out using suitable
software.

ACQUIRING POINT DATA


The models used to produce CoPs or point data as output can be divided
into two major types:

I. Contact type
II. Non –contact type.

Touch probe based systems such as Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs)


are contact type, whereas laser scanners, optical fringing photoprammetry
systems come under non-contact type. While the contact types are more
accurate, they are slow, labor intensive and they cannot reach interior locations.
On the other hand, the non contact type acquisition systems can produce millions
of points within a short time but here the skill of the person doing the scanning is
a crucial factor.

Contact type Methods


The various contact type measurement methods are discussed in this
section.

Manual Measurement
Manual measurement using simple instruments such as scale, measuring
tape, vernier calipers, micrometer, bore guage, height gauge, templates, slip
gauge, standard pins etc., will be enough for objects with simple geometry. This
is the most labor-intensive method. Furthermore, this method does not create 3
D data directly; one needs to use the measured values to create 3D model.

Touch Probe Measurement


The surface of the object is measured by using contact sensitive sensor or
touch probe mounted on Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) Shown in
Figure. When the probe touches the surface, a signal is sent back to the
machine, which records the x, y, and z coordinates of the contact point. The
CMM is generally a portal frame type and fixed in a particular location with an
environment controlled for temperature humidity and dust. Depending on the
investment, it may have features to automatically scan the object in a
predetermined path.

The advantage of this method is that the


object to be measured does not always have to
be moved for full 3D scans since the
conventional CMM will have multiple probes
calibrated at different orientations and the
articulated one is inherently dexterous.
Additionally, by scanning only corners and
edges, it is easier to recover the topology of the
3D object. Internal openings pose less of a
problem. However, this method is labor intensive
and time consuming. Furthermore, this method
can generate only smaller data sets, typically
around 120 points per minute only.

There are also portable CMMs, which look like an articulated mechanical,
arm .Its articulated are generally consists of 3 parts, Viz, the base, elbow and
wrist. The wrist that holds the calibrated probe can be moved manually. Data are
collected at the probe tip, most often through the use of a manual switch or
button .A portable CMM requires either an integrated or separate controller unit
that calculates the probe position based on the angles of the encodes at each
joint and the lengths of each link. The x, y and z values are then transferred via a
serial line to an application software executing on a computer.
Non –contact type Methods

Laser Scanning
In a laser scanner pulsed laser is directed at the object and the reflections
are measured .The time lag between emitting pulse and receiving it by the
detector after reflection from the surface point is the measure of its distance. The
resulting CoP has an accuracy of around 0.5mm.This method produces large
data sets (in the order of 106 points) within a very short time. The disadvantages
are that the object or the measuring device has to be moved to produce a full 3D
scan and interior openings might be in the shadow of the laser beam.

A common method for acquiring range data is active optical triangulation.


Measuring an object’s surface depth on a regular sampling lattice produces
range data. The by connecting triangular elements with the nearest neighbors, a
range image is created.

Generally, a 1D or 2D sensor is swept linearly across the object or


circularly around it. This is usually not enough information to reconstruct the
entire object being scanned. Therefore, multiple passes must be made from
different orientations. Algorithms are required to merge multiple range images
into single description of the surface.

Although this technique has been in use for more than 20years,its speed
and accuracy have increased dramatically in recent years with the development
of stable imaging sensors such as CCDs and lateral effect photodiodes.

There are several different types of scanners that accomplish this, their
primary difference being in the structure of illuminant (typically point, stripe,
multipoint, or multi stripe), dimensionality of the sensor (linear array or CCD grid),
and the scanning method (move the object or move the scanner hardware). One
of the most obvious benefits to laser scanning is the tremendous increase in
speed with which a prototype can be reproduced.

Traditional methods call for the object to be measured manually and


converted into a CAD model. Not only is this extremely time consuming. But
organic shapes are almost impossible to create using this method. Objects such
as an ergonomically designed handle or new toy designs can be easily sculpted
and then scanned to ensure the intended result. Laser scanning is at its best
when dealing with ergonomic shapes .The entire scanning and post –editing
process can happen in hours. This time saving means faster response to
requirements. Because laser –scanning technology is relatively quick, it is
generally much cheaper than other types of scanning.

Operator experience is a critical factor with optical laser scanning the


operator must follow certain guidelines and be able to predict how the laser will
react. Discretion must be shown when viewing the individual scans before
merging so that any unacceptable data will be discarded .It is necessary to have
a clear understanding of how lasers work so as to know how to deal with them
.The lighting in the location, the object’s distance from scanner, and the object’s
color can all potentially affect the laser scanning process .The operator needs to
be able to clearly distinguish acceptable from unacceptable data. The operator
needs to be able to read and recognize clearly certain things in the point cloud,
the native product of laser scanners.

Product verification is another example of the benefits of scanning. After a


product has been produced, it can be scanned and the resultant data compared
to the CAD/CAM design .The deviation of the part can then be accurately
determined. Scanning is routinely used for periodic inspection of multiple parts to
analyze how closely the product adheres to the original. This allows for greatly
improved quality control and the ability to identify errors in the manufacturing
process.

CONSTRUCTING 3 D MODEL
At the end of measurement, the point data that lie on the boundary of the
object only is available. These may be random cloud of points or in some order. If
it is available in some order, say as in the case of CT scans, this order must be
exploited. One has to obtain the solid model of the object from the point data
using appropriate software. The details of constructing the 3D model are
discussed in this section.

Procedure:
Raw 3D digitized, or point cloud data, is memory hungry, static, and
awkward. While it is possible to export raw data directly into CAD software .It can
be very painful. Software such as surfacer, STRIM, Pro/Scan Tools, and Alias
are specially developed to handle huge data sets. The following is a description
of how such software is used for point cloud manipulation:

Data Orientation:
Orienting data is the first step. For Injection –molded parts; the data is
often oriented relative to the parting plane of the tool. If the part is symmetrical,
the point cloud is oriented such that the mirror plane is defined. Once orientation
is complete, all data exported to CD software will be located correctly for easier
model creation.

Manipulation of Data:
Often the final product is a variation of the part that was digitized.
Therefore, data manipulation is required to reflect the desired changes. . Scaling
data is the most common manipulation. Where critical assembly is involved, one
may have to obtain the required fits, tolerances, and surface finish requirements
based on other engineering considerations.
“The ladder of life is full of splinters, but they always peril the hardest when we are
sliding down.”
Extraction Of Reference Curves and base Geometry:
After data orientation and manipulation information is extracted, one piece
at a time, to aid in the CAD model creation.

Curves:
Cross –sectional and 3D curves can easily be extracted from the point
cloud data .The point could data can be sectioned through any plane, and a
3Dcurve can be created through any ridge or feature. In some cases such as CT
data, the information is already available in slice form. These planar cross –
sectional curve are created quickly. No time is spent smoothing the curves. The
curves, the Curves are only going to be used as templates during the model
creation.

Geometric Features:
Points that make up a flat surface, cylinder, or sphere are isolated, and a
best-fit surface is created.

Verification of final surfaces:


Software is used for verification of the CAD model. Surfaces are exported
several times during CAD model creation and compared, via a color variance
plot, to the point cloud.

Reconstruction of model
There are several CAD softwares that convert the available CoP into a 3D
object. The data of cloud of points is passed to the CAD software in formats such
as IGES, DXF or 3D StudioMAX. Various approaches have been used to take
the problem of solid reconstruction form a given CoP.

APPLICATIONS
Some important applications of Reverse engineering are presented in this
section.

Film Industry
The film industry quite frequently needs models of things or creatures,
which do not exist. Therefore, plasticine models are created by hand, which are
subsequently scanned. Once the fitted surfaces are available in the computer,
the creatures can be brought to life and animated. Examples for this are images
created for the films Godzilla and Jurassic Park. Similar applications can be
found across the entertainment industry and the production of commercials.

Security
It is common to restrict access to security sensitive areas by various
means such as keys, cards, and fingerprint or eye recognition. A Novel approach
is to use face recognition to perform the same task. The face of the visitor is
scanned, a surface is fitted over the CoP and this surface is then compared with
one, which has been stored. Only when the surfaces agree, access is granted.
Face recognition might also play an important role in the future of education with
the rise of distance learning over the Internet. When examining students, it will be
necessary to verify that the correct student is sitting in front of the computer
answering the test questions .Another security application is the safeguarding of
museum pieces .By scanning the exhibits and keeping an electronic copy, it is
easier to detect false from original artifacts.

Accident Assessment
After road accidents, the police typically measure out the accident spot
and the position of the involved partners relative to each other. When using the
laser cameras, the police simply take a few snap shots of the accident. These
pictures are then fed into a computer, which recreates the accident scene.
Additionally, it is possible to reconstruct the accident.

Product Design /Rapid Prototyping


Engineering components can sometimes be styled rather then
engineered. Typical examples include the shapes of cars, kettles, or telephones.
These parts may be asclay or plasticine models. Rather then recreating them in
the computer, it is possible to scan them and generate geometric CAD models of
them. This styled part can be manufactured using any of the Reprocesses early
in the design cycle.

Quality Control
One part of quality is to compare the manufactured shape to the required
shape. For simple –shaped products, this can be done by means of simple
measurement. However, this is feasible for complex, large parts. Using scanning
and surface fitting techniques, it is possible to capture and recreate the
manufactured shape and compare it with the required shape.

Fashion
The fashion industry has started to make extensive use if these
technologies. They perform full body scans of people to generate geometric
models. This allows designers to create their new clothes directly on the models
in the computer .In this way; the designers are able to create a very good image
of the appearance of their clothes.

Restoration
When carrying out restoration work, there are usually no drawings of the
components available. In such cases, the components can be scanned; a
geometric model can be manufactured using modern CNC machines. Similarly,
when engineering drawings are lost the CAD models can be reconstructed from
an existing part.

“If you and I were to exchange dollar bills, neither would be any richer. But if we
were to exchange new ideas, each would increase our knowledge.”
Medicine
In medicine, Cavities in teeth are scanned, which then enable a filling to
be exactly milled from solid ceramics, and glued into the tooth for a longer lasting
filling. Another area is the assessment of tumor grown. Sometimes, it can be
difficult to judge whether a tumor has grown between two consecutive body
scans. When extracting the CoP determining the tumor and fitting a surface to
this CoP, it is possible to easily assess tumor growth accurately.

Traditionally, to manufacture orthopedic shoes it is necessary to wrap the


patients foot into plaster, let the plaster harden then remove it. This is not only
time consuming but it is untidy when scanning the foot, it is easily possible to
generate a computer –based image of patient’s foot. From this, the orthopedic
shoe can be manufactured using CNC machining.

A precise reverse engineered model facilitates the pre –operative planning


on an optimal surgical approach and enables selection of correct or appropriate
implants .The reliability and the accuracy of a reverse engineered model in
surgical application allow surgeons to rehearse the re-alignment of bones or
fitting of implants on the reverse engineered models prior to operating the
patient, to evaluate and gain confidence in the planned approach. Surgical
procedures continue to be more effective day by day with reduced risk and
expense to both the patient and the hospital.

Biomechanical design work is closely related to sculptural work .The


human body does not have sharp corners or edges, thus it was necessary to
select CAD software that is versatile enough to give the model irregular shape.
This software accepts data in neutral formats such as STL and gives us the
opportunity to interface CTM to CAD. Segmented data can be translated into STL
file format and imported into the CAD environment .The CAD environment
allows for both the surgeon and the designer to determine critical dimension and
mass properties from the CAD model to aid Surgeons in their assessment.

Simulation
Simulation of parts using numerical methods is only possible when a
computational model of the object exist. This is usually not the case for natural
objects. These objects can be scanned and a computational object can be
created for them. This makes subsequent numerical analyses possible.

“The successful person must learn to take with grace the jealousy of the less
ambitious person.”

“I never did any thing worth doing by accident, nor did any of my inventions come
by accidents, they came by work.” - Thomas A Edison

“Smell the cheese often, so you know when it is getting old.”


FURTHER READING
™ Machine Tool Design Hand Book, CMTI, Tata McGraw-Hill.
™ Machinery’s Hand Book, The Machinery Publishing Co. Ltd.
™ Machine Design, Maleev & Hartman.
™ Machine Design, Sharma & Agarwal.
™ Mechanical Engineering Design, Red Ford
™ Machine Drawing, K R Gopalakrishna.
™ Production Technology, HMT, Tata McGraw-Hill.
™ Production Technology, R K Jain
™ Engineering Mechanics, Bavikatti.
™ Strength of Materials, Ramamurtham.
™ Theory of Machines, Ballaney.
When I Asked God for Strength

He Gave Me Difficult Situations to Face

When I Asked God for Brain & Brown

He Gave Me Puzzles in Life to Solve

When I Asked God for Happiness

He Showed Me Some Unhappy People

When I Asked God for Wealth

He Showed Me How to Work Hard

When I Asked God for Favors

He Showed Me Opportunities to Work Hard

When I Asked God for Peace

He Showed Me How to Help Others

God Gave Me Nothing I Wanted

He Gave Me Everything I Needed

- Swami Vivekananda

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