Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BY
K. PALANIYAPPAN
TECHNICAL CONSULTANT
CONTENTS
1. Design
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basics Principles of Design
1.3 Failure Criteria in Machine parts
2. Engineering Materials
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Technical Properties
2.3 Material Selection
2.4 Heat Treatment
3. Design for X
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Design for Manufacture (DFM)
3.3 DFM Approach
3.4 Design for Assembly
3.5 DFA Approach
3.6 Design for Quality
3.7 Design for Cost
3.8 Design for Safety
3.9 Design for Reliability
4. Drawing Practice
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Drawing Standards
4.3 Drawing Numbering System
4.4 Bill of Materials
4.5 Alterations and Modifications
4.6 Filing of Drawings
4.7 Manual Preparation
4.8 Documentation
4.9 Archives
5. Reverse Engineering
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Construction of 3D Model
5.3 Applications
i. Further Reading
DESIGN
Introduction:
Design is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of machines/
products and expressing those ideas in the form of plan and drawings. The idea
may be almost entirely new, as in the case of an invention or an improvement
upon existing machinery/ product; or it may be only partially new, as when a
product or a machine part is to differ in size, load or materials from those already
existing.
2. Must know how to analyze the applied loads and their reactions.
“The more a man gives of himself to his work, the more he will get out of it, both in
wages and satisfaction”.
12. Overall Weight and Available Space: As for as possible, efforts be made
to reduce the weight of the element or the system be made to the size for
a given available space.
13. Manufacturing Tolerances: For all parts, depending upon the specific
use, proper tolerances need to be determined.
Machine parts fail in their function in many ways. Failure is not always
overt or permanent in nature; it may be reversible or irreversible. A shaft which
fails to function owing to excessive deflection may perform its function at reduced
loads. A spring, which deforms permanently under overload has failed
permanently if, as result, it fails to meet the preload of free-length requirements.
“The out standing leaders of every age are those who set up their own quotas and
constantly exceed them”.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Introduction:
The selection of material is one of the decisions that a designer is
supposed to make and the selection of the proper material has always been a
difficult problem and is one that require an increasing amount of experience as
the variety of materials available is constantly increasing.
Technical properties:
The properties of materials used in machinery may be classified as:
I Mechanical Properties
Tensile Strength
Compressive Strength
Bending Strength
Bearing Strength
Shear Strength
Torsion Strength
Impact Strength
Damping Properties, etc.,
II Physical Properties
Wear Resistance
Coefficient of Friction
Hardenability
Thermal Conductivity
Specific Gravity
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, etc.,
Machinability
Formability
Weldability
Castability
Malleability, etc.,
Strength: The strength of a part depends on the type and nature of loading. The
static strength of a material is expressed by the corresponding elastic limit stress
Se. The impact strength is measured by the corresponding modulus of resilience
u. The endurance strength is expressed by the corresponding endurance limit
Sen.
Salient features of most widely used engineering materials and their applications
are discussed below:
CAST IRON
Cast Iron is primarily an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. Carbon content is
between 1.7 to 4.5%. The physical properties of the casting mainly depends
upon the relative amount of graphite or cementite that is present in the cast iron.
Also manganese, chromium, nickel, phosphorus, sulphur, etc., are alloyed with
cast iron to give special properties.
The general term Cast Iron CI includes Grey Cast Iron, Meehanite, Malleable
Iron, spheroidal Graphite Iron (SG Iron), etc.,
Grey Cast Iron is the least expensive of all the metals that could be used for
casting. The major structural components of machine tools, gear boxes,
brackets, housings, covers, pulleys, etc., are made of grey cast iron in preference
to steel due to its excellent castability and better damping properties against
vibration. The components made of grey cast iron are normally hardened either
by flame or induction hardening to 450 – 500 HBN.
“I don’t think much of a man who is not wiser today than he was yesterday”.
- Abraham Lincon
STEELS
Steel is very widely used for components as it can be manufactured and
processed into number of different specifications each of which has a definite
use. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.
STRUCTURAL STEEL
This is typical steel where the main criterion in the selection and inspection of the
steel is the tensile strength which is used as the basis of design. Generally load
carrying welded structures such as frames, trolleys, racks, machinery structures
etc.,
St 42W is a weldable quality structural steel with high tensile strength, this is a
frequently used structural steel in many applications.
CARBON STEEL
Steels like C40, C45, C55, C75, C80, C85 fall under this group. C45 is the
preferred steel of medium carbon steel category and is suitable for application
such as shafts, gears, keys, pins, clutchs, threaded fasteners requiring high
strength. C75 is the preferred steel of high carbon steel category and can be heat
treated to a high hardness in the range of 60 – 64 HRC.
The table below gives the different types of Carbon Steels, Alloys Steels and
their applications. Only important Alloy Steels frequently used in Engineering
Design are discussed below.
“I think and think, for months, for years, ninety nine times the conclusion is false,
the hundredth time I am right”. - Albert Einstein.
Alloy Steel Application Remarks
EN20A, B Thermal Applications Chromium Molybdenum
Steel
ALLOYS:
The elements most often alloyed with steel, singly or two or more together, are
besides carbon, nickel, chromium, silicon, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium,
tungsten, and aluminum.
Carbon increases the hardness and strength of steel but decreases its ductility.
Nickel steels are the most important of the commercial alloy steels. Their nickel
content varies from 0.50 to 5.25 per cent, while the usual carbon content ranges
from 0.30 to 0.60 per cent. The chief uses of nickel steels are for structural
shapes, rails, steel castings, engine forgings, and automotive parts.
Chromium increases the elastic limit and hardness of steel. It is added either
alone or in conjunction with nickel or vanadium. It also increases the resistance
to corrosion. Chrome steels are used for ball and roller bearings, gears, and
other machine and automotive parts where hardness is essential. Chrome steels
are always heat-treated. Steels with chromium content of 11 percent or more-in
some cases. Over 20 per cent-are known as stainless steels because of their
resistance to corrosion.
“If you want to have success, display enough courage to welcome failure.”
Chrome-nickel steels combine high strength with great hardness. They are
produced with a chromium content from 0.6 to 1.2 percent, a nickel content from
1.5 to 3.5 per cent, and various carbon contents. Steels with a carbon content up
to 0.2 per cent are used only when case hardened; those having a content of
0.25 to 0.6 per cent are used for structural parts of automobiles; and those
having a content of 0.5 per cent and more are used for gears and automotive
parts in place of plain chrome steel.
Silchrome steel contains 0.5 per cent C, 0.30 per cent Mn, 3.50 per cent Si, 8.0
per cent Cr, not more than 0.02 per cent P, and not more than 0.02 per cent S.
This steel is used for exhaust valves in internal combustion engines. It is tough,
is hard (even at high temperatures), and has a high resistance to scaling and
corrosion. Its drawback is the difficulty of machining it.
Silicon-manganese steel contains 0.45 to 0.65 per cent C, 0.60 to 0.90 percent
Mn, and 1.8 to 2.0 per cent -Si. It has a high elastic limit and is used extensively
for springs and gears. This steel must be given a suitable heat treatment, the
type depending on the kind of service for which the steel is intended.
Vanadium added to carbon steel nickel steel, or chrome steel, even in such a
small amount as 0.15 to 0.25 per cent, increases the elastic limit and resilience.
Chrome-vanadium steel is used especially for automotive springs. Steel that has
an average composition of 0.47 per cent C, 0.84 per cent Mn, 0.032 per cent S,
0.026 per cent P, 0.10 per cent Si, 1.06 per cent Cr, and 0.15 per cent V.
Tungsten and molybdenum are sometimes added to machine steels for strength
and toughness, but their chief use is in the production of high-speed cutting tools.
Aluminum in small amounts, about 0.10 per cent, increases the fluidity of steel.
Aluminum is also added to a ferrous alloy used as stock for nitriding. This alloy,
known as nitralloy, has an approximate composition of 0.2 to 0.4 per cent C 0.5 -
per cent Mn, O.Z to 0.5 per cent Si, 0.5 to 0.6 per cent Ni, 1.5 to 1.7 per cent Cr,
0.2 per cent Mo, 0.9 to 1.3 per cent Al, and about 95.5 to 96 per cent Fe.
“We need to teach a man that it is not a disgrace to fail and that he must analyze
every failure to find its cause. He must learn how to fail intelligently, for failing is
one of the greatest arts in the world.”
- Charles F Kettering.
ALUMINUM
Aluminum and its alloys have been used in machine tools owing to their light
weight, corrosion resistance, castability into intricate shapes and thin wall
thickness, forgeability and ability to be extruded and rolled. Some of these alloys
respond to solution treatment and precipitation hardening by means of which the
mechanical properties are improved. Aluminum and its alloy castings are
standardized as per IS 617. The grades of Aluminum which are frequently used
are 4223M & WP (A4), 4600M (A6) and 2280W & WP (A 11) for general castings
and 5230M (A5) where decorative anodizing is necessary.
Aluminum bronze: It is harder, stronger and more wear resistant than phosphor
bronze. It is also costlier than phosphor bronze. This is used for bearing bushes,
air craft engine valve seats and for lead screw nuts where strength and wear are
important.
Manganese bronze has high strength, is ductile, and resists corrosion in salt
water. Cast manganese bronze is used for such parts as ship propel1ers, heavy
gears, and heavy-duty bearings. Manganese bronze can be wrought like Tobin
bronze.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
Properties absent in a particular material can be achieved by intimate
combination of materials of different properties.
MATERIAL SELECTION:
In selecting the material, the requirements concerning the functions, stressing
and life of the component are to be considered first; then those concerning the
shape and manufacture. And last but not the least, the prime cost. Often the
procurement question is also important.
Ordinary carbon steels are used for simple axles and shafts keys and pins. High
quality steel or special cast iron is used for crankshafts.
Gray cast iron for stands, base plates, and housings. If the stresses are high than
special cast iron, cast steel or welded steel are used.
Hardened steel for parts subjected to high rolling contact pressure (ball bearings,
cams, heavily loaded gear teeth). Cast iron, cast steel, steel with carbon 0.2% to
0.6%, heat treated steel, in special cases, plywood ,plastics and non ferrous
metals are used for gear wheels.
Plastics, soft cast iron, bronze, white metal, Zinc and aluminum alloys are paired
for sliding surfaces.
Free cutting or die cast alloys are used for small mass produced components.
Heat resisting or non-scaling steel or ceramics are used for components
subjected to heat or fire.
In these cases it is advisable for the designer to discuss with material and
production experts and with user. The decision is simple if only certain few
material properties are of consequence. If several requirements are more or less
fulfilled by a number of materials, the decision becomes difficult.
The problem of selecting the most suitable material for the body of a motor car —
wood, plywood, plastics, light metal as aluminum alloy or sheet steel, for example
is thus to be solved by evaluating the influencing factors viz reliability, life,
sensitive to environmental conditions, case of forming to required shape, weight,
maintenance, repair and cost, etc.,
“Any man’s success hinges about 5% on what others do for him and 95% on what
he does, with the emphasis on the does.”
“No one ever attains very eminent success by simply doing what is required for him,
it is the amount and excellence of what is over and above the required, which
determines success.”
“The man who will use his skill and constructive imagination to see how much he
can give for a dollar, instead of how little he can give for a dollar is bound to
succeed.”
- Hendry Ford.
The heat treatment process can be classified into four important groups:
ANNEALING
Annealing is the process necessary to obtain softness, improve
machinability, increase or restore ductility and toughness, relieve internal
stresses, reduce structural non-homogeneity and to prepare for subsequent heat
treatment operations.
NORMALIZING
This is the process necessary to eliminate coarse-grained structure
obtained in previous working, to increase the strength of medium carbon steels to
a certain extent (in comparison with annealed steel), to improve the machinability
of low carbon steels, to reduce internal stresses; etc.
HARDENABILITY
Hardenability is defined as the capacity to develop a desired degree of
hardness usually measured in terms of depth of penetration. The depth of
hardness depends upon the critical rate; since this is not the same for the whole
cross-section, full hardening may be , achieved if the actual cooling rates, even
at the core, exceed the critical values. The higher the carbon content, the harder
a steel will be after hardening owing to a martensitic structure.
SURFACE HARDENING
This is a selective heat treatment in which the surface layer of metal is
hardened to a certain depth whilst a relatively soft core is maintained. The
principal purpose of surface hardening is to increase the hardness and wear
resistance of the surface. Surface hardening may be accomplished with or
without changing the chemical composition of the surface. While carburizing and
nitriding correspond to the first type, flame and induction hardening correspond to
the second type, i.e. without changing the chemical composition. Steels with
carbon content less than 0.25% can be generally carburized while steels with a
minimum carbon content of 0.4% only can be flame or induction hardened.
INDUCTION HARDENING
Induction hardening has the advantage that it reduces the time required
for heat treatment. Parts may be hardened with practically no scaling, so that
allowance for further machining can be reduced. Deformation due to heat
treatment is only marginal. In comparison with other processes for a given tensile
strength, induction hardened steels have higher hardness, wear resistance,
impact strength and fatigue limit. The increase in the fatigue limit after induction
hardening is associated with the appearance of residual compressive stresses in
the hardened layer. These stresses reduce the effect of tensile stresses arising
from the application of external forces.
FLAME HARDENING
In this process, the surface of the part to be hardened is heated by an oxy-
acetylene flame at temperature of 30000-32000C. The large amount of heat
transferred to the surface rapidly heats it to a hardening temperature before the
core is appreciably heated. Subsequent quenching hardens the layer.
CARBURIZING
This is a process for saturating the surface layer of low carbon steels with
carbon. Several methods are employed for this purpose such as pack
carburizing, gas carburizing and liquid carburizing. The advantages of gas
carburizing over pack carburizing are:
i) Possibility of better regulation of the process and of obtaining
more accurate case depth.
ii) Less time is required for the process
iii) The operation is clean and simpler and
iv) Process can be mechanised
NITRIDING
This is a process of saturating the surface of steel with nitrogen, by
holding it for a prolonged period at a temperature from 480° to 650°C in an
atmosphere of ammonia. Nitriding increases the hardness of the surface to a
high degree. It also increases the wear resistance and fatigue limit. When high
hardness and wear resistance are the chief requirements the part is made of
steel containing aluminium, chromium and molybdenum in steel impart an
exceptionally high hardness and wear resistance to the nitrided case.
Design for X involves the designer with other functional departments, such
as marketing, manufacturing, and engineering services, via Concurrent
Engineering (CE) methods. In fact, DFX is often considered as a subset of CE.
Since the other departments involve themselves at the early stages of design
and help designers detect and correct flaws, such a CE environment is
increasingly being referred as Collaborative Engineering.
Henry Ford introduced many features which gave the Model the
competitive advantage. He designed the product so that it was easy to drive by
virtually anyone. He designed the product to be repairable by any farmer with
tools readily available. He designed the parts of the product to be
interchangeable and easy
to attach to other parts.
He designed the
interchangeable worker
within the production
system. He designed the
movable production line.
The combination of these
sub-designs led to the
super-design of mass
production, for which he is
known. The salient point
here is that, in order to
capture the competitive advantage, he designed for many different
characteristics.
In other words, Henry Ford designed for X.
“Imagining myself enjoying new cheese, even before I find it, leads me to it.”
In the subsequent sections, each feature of DFX will be reviewed.
Under the first grouping come the processes of casting, welding, riveting,
and forging. Each of these methods of forming machine parts has different
possibilities, but it also has different limitations, which influence the design of a
part. The designer must know and keep in mind these possibilities and
limitations. The main features of each method from the standpoint of machine
design will be discussed in separate chapters in the order indicated above. The
first group includes also such processes as rolling, drawing, extruding, and
stamping. However, their purpose is not to produce machine parts as such, but to
produce stock material used widely in industry.
Among the methods under the second grouping are a great number of
different operations which give he piece the exact dimensions required and
produce the surface conditions necessary for its functioning. The main methods
in this group are turning, boring, milling, planning, shaping, drilling, reaming, spot
facing, broaching, grinding, honing, and polishing. There are additional
machining processes, such as screw –cutting, tapping, and gear cutting, which
are special adaptations of the basic methods. Some of the machining operations
fulfill the same object and are often interchangeable. Examples are milling,
planning, and shaping. Other operation is very helpful to a machine designer.
However, such knowledge can be acquired only by working in a machine shop,
and type of machining operation does not have too much effect on the shape of a
part during its design. In practice the proper operation often is selected after the
designer consults the man in charge of the machine shop. Therefore no attempt
will be made here to give any information about the differences between the
various types of machining operations, and no suggestions will be given for
selecting the best type of operation for a specific case. The information that must
be given to a beginning designer is how to make simpler and easier the
machining of the parts he is designing is how to determine the degree of
accuracy in machining that he should prescribe on his drawings.
Limitations: The designer must know the limitations of the machine shop in
which the part that he is designing will be machined. Such limitations are the
biggest diameter and the greatest length or height that can go in the lathe and
boring mill and the greatest length or width that can be handled by the planner.
He must know for what pitches hobs are available in the shop for cutting gear
teeth, as very few shops have all standard hobs in stock. He must have similar
information concerning other tools, such as taps, reamers, and broaches.
The designer should know which sizes of cold-rolled and hot –rolled steel
material are standard and which standard sizes are kept in stock in the shop
where his design will be executed. However, if the design of his part really
requires a standard size which the shop is not carrying in stock, he should not
hesitate to call for such material. He should not try to use available stock sizes
that involve extra machining.
ii. Assure the best cost, quality, reliability, regulatory compliance, safety,
time-to-market, and customer satisfaction.
DFM is a proven design methodology that works for any size company.
Early consideration of manufacturing issues shortens product development time,
minimizes development cost, and ensures a smooth transition into production for
quick time to market. Quality can be built in with optimal part selection and proper
integration of parts, for minimum interaction problems. By considering the
cumulative effect of part quality on product quality, designers are encouraged to
carefully specify part quality. Many costs are reduced, since products can be
quickly assembled from fewer parts. Thus, products are easier to build and
assemble, in less time, with better quality. Parts are designed for ease of
fabrication, and commonality with other designs. DFM encourages
standardization of parts, maximum use of purchased parts, modular design, and
standard design features. Designers will save time and money by not having to
"reinvent the wheel." The result is a broader product line that is responsive to
customer needs.
In order to design for manufacture, everyone in product development team
needs to:
Specifically, design for the processes to be used to build tile product he/ she
is designing. If products will be built by standard processes, design teams
must understand them and design for them. If processes are new, then
design teams must concurrently design the new processes as they design the
product.
Before DFM, "I designed it; you build it!" syndrome existed.
Design engineers worked alone or only in the company of other design engineers
in "The Engineering Department." Designs were then thrown over the wall
leaving manufacturing people with the dilemma of either objecting (but its to late
to change the design!) or struggling to launch a product that was not designed for
manufacture. Often this delayed both the product launch and the time to ramp up
to full production, which is the only meaningful measure of time-to-market.
Paradoxically, one of the first decisions the team has to make is the
optimal use of off-the-shelf parts. In. many cases, the architecture may have to
literally be designed around the off-the-shelf components, but this can provide
substantial benefit to the product and the product development process.
4) Avoid right/ left hand parts: Avoid designing mirror image (right or left hand)
parts. Design the product, so the same part can function in both, right or left hand
modes. If identical parts (cannot perform both functions, add features to both
right and left hand' parts to make them the same. Another way of saying this is to
use "paired" parts instead of right and left hand parts. Purchasing of paired parts
(plus all the internal material supply functions) is for twice the quantity and half
the number of types of parts. This can have a significant impact with many paired
parts at high volume. At one time or another, everyone has opened a briefcase or
suitcase upside down because the top looks like the bottom. The reason for this
is that top and bottom are identical parts used in pairs,
5) Design parts with symmetry: Design each part to be symmetrical from every
"view" (in a drafting sense) so that the part does not have to be oriented for
assembly. In manual assembly, symmetrical parts cannot be installed
backwards, a major potential quality problem associated with manual assembly.
In automatic assembly, symmetrical parts do not require special sensors or
mechanisms to orient them correctly. The extra cost of making the part
symmetrical (the extra holes or whatever other feature is necessary) will probably
be saved many times over by not having to develop complex orienting
mechanisms and by avoiding quality problems. It is a little known fact that in felt-
tipped pens, the felt is pointed on both ends so that automatic assembly
machines do not have to orient the felt.
10) Specify quality parts from reliable sources: The "rule of ten" specifies that it
costs 10 times more to find and repair a defect at the next stage of assembly.
Thus, it costs 10 times more to find a part defect at a sub-assembly; 10 times
more to find a sub- assembly defect at final assembly; 10 times more in the
distribution channel; and so on. All parts must have reliable sources that can
deliver consistent quality over time in the volumes required.
11) Minimize Setups: For machined parts, ensure accuracy by designing parts
and fixturing so all key dimensions are all cut in the same setup (chucking).
Removing the part to reposition for subsequent cutting lowers accuracy relative
to cuts made in the original position. Single setup machining is less expensive
too.
DFM APPROACH
i) Simplify the design and reduce the number of parts: Because for each
part, there is an opportunity for a defective part and an assembly error,
the probability of a perfect product goes down exponentially as the
number of parts increases. As the number of parts goes up, the total
cost of fabricating and assembling the product goes up. Automation
becomes more difficult and more expensive when more parts are
handled and processed. Costs related to purchasing, stocking, and
servicing also go down as the number of parts are reduced. Inventory
and work-in-process levels will go down with fewer parts. As the
product structure and required operations are simplified, fewer
fabrication and assembly steps are required, manufacturing processes
can be integrated and lead-times further reduced. The designer should
go through the assembly part by part and evaluate whether the part
can be eliminated, combined with another part, or the function can be
performed in another way.
To determine the theoretical minimum number of parts, the
following need to be asked:
a. Does the part move relative to all other moving parts?
b. Must the part absolutely be of a different material from the other
parts?
c. Must the part be different to allow possible disassembly
ii) Standardize and use common parts and materials: This is required to
facilitate design activities, to minimize the amount of inventory in the
system, and to standardize handling and assembly operations.
Common parts will result in lower inventories, reduced costs and
higher quality. Operator learning is simplified and there is a greater
opportunity for automation as the result of higher production volumes
and operation standardization. Limit exotic or unique components
because suppliers are less likely to compete on quality or cost for
these components. Group technology (GT) and Component Supplier
Management (CSM) systems can be utilized by designers to facilitate
retrieval of similar designs and material catalogs or approved parts lists
can serve as references for common purchased and stocked parts. GT
can also be used to guide in the development of manufacturing cells
for common part or product families, thereby minimizing inventory and
providing improved effectiveness through manufacturing focus. For
example, if different types of fasteners are avoided, a single spanner or
screwdriver will be adequate.
iii) Design for ease of fabrication: Select processes compatible with the
materials and production volumes. Select materials compatible with
production processes and that minimize processing time while meeting
functional requirements. Avoid unnecessary part features because
they involve extra processing effort and/ or more complex tooling.
Consider specific guidelines appropriate for the fabrication process
such as the following for machineability:
iv) Design within process capabilities and avoid unneeded surface finish
requirements: Know the production process capabilities of equipment
and establish controlled processes. Avoid unnecessarily tight
tolerances that are beyond the natural capability of the manufacturing
processes. Otherwise, this will require that parts be inspected or
screened for acceptability. Determine when new production process
capabilities are needed early to allow sufficient time to determine
optimal process parameters and establish a controlled process. Also,
avoid tight tolerances on multiple, connected parts. Tolerances on
connected parts will "stack-up" making maintenance of overall product
tolerance difficult. Design in the center of a component’s parameter
range to improve reliability and limit the range of variance around the
parameter objective. Surface finish requirements likewise may be
established based on standard practices and may be applied to interior
surfaces resulting in additional costs where these requirements may
not be needed.
DFA APPROACH
1) Design for ease of
assembly: Simple patterns
of movement and minimizing
the axes of assembly are
recommended. Complex
orientation and assembly
movements in various
directions should be
avoided. Part features
should be provided adequate chamfers and tapers. The product design
should enable assembly to begin with a base
component with a large relative
mass and a low center of gravity
upon which other parts are added.
Assembly should proceed vertically
with other parts added on top and
positioned with the aid of gravity.
This will minimize the need to re-
orient the assembly and reduce the
need for temporary fastening and
more complex fixturing. A product
that is easy to assemble manually will be easily assembled with
automation. Assembly that is automated will be more uniform, more
reliable, and of a higher quality.
9 Product design must avoid parts, which can get entangled, wedged
or disoriented.
9 Avoid holes and tabs and designed "closed" parts. This type of
design will allow the use of automation in parts handling and
assembly such as vibratory bowls, tubes, magazines, etc.
9 Avoid parts with sharp edges, burrs or points. These parts can
injure workers or customers, they require more careful handling,
they can damage product finishes, and they may be more
susceptible to damage themselves if the sharp edge is an intended
feature.
9 Avoid heavy parts that will increase worker fatigue, increase risk of
worker injury, and slow the assembly process.
8) Design printed circuit boards for assembly: With printed circuit boards
(PCB's), guidelines include: minimizing component variety, standardizing
component packaging, using auto-insert- able or place able components,
using a common component orientation and component placement to
minimize soldering "shadows", selecting component and trace width that is
within the process capability, using appropriate pad and trace
configuration and spacing to assure good solder-joints and avoid bridging,
using standard board and panel sizes, using tooling holes, establishing
minimum boarders, and avoiding or minimizing adjustments.
Materials .As a result of the metallurgical developments of the last years a great
numbers of material are available for every machine part. These materials vary in
quality and in price. A good designer will select the least expensive material that
will be satisfactory for the duty of the part. For example, he will use more –
expensive alloy steels only when ordinary low carbon steel cannot give
satisfactory service. When forced to use alloy steel he should compare the
properties and costs of different kinds and should again follow the same
principle.
In selecting materials the designer must consider not only their strength but also
their rigidity and their resistance to wear. The permissible wear of a part depends
on its duty and also on the length of service that must give. If a part is subjected
to severe wear when in operation but is operated intermittently and nit very often,
a comparatively inexpensive material may be satisfactory; whereas a similar part
in continuous operation will require a more wear-resistant material. The expected
life of a part or a machine must also be taken into account .The longer the
intended life; the better should be the grade of the material used.
9 Product cost models and life cycle cost models to project costs early in the
development cycle to support decision-making
9 Use of value analysis / function analysis and its derivatives (e.g., function
analysis system technique) to understand essential product functions and
to identify functions with a high cost to function ratio for further cost
reduction
Machining:
Any kind of machining should be specified only where it is necessary to
permit the part to function properly. Informer years it was considered necessary
to machine the outsides of parts that were to be put together in contact, such as
the top of a cylinder and the outside of the cylinder head, in order to match them
accurately. This is not necessary, and the method is less expensive and Justas
good. Finishing cover plates on the edges and from the top is another waste of
machining.
All that is necessary is to spot-face around the holes for the nuts.
Standardization:
The purpose of standardization is to establish mandatory of obligatory
norms or standards to which the different types, grads, parameters, quality
characteristics, test methods, rule of marking, packing and storage of finished
items, raw materials and semi finished products to conform. Its aim is to minimize
variety so that the number of types, dimensions and size etc., are limited to a
definite number of models. Standardization is of great importance in mechanical
engineering.
If a part is made in lots, especially if the part is manufactured on a mass –
production basis, it is important to follow certain standards. Once a part is
designed and developed, it should be considered standardized; and no changes
should be made that would make the part not interchangeable with the original
design. Standard stock parts should be used without any additional machining.
Preferred numbers:
When a machine is to be made in several sizes having different powers or
capacities, it is necessary to decide what capacities will cover a certain range
efficiently with a minimum number of sizes. When a larger similar machine is
built, its relation to the original smaller machine is complicated. When preferred
numbers are used, fewer stock sizes can cover certain ranges. Such a reduction
would mean a great saving in inventory and probably in manufacturing cost too.
There is a wide field for the application of preferred numbers in various fields,
and machine designers can contribute a good share to our economy by using
them for serial designs in proper places.
“Success doesn’t mean the absence of failures; it means the attainment of ultimate
objectives. It means winning the war, not every battle.”
“How much easier our work would be if we put forth as much effort trying to
improve the quality of it as most of us do trying to find excuses for not properly
attending to it.”
“Queer thing, but we always think every other man’s job is easier than our own,
and the better de does it, the easier it looks.”
“If you are sufficiently disgusted with a present design to do something about it, you
are on the right road, to create an invention.”
DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICE
INTRODUCTION
Drawing is the universal language of the engineers. It is a graphic
language used to describe the size and shape of individual components or
to describe the mutual disposition of a group of components. It can also be
a schematic representation, drawn by using clearly defined or
standardised symbols, explaining or detailing a function. Engineering
drawing is such an important means of communication.
The drawings are the final output of any design activity. This forms
the basic document for the further manufacture of components,
procurement of bought out items, inspection, subassembly and assembly
of the products. Drawings should contain the complete information in clear
unambiguous forms for further processing. ISO (International Organisation
for Standardisation) has brought out a series of standards dealing with all
aspects, which guide in the preparation of drawings. The same has been
adopted by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) as Indian Standards.
Adoption of these standards during preparation of drawings will ensure
aligning the individual company drawings to the international practices, so
that they are easily interpreted by all users nationally and internationally
and these have minimized misunderstanding and consequent delays
among all concerned.
♦ Drawing standards
♦ Drawing numbering system
♦ Documentation
♦ Archiving
♦ Procedure for effecting alterations/modifications
Drawing sheets
The drawing sheets are standardized and designated as A0, A1, A2, A3 & A4
The following table gives the sheet size of standard drawing sheets available.
Title Block
On any drawing, the title block is of great significance. It contains all the
details pertaining to the component represented on the drawing. The title block is
normally placed at the right hand bottom corner of the drawing and includes such
details as the title of the component, the drawing number, the scale, drawing
number of the immediate assembly into which the component/sub assembly
goes, material, surface roughness, number of pieces required for the assembly,
etc,. and it provides space to indicate future alterations on the drawing.
Drawing numbering system may differ from industry to industry and from
company to company depending on the products/machine manufactured etc,.
Drawing numbering can be broadly be classified into:
Nature of Assembly
Number corresponding to the nature of the assembly is selected, as follows:
“The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find new cheese.”
“Give a man a fish, you feed him for a day; teach him how to fish you feed him for a
lifetime.”
“Experience is what you get when you don’t get what you want.”
Number Register
For each design, a separate number register is prepared containing the
list of assemblies and list of parts, both serially numbered. This enables
documentation of drawings prepared for a particular design. The number register
also provides for an easy location of the part drawing, clearly indicating the group
in which it is used. A specimen format for no. register, which is being used, is
attached for information.
NUMBER REGISTER
Assy / Part Dwg No. Name Used in Assy
Every assembly shall have a corresponding part list or a set of part lists,
depending on the size of the assembly and the number of parts. A welded
assembly having a few individual parts may have only one part list, while group
assembly or the main assembly having several sub-assemblies and a number of
individual parts followed by some standard parts, will have a set of part lists, as
illustrated in enclosed specimen part list.
In the part list, the individual parts, sub-assemblies and standard parts are
incorporated in a methodical way, which makes the process planning work, as
well as the purchase of the raw materials and standard parts, more easier. A
specimen format of part list is enclosed for information. A schematic for
distribution of part lists in a particular design is indicated below
PART LIST / BILL OF MATERIAL
Sl No. Name Dwg No. Materia Qty Size Std Remarks
l No.
FILING OF DRAWINGS
Order of filing of drawing sheets, part lists and no. register for a particular
design is as given below. This method of filing helps in easy identification of
drawings and makes it possible to file all drawings, assemblies, sub-assemblies
and part lists belonging to a group at one place.
MANUAL PREPARATION
Each and every machine is provided with an instruction manual with a
view to enable the customer to get accustomed to the machine regarding its
installation, use and proper upkeep. The instruction manual should contain all
information necessary so that installation, operation and maintenance of the
machine is possible without further guidance from the manufacturer. Sometimes
separate manuals are prepared for maintenance, installation, spare parts, safety
etc,.
The following points are to be borne in mind while preparing the instruction
manual:
♦ The information given should be complete in all respects and should not
make the customer feel lacking in information. The information should be brief
and clear and should not contain ambiguous statements.
♦ All drawings, diagrams and symbolic representations should confirm to
standard conventions and methods.
♦ The instruction manuals, for the machine for export, should be prepared in the
language of that country.
♦ Information given in the manual should be consistent with the actual machine
tool that is being supplied. If there is any difference, due to developmental
and technological advances, it should be clearly indicated.
♦ The instruction manuals should preferably be on A4 size and printed on
quality paper and bound so that any removal of intermediate sheets can be
easily detected. Blue printing or cyclostyling is also permissible.
“Unless you try to do something beyond what you have already mastered, you will
never grow.”
DOCUMENTATION
As far as drawing office practice is concerned, documentation relates to
collection of all drawings and related documents and supplying copies of the
same for further processing, whenever required.
ARCHIVES
Originals of all the documents are stored in the archives.
The following points are to be noted while storing:
• The originals are so arranged that they can be easily located when required,
and can be produced with unreasonable delay.
• The originals are protected against burglary, heat, fire hazards, insects, dust
and dampness.
The drawing filing containers used for storing the originals must be capable of
storing an A0 size unrolled. If required, it must be capable of being suitably
partitioned to enable storing of different sizes of sheets from A4 to A1. The
equipment used should not unnecessarily require undue physical effort, for
locating, inserting, and extracting the originals.
“There is always something about your success that displeases even your best
friends.”
REVERSE ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION:
Reverse engineering (RE) is the process of creating a mathematical
representation or CAD model of an object from its physical form. RE is necessary
when
The process consists of first scanning the object to create clouds of points
(Cops) that represent the skin of the object. These points on the boundary of the
object are used to create the surface model of the object using software such as
surfacer. If enough topological details are available, the surface model can be
converted into solid model. Otherwise, user can provide the necessary
information to convert it into a solid model. The solid model thus created can be
then used for analysis, documentation and NC cutter path generation or for
prototyping. RE essentially consists of two steps
I. Contact type
II. Non –contact type.
Manual Measurement
Manual measurement using simple instruments such as scale, measuring
tape, vernier calipers, micrometer, bore guage, height gauge, templates, slip
gauge, standard pins etc., will be enough for objects with simple geometry. This
is the most labor-intensive method. Furthermore, this method does not create 3
D data directly; one needs to use the measured values to create 3D model.
There are also portable CMMs, which look like an articulated mechanical,
arm .Its articulated are generally consists of 3 parts, Viz, the base, elbow and
wrist. The wrist that holds the calibrated probe can be moved manually. Data are
collected at the probe tip, most often through the use of a manual switch or
button .A portable CMM requires either an integrated or separate controller unit
that calculates the probe position based on the angles of the encodes at each
joint and the lengths of each link. The x, y and z values are then transferred via a
serial line to an application software executing on a computer.
Non –contact type Methods
Laser Scanning
In a laser scanner pulsed laser is directed at the object and the reflections
are measured .The time lag between emitting pulse and receiving it by the
detector after reflection from the surface point is the measure of its distance. The
resulting CoP has an accuracy of around 0.5mm.This method produces large
data sets (in the order of 106 points) within a very short time. The disadvantages
are that the object or the measuring device has to be moved to produce a full 3D
scan and interior openings might be in the shadow of the laser beam.
Although this technique has been in use for more than 20years,its speed
and accuracy have increased dramatically in recent years with the development
of stable imaging sensors such as CCDs and lateral effect photodiodes.
There are several different types of scanners that accomplish this, their
primary difference being in the structure of illuminant (typically point, stripe,
multipoint, or multi stripe), dimensionality of the sensor (linear array or CCD grid),
and the scanning method (move the object or move the scanner hardware). One
of the most obvious benefits to laser scanning is the tremendous increase in
speed with which a prototype can be reproduced.
CONSTRUCTING 3 D MODEL
At the end of measurement, the point data that lie on the boundary of the
object only is available. These may be random cloud of points or in some order. If
it is available in some order, say as in the case of CT scans, this order must be
exploited. One has to obtain the solid model of the object from the point data
using appropriate software. The details of constructing the 3D model are
discussed in this section.
Procedure:
Raw 3D digitized, or point cloud data, is memory hungry, static, and
awkward. While it is possible to export raw data directly into CAD software .It can
be very painful. Software such as surfacer, STRIM, Pro/Scan Tools, and Alias
are specially developed to handle huge data sets. The following is a description
of how such software is used for point cloud manipulation:
Data Orientation:
Orienting data is the first step. For Injection –molded parts; the data is
often oriented relative to the parting plane of the tool. If the part is symmetrical,
the point cloud is oriented such that the mirror plane is defined. Once orientation
is complete, all data exported to CD software will be located correctly for easier
model creation.
Manipulation of Data:
Often the final product is a variation of the part that was digitized.
Therefore, data manipulation is required to reflect the desired changes. . Scaling
data is the most common manipulation. Where critical assembly is involved, one
may have to obtain the required fits, tolerances, and surface finish requirements
based on other engineering considerations.
“The ladder of life is full of splinters, but they always peril the hardest when we are
sliding down.”
Extraction Of Reference Curves and base Geometry:
After data orientation and manipulation information is extracted, one piece
at a time, to aid in the CAD model creation.
Curves:
Cross –sectional and 3D curves can easily be extracted from the point
cloud data .The point could data can be sectioned through any plane, and a
3Dcurve can be created through any ridge or feature. In some cases such as CT
data, the information is already available in slice form. These planar cross –
sectional curve are created quickly. No time is spent smoothing the curves. The
curves, the Curves are only going to be used as templates during the model
creation.
Geometric Features:
Points that make up a flat surface, cylinder, or sphere are isolated, and a
best-fit surface is created.
Reconstruction of model
There are several CAD softwares that convert the available CoP into a 3D
object. The data of cloud of points is passed to the CAD software in formats such
as IGES, DXF or 3D StudioMAX. Various approaches have been used to take
the problem of solid reconstruction form a given CoP.
APPLICATIONS
Some important applications of Reverse engineering are presented in this
section.
Film Industry
The film industry quite frequently needs models of things or creatures,
which do not exist. Therefore, plasticine models are created by hand, which are
subsequently scanned. Once the fitted surfaces are available in the computer,
the creatures can be brought to life and animated. Examples for this are images
created for the films Godzilla and Jurassic Park. Similar applications can be
found across the entertainment industry and the production of commercials.
Security
It is common to restrict access to security sensitive areas by various
means such as keys, cards, and fingerprint or eye recognition. A Novel approach
is to use face recognition to perform the same task. The face of the visitor is
scanned, a surface is fitted over the CoP and this surface is then compared with
one, which has been stored. Only when the surfaces agree, access is granted.
Face recognition might also play an important role in the future of education with
the rise of distance learning over the Internet. When examining students, it will be
necessary to verify that the correct student is sitting in front of the computer
answering the test questions .Another security application is the safeguarding of
museum pieces .By scanning the exhibits and keeping an electronic copy, it is
easier to detect false from original artifacts.
Accident Assessment
After road accidents, the police typically measure out the accident spot
and the position of the involved partners relative to each other. When using the
laser cameras, the police simply take a few snap shots of the accident. These
pictures are then fed into a computer, which recreates the accident scene.
Additionally, it is possible to reconstruct the accident.
Quality Control
One part of quality is to compare the manufactured shape to the required
shape. For simple –shaped products, this can be done by means of simple
measurement. However, this is feasible for complex, large parts. Using scanning
and surface fitting techniques, it is possible to capture and recreate the
manufactured shape and compare it with the required shape.
Fashion
The fashion industry has started to make extensive use if these
technologies. They perform full body scans of people to generate geometric
models. This allows designers to create their new clothes directly on the models
in the computer .In this way; the designers are able to create a very good image
of the appearance of their clothes.
Restoration
When carrying out restoration work, there are usually no drawings of the
components available. In such cases, the components can be scanned; a
geometric model can be manufactured using modern CNC machines. Similarly,
when engineering drawings are lost the CAD models can be reconstructed from
an existing part.
“If you and I were to exchange dollar bills, neither would be any richer. But if we
were to exchange new ideas, each would increase our knowledge.”
Medicine
In medicine, Cavities in teeth are scanned, which then enable a filling to
be exactly milled from solid ceramics, and glued into the tooth for a longer lasting
filling. Another area is the assessment of tumor grown. Sometimes, it can be
difficult to judge whether a tumor has grown between two consecutive body
scans. When extracting the CoP determining the tumor and fitting a surface to
this CoP, it is possible to easily assess tumor growth accurately.
Simulation
Simulation of parts using numerical methods is only possible when a
computational model of the object exist. This is usually not the case for natural
objects. These objects can be scanned and a computational object can be
created for them. This makes subsequent numerical analyses possible.
“The successful person must learn to take with grace the jealousy of the less
ambitious person.”
“I never did any thing worth doing by accident, nor did any of my inventions come
by accidents, they came by work.” - Thomas A Edison
- Swami Vivekananda