Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Recycling of wastes for value-added applications in concrete blocks: An T

overview
⁎
Yazi Menga, Tung-Chai Linga, , Kim Hung Mob
a
Key Laboratory for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials and Application Technology of Hunan Province, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University,
Changsha, 410082, Hunan, China
b
Centre for Innovative Construction Technology (CICT), Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Environmental concerns related to the disposal of various waste materials have escalated to a worrying level.
Concrete blocks Depending on the local industries, different types of waste are generated in huge quantities every year. Hence,
Sustainability the demand for more sustainable development has further increased the importance of green construction. In
Recycling recent years, extensive study efforts have been made to recycle wastes for possible use in the production of
Waste materials
concrete products. This is because concrete blocks seem to be the most popular option for the incorporation of
Value-added properties
recycled waste materials due to the lower quality requirements of materials. This paper reviews published re-
Aggregate replacement
search works on the use of various kinds of wastes (i.e. recycled concrete, crushed brick, soda lime glass, cathode
ray tube glass, crumb rubber, ceramic and tile waste, etc.) in the production of concrete blocks. The common
concrete block properties as well as the value-added properties of concrete blocks with incorporated waste
materials are highlighted and discussed in this paper. Several unique characteristics of recycled crumb rubber,
plastic waste and crushed brick enhance the fire resistance, toughness, functional and insulation properties of
concrete blocks. Also, the quantity of these materials incorporated into concrete blocks can be maximized up to
100% as natural aggregate replacements, while their usage can also be limited to below 30% in certain appli-
cations in order to meet the standard requirements of concrete blocks. The compliance of concrete blocks with
standard requirements and the value-added properties have demonstrated good potential for incorporating
wastes as aggregate in concrete blocks.

1. Introduction
Concrete blocks are among the main building materials in the
construction industry. In the United States, about 23–30 million pieces
and more than 2000 types of concrete blocks are produced annually
(Fan, 1996). Unlike normal concrete cast in situ, concrete blocks are
mass produced in factories using the dry mix pressed method, in which
the constituent materials are molded under compacted loads with a
vibration action (Poon et al., 2002). Only a small amount of water is
required for the concrete block mixture so that it can be fed into the
molding machine to allow immediate demolding (Putnam, 1973).
For a long time, concrete blocks have been used in different con-
struction applications, such as partition wall blocks, paving blocks, and
floor blocks, among others (Yan, 1996). The most unique feature of
concrete block their ability to be molded into different shapes, thick-
nesses, densities and strengths for different civil engineering applica-
tions (Scholz and Grabowiecki, 2007). For partition wall blocks,
lightweight, better sound and thermal insulation are the important
functional properties for buildings. If the wall blocks are to be designed
as load-bearing members, then their compressive strength should not be
less than 7 MPa (Neville, 1995). Since concrete paving blocks are more
prone to cracking under traffic loading (fail in bending), the minimum
requirement of splitting tensile strength must be greater than 3.6 MPa
(Ghafoori and Mathis, 1998), and they are expected to possess better
ability to resist acid, abrasion, weathering and frost than other types of
concrete blocks.
However, the rapid growth of the construction industry has led to
environmental problems caused by excessive mining and usage of
natural resources such as aggregate and cement (Mo et al., 2016). Ap-
proximately 275 million tons of new aggregate are extracted annually
in the UK and this is estimated to increase by 1% each year (Soutsos
et al., 2011a). Concerns over the damage to the surrounding environ-
ment, destruction of the ecological balance and emission of greenhouse
gases have become increasingly severe (Blankendaal et al., 2014). In

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tcling@hnu.edu.cn (T.-C. Ling).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.07.029
Received 8 May 2018; Received in revised form 27 July 2018; Accepted 28 July 2018
Available online 11 August 2018
0921-3449/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Meng et al.
addition, without proper waste recycling, the huge number of industrial
by-products and waste materials produced are either burnt or land-
filled and this could cause serious environmental pollution and con-
tamination (Karade, 2010; Xuan et al., 2018). Therefore, there is a
pressing need to improve the re-use value of waste materials.
Hence, efforts to recycle and reuse waste materials have resulted in
intensive research works being carried out to incorporate these wastes
in concrete blocks, which have shown promise in managing the huge
amount of wastes generated each year (Yang et al., 2011). Commonly,
most of the waste materials were investigated for potential use as an
aggregate replacement to produce concrete blocks with not only en-
hanced sustainability, but also value-added performances. For instance,
apart from reduced dependency on conventional aggregates, the in-
corporation of various types of construction and demolition wastes such
as recycled concrete aggregates (with CO2 treatment), crushed bricks,
and concrete slurry waste as aggregate has been found to be beneficial
in enhancing the properties of concrete blocks such as compressive
strength and fire resistance (Zhan et al., 2013, 2016a,b; Xiao et al.,
2013; Kou et al., 2012; Hossain et al., 2017). Besides this, recent reports
show that crumb rubber could contribute to better insulation properties
as well as enhanced toughness while the inclusion of waste glass ag-
gregate could improve the aesthetic and ornamental values of concrete
blocks (Mohammed et al., 2012; Ling et al., 2013b). Nevertheless, in
order to maximize the use of waste materials to produce value-added
eco-friendly concrete blocks, the unique characteristics and limitations
for different types of waste materials need to be carefully considered.
Therefore, in this paper, the use of different types of wastes as ag-
gregate replacements in concrete blocks is reviewed. The unique
characteristics of each type of waste material and the value-added
properties as well as the basic properties of concrete blocks are high-
lighted and discussed in detail. This has the aim of providing a general
idea of the future development of value-added eco-friendly concrete
blocks incorporating waste materials.
2. Waste materials as aggregate in concrete blocks
Aggregate is one of the major components (up to 80% by volume) in
concrete blocks and vital in influencing the properties of concrete
blocks. Since the usage of conventional aggregate is not en-
vironmentally friendly and causes depletion of natural resources
(Medina et al., 2012), a variety of waste materials have been recycled
and used as aggregate in concrete blocks. Although generally exhibiting
lower strength, lower density and higher water absorption, blocks in-
corporating waste materials can satisfy the necessary requirements of
blocks with a proper aggregate replacement ratio. This is because the
quality requirements for raw materials used in the production of con-
crete blocks are relatively low compared to other conventional concrete
products. Moreover, majority of waste materials have their own unique
characteristics and can be utilized in concrete blocks for special appli-
cations. The basic physical properties and appearance of each type of
waste are presented in Table 1.
2.1. Recycled concrete waste
Recycled concrete is a waste material mainly obtained from con-
struction and demolition (C&D) activities. The European Union (EU)
produces about 850 million tons of C&D waste each year, representing
31% of the total waste generated within the EU (Fischer and Werge,
2009). The massive amount of C&D waste is usually used for low-value
applications such as road construction or is land-filled instead of being
recycled (Rao et al., 2007). According to Huang et al. (2018), the reuse
rate is even less than 5% in China, and this is due to the inherent fea-
tures of recycled concrete waste which include being porous, of rela-
tively low density, low strength and having high water absorption (see
Table 1). However, when C&D waste is properly separated, crushed and
screened, as well as treated with CO2 or pozzolanic slurry, the produced
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312
recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) can be used to fully replace natural
aggregate for the production of concrete blocks. Certainly, it is also seen
as a key driver for recycling the waste supported by the related gov-
ernment policies, guidelines and strategies (Jin et al., 2017).
In general, it was observed that the increase in RCA content leads to
reduction in the compressive strength of concrete blocks (Sabai et al.,
2013; Soutsos et al., 2011a, 2011b; Matar and Dalati, 2011), which is
normally attributed to the weak interfacial transition zone, low com-
pressive strength of recycled concrete aggregate (ranging from 5.2 to
10.4 N/mm2 compared to about 14.2 N/mm2 for natural aggregates)
and higher porosity (about 7 times more porous than natural ag-
gregates) (Sabai et al., 2013). Soutsos et al. (2011a) investigated the use
of RCA as coarse and fine aggregates for the production of concrete
building blocks and noted that the reduction in strength of concrete
blocks was more significant when RCA was used as a fine aggregate
replacement. This was attributed to the higher porosity of the recycled
concrete fine aggregates compared to the corresponding coarse ag-
gregates and thus, it was recommended that the maximum replacement
level of fine and coarse aggregate be 30% and 60%, respectively (see
Fig. 1). Due to the higher water absorption of RCA caused by the pre-
sence of the cement paste/mortar attached to the surface, Soutsos et al.
(2011b) suggested the RCA replacement levels of coarse and fine ag-
gregates to be reduced to 55% and 25%, respectively, so that their
water absorption can be limited to below 6% and that they satisfy the
durability as well as freeze-thaw resistance requirements of concrete
paving blocks. In terms of mechanical strength, Matar and Dalati,
(2011, 2012) and Poon et al. (2002) demonstrated that there was little
effect on the compressive strength of concrete blocks when up to 50%
RCA was incorporated as a partial aggregate replacement. Besides that,
researchers concluded that a relatively higher cement content is usually
required for RCA concrete blocks to compensate for the loss in com-
pressive strength (Soutsos et al., 2011a, 2011b; Matar and Dalati, 2011,
2012).
In order to maximize usage of RCA and increase the value-added
properties in concrete blocks, recent studies have focused on utilizing
CO2 curing techniques. It was demonstrated that by adopting CO2
curing, the compressive strength, drying shrinkage and fire resistance
performances of concrete blocks containing RCA could be improved
(Xuan et al., 2016a,2016b; Zhan et al., 2013, 2016a, 2016b). An ex-
ample of the CO2 treatment setup for concrete blocks is shown in Fig. 2.
The concrete blocks with CO2 curing have reduced porosity, and the
density can be increased from 1995 to 2222 kg/m3, hence resulting in
compressive strength increase. This is because under a controlled en-
vironment, the CO2 easily reacts with the old cement mortars contained
in the RCA, whereby the carbonation reaction consumes the calcium
hydroxide (CH) present to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3), leading to
a denser microstructure and lower drying shrinkage (Zhan et al., 2013,
2016a). In addition, the fire resistance of concrete blocks was found to
be enhanced, was also due to the carbonation reaction, producing
carbonates products which are more thermally stable than common
cement hydration products (CH, calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), etc.)
(Zhan et al., 2016b). Moreover, this beneficial CO2 curing can com-
pensate for the strength loss and allows the use of 100% RCA in con-
crete blocks (Zhan et al., 2016a). In subsequent research, it was re-
vealed that pre-treatment of RCA to optimize the moisture content cam
maximize CO2 uptake during the curing and further improve the
compressive strength of RCA concrete blocks. Xuan et al. (2016a) also
found that by carbonating the RCA itself, the drying shrinkage can be
reduced besides increasing the compressive strength of the resulting
concrete blocks. This was attributed to the reduction in the water ab-
sorption as well as porosity of the RCA. Hence, the replacement levels
could be further increased to 75% and 85% for fine and coarse ag-
gregate, respectively using carbonated RCA in concrete blocks (Xuan
et al., 2016a, 2016b).
Y. Meng et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312

Table 1
The physical properties and appearance of waste materials.

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued)

(continued on next page)

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Y. Meng et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Remark: * indicates fineness modulus value with no metric unit.
2.2. Crushed brick waste
Bricks are the dominant materials in residential construction and
are estimated to remain the second most important building material
after concrete (Adamson et al., 2015). At present, the annual output of
bricks in the world is about 1391 billion pieces, and the demand for
bricks is expected to continue to rise (Zhang, 2013). According to an
industry survey (Venta and Eng, 1998), for 1 ton of new bricks pro-
duced, approximately 0.011 ton of brick waste is generated and dis-
posed of into landfills. At the same time, a large amount of brick waste
is generated during the demolition of old buildings and process of
making new bricks. Thus, there is an increasing interest among
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researchers in recycling brick waste in concrete blocks. Although cru-
shed (fire-burnt clay) bricks generally have lower density and strength
and higher water absorption than natural aggregates (as summarized in
Table 1), it has the advantage of having good fire resistance which can
benefit the resulting concrete blocks.
A common trend found by researchers is that the density and
compressive strength are reduced while water absorption is increased
upon inclusion of crushed bricks as an aggregate replacement in con-
crete blocks, due to the properties of lower intrinsic strength, higher
water absorption and lower density of crushed bricks (Xiao et al., 2011,
2013; Poon and Chan, 2006). Xiao et al. (2011) investigated the fea-
sibility of replacing sand and recycled concrete aggregate as fine and
Y. Meng et al.
Fig. 1. Strength versus % replacement level of limestone aggregate with coarse
and fine RCA.
(Sourced from Soutsos et al., 2011a).
coarse aggregates, respectively using crushed brick aggregates to pro-
duce partition wall blocks. Although the compressive strength of blocks
was reduced with higher content of crushed brick aggregate, the com-
bination of different types of fine aggregates (derived from RCA and
waste bricks) could provide better strength since the finer crushed brick
particles could fill the voids and reduced the porosity of the concrete
Fig. 2. Schematic drawing of the CO2 curing setup for concrete blocks.
(Sourced from Zhan et al., 2013; Zhan et al., 2016b).
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312
blocks. Thus, the suggested replacement level of coarse and fine ag-
gregate with crushed bricks should be less than 25% and between 50%
and 75%, respectively. A similar optimum range was also reported
earlier by Poon and Chan (2006) for concrete paving blocks. The range
suggested by researchers also indicates that concrete paving blocks
perform better when crushed bricks are incorporated as a fine aggregate
replacement compared to coarse aggregate replacement. Also, Ganjian
et al. (2015) and Poon and Chan (2006) reported a decrease in the
performance of concrete blocks such as splitting tensile strength and
weathering resistance when crushed bricks were used as a coarse ag-
gregate replacement. It was also found that the use of fly ash could
significantly reduce the water absorption of concrete paving blocks
made of crushed bricks, due to the filler effect of the finer fly ash,
though this partially compromised the skid resistance as a more
homogenous mix with a smoother surface was produced in the presence
of fly ash (Poon and Chan, 2006). However, attention needs to be given
to the use of fly ash in building wall blocks as there could be a risk
associated with the increase in indoor radon concentrations (Man and
Yeung, 1997).
Because of the good thermal resistance of brick aggregates, it is
imperative to assess the performance of concrete blocks made using
waste bricks at elevated temperatures. From Fig. 3, it is interesting to
note that concrete blocks containing crushed brick aggregate could
retain more strength at elevated temperatures of 300–500 °C than an
ambient temperature of 20 °C (Xiao et al., 2013), and blocks with
25–50% and 50–75% of fine brick aggregate content displayed the
highest strength. This may be attributed to two reasons: the higher
temperature resistance of the brick aggregate itself as pure clay bricks
could attain twice its original strength at more than 400 °C, and as some
unhydrated cement phase may undergo additional hydration at high
temperatures (Xiao et al., 2013). When a block was exposed to 800 °C,
the compressive strength was lower than the initial strength (at ambient
temperature), yet could retain 62–75% of its original strength. All the
results point to a potential application of the blocks containing crushed
clay brick for fire resistance under high temperature conditions (Xiao
et al., 2013).
2.3. Soda lime glass waste
According to Ling et al. (2013b), about 373 tons of (soda lime) glass
Y. Meng et al.
Fig. 3. Residual compressive strength of block specimens containing fine brick aggregate as a sand replacement.
(Sourced from Xiao et al., 2013).
waste is generated daily in Hong Kong, and only about 10% of the
waste glass is recycled and reused. The low recycling rate is mainly due
to the lack of glass manufacturing industries and the difficulty of the
collection process (Ling et al., 2013b). Since glass waste contains a high
amount of silica (over 70%) (see Table 1), coupled with its unique
features of low water absorption, stability, high hardness, imperme-
ability as well as inherent properties (i.e. inorganic, amorphous, etc.)
(Chen et al., 2011; de Azevedo et al., 2017), there is potential to utilize
crushed waste glass as aggregate for value-added properties (aesthetic
effect and self-cleaning) in the manufacture of concrete blocks, though
the alkali-silica reaction should be adequately controlled with the aid of
certain admixtures.
Incorporation of crushed glass was found to cause a slight reduction
in the density of concrete blocks, as reported in a few works (Lee et al.,
2013; Chen et al., 2018) and this is mainly due to the lower density of
crushed glass compared to conventional aggregates. According to Lee
et al. (2013), generally the inclusion of glass as a fine aggregate re-
placement also lowers the compressive strength of concrete blocks,
particularly at higher replacement levels. This was attributed to the
decrease in aggregate-cement bond caused by the smooth and im-
permeable surface of the glass particles. Additionally, Chen et al. (2018)
suggested that the irregular shape of crushed glass could reduce the
compactness and subsequently the strength of concrete blocks. How-
ever, reducing the particle size (< 0.6 mm) of the crushed glass ag-
gregate could enhance the compressive strength due to possible poz-
zolanic activity (Lee et al., 2013). This was also similarly reflected in
the research by Turgut and Yahlizade (2009) whereby the inclusion of
20% crushed glass as a fine aggregate replacement was found to in-
crease the mechanical properties of the concrete blocks such as com-
pressive, flexural and splitting tensile strengths by 69%, 90% and 47%,
respectively. The long-term compressive strength of concrete blocks
with incorporated glass could also be improved through the in-
corporation of an optimum amount of supplementary cementitious
materials such as fly ash (Lam et al., 2007) and sewage sludge ash
(Chen et al., 2018).
In terms of the water absorption of concrete blocks, a decreasing
trend was observed when crushed glass was utilized as an aggregate
replacement and this is mainly due to the hydrophobic nature and low
water absorption of glass (Chen et al., 2018; Lam et al., 2007). Further
reduction in water absorption could also be achieved by using fly ash
and sewage sludge ash as a partial cement replacement material. While
Lam et al. (2007) did not observe a significant difference in the abrasion
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312
resistance of concrete blocks with crushed glass as a partial fine ag-
gregate replacement, Turgut and Yahlizade (2009) reported that there
was a decrease in the abrasion resistance beyond a fine aggregate re-
placement level of 20%.
Since crushed glass is rich in silica (amorphous), the alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) in concrete block containing crushed glass aggregate has
also received research attention (Chen et al., 2018; Lam et al., 2007; Lee
et al., 2011). Nevertheless, Lee et al. (2011) indicated that the ASR
problem was less critical (with a reduction in expansion by up to 44%)
in dry-mixed concrete blocks compared to wet-mixed concrete as the
ASR expansive pressure can be accommodated by a higher inter-
connected porosity in dry-mixed concrete. It was also noted that the
finer particle size of glass aggregate could reduce the possibility of ASR
as a result of the pozzolanic reactivity (Lee et al., 2011). Additionally,
the ASR in crushed glass concrete blocks can be effectively remediated
with the use of an optimum amount of supplementary cementitious
materials such as metakaolin (Lee et al., 2011), fly ash (Lam et al.,
2007) and sewage sludge ash (Chen et al., 2018).
One of the advantageous properties of incorporating crushed glass
as a fine aggregate replacement in concrete blocks is the effectiveness in
activating titanium dioxide to achieve a self-cleaning function (Chen
and Poon, 2009; Poon and Cheung, 2007). The capability of removing
nitric oxide (NO) can be improved as the crushed glass transmits more
light to reach a greater depth from the concrete’s surface layer, acti-
vating the titanium dioxide in the interior portion of the surface layer
(Fig. 4). This is obvious because glass is a transparent material which
allows light transmission through the particles. In fact, the NO removal
efficiency in blocks made with crushed glass is three times higher than
that of blocks made with normal sand. In addition, clear glass was
found to exhibit better photocatalytic activity than dark colored (dark,
green, brown) glass due to the better light transmission properties
(Chen and Poon, 2009).
2.4. Cathode ray tube (CRT) glass waste
Cathode ray tube (CRT) glass waste is mostly obtained from old
television and computer monitor screens. In 2010 alone, more than
2600 tons of old televisions were thrown away by families and cor-
porations in Hong Kong (Ling and Poon, 2014a). In mainland China, the
generation of CRT waste was about 43 million tons in 2013 (Lee et al.,
2016). According to Yoshida et al. (2016) the global CRT disposal is
expected to achieve its peak in the next few years (2015–2020). This
Y. Meng et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312

Fig. 4. Pathways of light and activation of TiO2 in a concrete block’s surface layer using glass as aggregates.
(Sourced from Chen and Poon, 2009).

drives the government to find a suitable solution for the disposal of CRT with the use of crushed glass aggregate in earlier studies (Chen and
waste. Due to its dense and radiation shielding properties (associated Poon, 2009; Gou et al., 2012). As compared with transparent (soda
with the lead content) as well as impermeable property are similar to lime) glass, darker colored CRT associated with the lead content slightly
that of soda lime glass, the recycling of CRT waste as a possible sub- decreased the penetration of light for photo-catalysis. Besides this, Ling
stitute for conventional fine aggregates in concrete blocks was explored and Poon (2014b) found that CRT blocks exhibit significantly better X-
previously. However, the high percentage of PbO (20%–25%) (Lee ray radiation-shielding performance than normal concrete blocks. Due
et al., 2004) also necessitates pre-treatment of the crushed CRT glass to the presence of lead in CRT which actively interacts with X-rays, the
using acid treatment and water washing prior to usage in concrete energy and radiation penetration depth can be reduced (Ling and Poon,
blocks (Ling and Poon, 2014a, 2014b). 2014b). As shown in Fig. 5, the radiation-shielding ability improves as
Due to the presence of lead compounds in CRT waste and higher the CRT content increases up to 100% in the concrete block (Ling et al.,
density compared to normal aggregate, the density of concrete blocks 2013a). In fact, the material required for CRT concrete blocks to reduce
produced is usually higher than blocks without CRT (Ling and Poon, the X-ray dose rate by one-half was only about 42% compared to that of
2014a, 2014b). Additionally, the water absorption of concrete blocks normal concrete block (Ling and Poon, 2014b). Therefore, they sug-
made with CRT fine aggregate was found to reduce as the CRT exhibits gested that it may be practical and economic to utilize the radiation-
impermeable properties (Ling and Poon, 2014a, 2014b). This also ex- shielding capabilities of CRT concrete blocks for medical diagnostic
plains the reported lower drying shrinkage of CRT blocks as a lower room construction.
amount of water is evaporated during the drying process (Ling and
Poon, 2014a, 2014b). Similar to the use of crushed glass, inclusion of
CRT waste as a fine aggregate replacement in concrete blocks causes 2.5. Crumb rubber waste
their compressive strength to decrease, and this was primarily attrib-
uted to the weak aggregate-cement interface bond because of the Crumb rubber is generally produced from scrap tires by cutting and
smooth surface of CRT (Ling and Poon, 2014a). It is also worth noting grinding into a granular shape. Crumb rubber generally consists of
that the inclusion of CRT makes a certain contribution towards the later particles ranging in size from 0.5 mm to 5 mm (Siddique and Naik,
strength gain of concrete blocks due to the pozzolanic activity of the 2004). In the United States, more than 299 million scrap tires are
very fine CRT particles present in the mix (Ling and Poon, 2014a). The generated annually and about 188 million tires have been stockpiled
results also indicated that 50% content of CRT in concrete paving
blocks did not result in a significant compressive strength loss and even
with 100% CRT content, the concrete block produced could satisfy the
strength requirement of 45 MPa. Besides this, the high silica content of
CRT waste has enthused researchers to investigate the ASR of the re-
sulting concrete blocks and it was found that generally the ASR ex-
pansion was below the maximum limit of 0.1% (Ling and Poon, 2014a,
2014b). Ling and Poon (2014a) added that the inclusion of 25% fly ash
to replace cement could effectively restrict ASR expansion while an-
other study (Ling and Poon, 2014b) revealed that the amount of ex-
pansion was lower for the case of non-load bearing concrete blocks
compared to load bearing blocks due to the higher porosity of the
former.
Among the interesting features of CRT concrete blocks is the ef-
fective combination with titanium dioxide to exhibit self-cleaning
properties by removal of NO (Ling and Poon, 2014a). With an increase
of CRT content, the capability of removal of NO gradually increased.
Fig. 5. Comparison of radiation-shielding thickness of non-load bearing con-
When using 100% CRT incorporated in concrete paving blocks, the
crete blocks (NLCB) with 1-mm lead rubber at 0%, 50% and 100% CRT content.
capacity was enhanced by 7%, which was also similarly demonstrated
(Sourced from Ling and Poon, 2014b).

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Y. Meng et al.
Fig. 6. Microstructure of crumb rubber concrete mixture (fine aggregate (FA)
and coarse aggregate (CA) (Sourced from Mohammed et al., 2012).
according to the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA). The RMA
also estimated that 477 thousand tons of scrap tires were land disposed
in 2005 (Rubber Manufacturers Association, 2005). As the waste tires
are not readily biodegradable, the prolonged landfilling and accumu-
lation of large amounts of the waste tires pose serious environmental
concerns. However, due to the unique and desirable characteristics such
as low density, better sound insulation, higher impact strength and
toughness, crumb rubber (CR) produced from waste tires could be in-
corporated to take advantage of these features to enhance the perfor-
mance of the resulting concrete blocks.
As rubber has a lower density than normal aggregate (as indicated
in Table 1), a partial replacement of coarse and fine aggregate with CR
could produce lighter concrete blocks (Sodupe-Ortega et al., 2016;
Mohammed et al., 2012; Ling et al., 2009, Ling, 2011). The entrapped
air voids on the surface of CR particles (see Fig. 6) also contribute to the
lower density of the concrete blocks (Sodupe-Ortega et al., 2016;
Mohammed et al., 2012; Sukontasukkul and Chaikaew, 2006). More-
over, the formation of the air voids besides the inherent softness and
low stiffness of CR was reasoned to reduce the compressive strength of
the concrete block, particularly when there is an increased amount of
CR used (Sodupe-Ortega et al., 2016). However, Ling (2012) suggested
that incorporation of 10% CR could enhance the compressive strength
of concrete paving blocks and this was attributed to the deformability of
CR particles which could effectively fill voids upon the release of the
compaction force during the production process (Fig. 7). Based on la-
boratory trials, Mohammed et al. (2012) recommended a maximum CR
replacement limit at 6.5% and 40.7% to satisfy the compressive
strength requirements for load bearing and non-load bearing concrete
blocks, respectively. Sodupe-Ortega et al. (2016) and Ling (2012) sug-
gested the maximum CR content to be 10% to avoid collapse of concrete
blocks upon the stripping process in concrete block-making plants. In-
creasing the CR content beyond 10% would result in cracks due to the
Fig. 7. Mechanism behavior between soft rubber and solid particles (a) under compaction force and (b) once released from the force.
(Sourced from Ling, 2012).
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312
need for higher compressibility and thereby increase the rejection rate
in commercial block making plants (Ling, 2012). The limitation of using
CR in concrete blocks, though, is the reduction of abrasion and skid
resistance; the reduction of resistance was found to be greater with
higher content of the CR aggregate replacement level (Sukontasukkul
and Chaikaew, 2006; Ling et al., 2010; Ling, 2011). However, it was
found that the use of finer crumb rubber (1–3 mm) can provide slightly
better skid resistance of concrete paving blocks (Ling et al., 2009).
Ling (2011) developed a prediction model for estimating the density
and compressive strength of concrete blocks made with a different
range of crumb rubber percentage and w/c ratios. The results indicated
that there is a logarithmic relationship between strength reduction
factor and the rubber content for all w/c ratios, the coefficients varying
from 0.84 to 0.96 after 28 days of curing. A very strong linear re-
lationship with a coefficient of 0.99 between the density reduction
factors and the rubber content for all w/c ratios was also observed.
The greatest benefit of using CR in concrete blocks is reported to be
the enhanced insulation properties such as thermal and sound insula-
tion. When compared with traditional concrete blocks, CR concrete
blocks have low thermal conductivity, better sound absorption and a
higher noise reduction coefficient (Mohammed et al., 2012). This is
mainly due to the low thermal conductivity (Mohammed et al., 2012) as
well as the porous surface layer of the CR particles (Ling et al., 2010).
Besides this, CR concrete blocks were found to exhibit more ductile
behavior compared to normal concrete blocks. Due to the high de-
formability of CR aggregates, the toughness of a block can be improved
as larger quantities of energy can be absorbed by the concrete block
before failure (Ling, 2011).
2.6. Ceramic and tile industry waste
There is a growing interest in using ceramic and tile industry waste
as alternative materials for construction (Wattanasiriwech et al., 2009).
Ceramics are commonly produced from clay upon firing to high tem-
peratures exceeding 1200 °C; therefore, the resulting products exhibit
desirable properties, such as high strength, high abrasion resistance,
chemical inertness, long service life, and heat and fire resistance
(Medina et al., 2012). Some of the basic physical properties are shown
in Table 1. Few research works have focused on utilizing ceramic waste
as aggregate in concrete blocks, since the advantageous features of
ceramic waste include high strength, durability and chemical resistance
(Torkittikul and Chaipanich, 2010).
Based on literature, the inclusion of ceramic tile waste (Sadek and
Nouhy, 2014) and tile polishing waste (Penteado et al., 2016) as a sand
replacement seems to contribute to enhancement of the compressive
strength of concrete blocks. This is thought to be due to the rougher and
angular shape of ceramic waste particles which enhances the interfacial
bonding with cement paste (Sadek and Nouhy, 2014). In contrast, when
Y. Meng et al.
used as a coarse aggregate replacement, a decreasing trend in the
compressive strength of concrete blocks was observed (Sadek and
Nouhy, 2014). In the investigation by Penteado et al. (2016), com-
paring the effects of several types of ceramic tile polishing wastes,
namely porcelain tiles, porous tiles and stoneware tiles as a sand re-
placement levels, it was found that an increase in compressive strength
was only observed when using porcelain tile polishing waste due to the
pozzolanic activity and filler effect of the finer ceramic waste particles.
Although the use of porous tile or stoneware tile polishing waste as a
sand replacement did not cause significant change in the compressive
strength, replacement levels of up to 30% of these ceramic tile polishing
wastes in concrete paving blocks could achieve the standard require-
ment of 50 MPa for heavy vehicle use. In terms of the water absorption
of paving blocks, a slight decrease was found by Sadek and Nouhy
(2014) and Penteado et al. (2016) when ceramic industry waste was
incorporated as a fine aggregate replacement at levels of 50% (ceramic
waste) and up to 30% (ceramic tile polishing waste), respectively. The
reduction in the water absorption was caused by the reduced porosity
as a result of the filling effect due to the use of fine ceramic tile pol-
ishing waste aggregate (Penteado et al., 2016). Sadek and Nouhy
(2014) recommended that 50% ceramic waste fine aggregate to be in-
corporated for enhancing the physical and mechanical properties of
concrete paving blocks.
2.7. Marble waste
Marble with good rigidity, high hardness, wear resistance, high
temperature resistance and mainly containing CaO is generally suitable
for use as building decoration materials. In the processing of marble
such as cutting and polishing, a considerable amount (20–25% of the
total stone content) of marble waste is generated (Saboya et al., 2007).
In Turkey for example, about 1400 tons of marble waste are left over
and stored each day (Topcu et al., 2009). Since stocking the large
amount of marble waste has proved to be impossible and causes en-
vironmental pollution, there is a pressing need to investigate its use in
concrete blocks for its disposal and reduction of such waste (Gencel
et al., 2012).
Gencel et al. (2012) and Uygunoğlu et al. (2012) revealed that the
use of marble waste as a fine aggregate (less than 4 mm) substitute leads
to the decline in compressive strength of concrete blocks. The higher
the aggregate replacement level, the lower the mechanical properties of
the blocks such as compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity. The strength reduction could be related to the
weak bonding between paste and marble aggregate (Gencel et al.,
2012). Besides this, the water absorption of concrete blocks was found
to decrease with an increase in marble waste content, explained by the
fact that marble waste aggregate is enveloped by the cement paste, and
thus decreases the discontinuity of the pore structures of the system
(Gencel et al., 2012; Uygunoğlu et al., 2012). It is noteworthy that there
is a linear relationship between the water absorption and freeze-thaw
resistance; all paving blocks containing marble waste were found to
absorb less water as well as having better resistance in freeze-thaw
cycling. However, using finer marble particles increased the demand for
water and water absorption of the concrete blocks (Gencel et al., 2012).
Another beneficial effect of using marble waste aggregate in concrete
blocks is their increased abrasion resistance because of the higher
hardness of marble aggregate which is capable of protecting the softer
cement paste (Gencel et al., 2012).
2.8. Plastic waste
Plastics are synthesized using non-renewable fossil resources that
mainly containing the elements of C H O (Areepraserta et al., 2017) and
are one of the major consumer goods in human society. Plastics are
mainly used in agriculture, commodities, construction and the manu-
facturing industry, resulting in large amounts of waste plastics being
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312
discharged and disposed of in landfills (Zhang et al., 2007). It is found
that waste plastic accounts for 10.6% of the total stored wastes in
landfills, of which 69.1% is plastic bags, and 30.9% is other plastic
wastes such as plastic bottles (Zhou et al., 2014). In Korea alone, about
2.2 billion PET bottles are produced annually, which represents ap-
proximately 87 thousand tons of PET waste (Choi et al., 2009). The low
biodegradable nature of plastic is becoming a burden on the environ-
ment. Nevertheless, there are certain unique characteristics of plastic
such as low water permeability, good acid resistance, lightweight and
better insulation, and hence this has led to some researchers exploring
effective ways to reuse plastic to produce value-added eco-friendly
concrete blocks.
Vanitha et al. (2015) examined the possibility of using waste plas-
tics as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate to produce concrete
paving blocks and concrete blocks. The results showed that when the
daily used waste plastic (cut into small sizes) were mixed with concrete
at different ratios of 0%–10%, the 28-day compressive strength of
paving blocks was decreased from 26.9 MPa to 14 MPa whereas for the
case of concrete solid blocks, the strength was reduced from 23.3 MPa
to 11 MPa A similar trend of compressive strength reduction was also
reported by Sellakutty (2016) and Raongjant et al. (2016). Similarly,
Ohemeng et al. (2014) pointed out that the mechanical strength re-
duction was attributed to the smooth surface of plastics which weakens
the adhesion between the plastic aggregate and cement paste. However,
it was found that an increase in the w/c ratio could minimize the
strength reduction in the presence of waste plastic aggregate. In terms
of water absorption, there was an obvious reduction with a low re-
placement ratio of plastic aggregate, while at high replacement ratios
(up to 60%), the water absorption increased due to the increase in the
air content (Ohemeng et al., 2014).
Chowdhury et al. (2013) found that concrete building blocks con-
taining shredded Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as fine aggregates
have a number of advantages, which include good weather resistance,
good sound insulation performance, better shock absorption and lighter
weight. It is noteworthy that the ductility of concrete blocks with
plastic waste was improved, which is associated with the chemical in-
ertia of PET (Raongjant et al., 2016). Moreover, elastic deformation
easily occurs due to the low elastic modulus of plastic, indicating that
the energy absorption capacity of blocks can be improved with an in-
creased proportion of plastic material.
2.9. Concrete slurry waste
Concrete slurry waste is a by-product from concrete manufacturing,
obtained from sedimentation in a plant's tank after washing out of ex-
cess or rejected fresh concrete. Concrete slurry waste has high alkaline
content, porosity and water content (Kou et al., 2012). There is a large
amount of concrete slurry waste produced daily in concrete mix plants,
particularly plants with a huge demand for fresh concrete. It is esti-
mated that fresh concrete waste is produced in the range of 1.0–4.0 wt.
% of the total concrete in Europe (Correia et al., 2009) and over 120
thousand tons/year are produced in Hong Kong (Xuan et al., 2016a,b).
The most common solution is landfill disposal, which is not an en-
vironmentally sustainable and friendly option. Considering that the
slurry waste originates from concrete itself, there is good potential for
re-using such waste in concrete products. When the concrete slurry
waste is crushed into a finer size or powder form, the filling effect is
similar if not better than natural aggregates in concrete products.
Kou et al. (2012) explored the feasibility of using fresh concrete
waste (FCW) to produce partition concrete blocks. The FCW from a
ready-mixed concrete plant was crushed into a fine aggregate (< 5 mm)
size to replace natural sand at a rate of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
by weight. The results showed that with the increase of FCW content,
the water absorption increased and the density decreased due to the
lower specific gravity of FCW. Although the drying shrinkage values of
the partition blocks was increased, the shrinkage limit stipulated in BS
Y. Meng et al.
Fig. 8. Relative compressive strength of blocks with different content of re-
cycled fine aggregate (RF) after exposure to different temperatures.
(Sourced from Kou et al., 2012).
6073-1 (< 0.06% after 14 days) could be met (BS 6073-1, 2008).
In terms of mechanical strength, partition blocks can be enhanced
with the use of FCW, and can be explained by: firstly, FCW aggregate
contains unreacted cement which undergoes a hydration reaction to
improve strength; secondly, the rougher surface and filler effect of FCW
can enhance the bond strength; thirdly, the higher water absorption of
FCW aggregate significantly reduces the internal bleed water of parti-
tion blocks and makes the interfacial transition zone more compact
(Kou et al., 2012). It was also noted that the compressive strength of
blocks was increased when exposed to elevated temperature of 300 °C
(Fig. 8). This is particularly noteworthy in concrete blocks containing
25% FCW aggregate. The possible reason for such occurrence is the
accelerated hydration of the additional cement particles present in the
FCW upon exposure of the concrete blocks to such temperatures.
However, the compressive strength decreased significantly at tem-
peratures of 500 °C and 800 °C due to the decomposition of the calcium
hydroxide and CSH (Kou et al., 2012), and such strength reduction was
more significant in the case of blocks with FCW aggregates.
In order to evaluate the environmental impacts of re-using concrete
slurry waste (CSW), Hossain et al. (2017) studied the life cycle assess-
ment of eco-friendly partition concrete wall blocks containing CSW as
fine aggregates. Compared to normal partition wall blocks, approxi-
mately 40% lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, 58% lower ozone
layer depletion, 47% lower acidification potential and 41% lower
PM2.5 was found. This is mainly due to using CSW which requires a
shorter transportation distance than natural aggregates and reduced
amount of ordinary Portland cement usage. Besides this, the ability of
capturing and storing CO2 in concrete blocks accelerates mineral car-
bonation and facilitates faster strength gain.
2.10. Other wastes
Apart from waste materials as discussed in previous sections, there
are some other industrial by-products and waste materials which have
also been used in concrete blocks, such as sediment waste, effluent
sludge and combustion waste. These wastes, although available com-
monly, have only recently garnered research interest for use in concrete
blocks and therefore the investigations carried out are mainly in pre-
liminary stages.
Marine sediments are formed by the precipitation of materials such
as detrital, biogenic and authigenic deposits in harbors, channels, and
rivers (Ali et al., 2014). Said et al. (2015) investigated the use of marine
sediments which were dried and crushed as part of a sand substitute
with different percentages ranging from 12.5% to 100% for the pro-
duction of paving blocks in laboratories and factories. It was reported
308
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312
that the density increased and water absorption decreased due to the
filling effect and all blocks tested could meet the standard requirements
(< 6%), while at the same time the weather resistance of the blocks was
also improved. In addition, it is noteworthy that the heavy metal (e.g.
chromium, lead and zinc) concentration can be minimized due to ce-
ment-based solidification and stabilization. The suitable replacement
ratio was suggested to be 12.5% for laboratory mixes, while a higher
replacement ratio of up to 19% is applicable for factory mixes as a
result of the higher efficiency of compaction and vibration in the fac-
tory. Wang et al. (2017) used binary magnesium oxide cement and
adopted CO2 curing to improve the compressive strength and minimize
the high-water absorption issue of paving blocks containing sediment
waste. It was found that this technique is efficient due to the reaction
between magnesium oxide cement and CO2 which transforms the so-
luble magnesium hydrate into stable carbonates, resulting in a denser
microstructure and less porous paving blocks.
Textile effluent sludge (TES) is a by-product of sewage treatment,
composed of organic fragments, bacteria, inorganic particles and col-
loid. There is an increase in textile effluent sludge produced due to
rapid industrialization and urbanization. TES is usually finer than 5 mm
in size (as stated in Table 1) as well as having high moisture and organic
content. Zhan and Poon (2015) studied the usage of the TES waste
obtained from the textile industry in concrete blocks. After pre-treat-
ment of the TES waste by drying at 105 °C for 24 h and mixing with
lime, the results showed that the concrete blocks produced with a lower
amount of TES (less than 5%) and ammonia concentration had sa-
tisfactory compressive strength and achieved better drying shrinkage
and volumetric stability. When the TES content in the concrete block
was increased to about 10%, the concrete blocks could still satisfy the
minimum strength requirement for non-load-bearing applications. In
line with this result, de Azevedo et al. (2018) also suggested that the
replacement level should not exceed 10%. At the same time, by in-
corporating the TES in cement-based concrete blocks, the trace toxic
metals in the textile sludge can be stabilized and solidified.
Granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS) is a by-product obtained from
the process of smelting steel and iron in a blast furnace; the particle size
is generally less than 5 mm after being rapidly cooled with powerful
water jets. Yüksel and Bilir (2007) conducted a study on the usage of
GBFS as fine aggregate to manufacture concrete paving blocks. It was
found that at low GBFS content of up to 30%, although the water ab-
sorption ratio increased, the compressive strength and freeze-thaw re-
sistance decreased. However, these reductions in performance were
below the limiting values stipulated in standards. As shown in Fig. 9, it
is interesting to note that at more than a 30% replacement level, the
compressive strength gradually increased as compaction can be applied
more efficiently in paving block specimens. Compressive strength si-
milar to the control concrete block specimen could be attained when
the GBFS replacement level was between 60% and 80%. In terms of the
freeze-thaw resistance, it was reported that the suitable GBFS replace-
ment ratio in the concrete block was 50%, and at this replacement level,
the abrasion resistance could be enhanced as 28.6% reduction in the
surface abrasion was reported when compared with the reference spe-
cimen.
3. Summary
Based on the review of using alternative waste materials as ag-
gregate in concrete blocks, it has been found that different types of
waste exhibit their own unique characteristics, and these features en-
hance certain properties, which gives added value to concrete blocks.
Table 2 summarizes the features of the waste materials, optimum per-
centage of the waste materials recommended to incorporate into con-
crete blocks and the general effects on the properties of concrete blocks.
As reflected in Table 2, some of the wastes such as recycled con-
crete, crushed brick, soda lime glass, CRT glass, crushed ceramics,
plastic and GBFS waste can be used for high volume replacement
Y. Meng et al.
Fig. 9. Compressive strength of a concrete paving block at different GBFS/Sand ratio (Modified from Yüksel and Bilir, 2007).
(ranging from 50 to 100%) of natural aggregates in concrete blocks. For
instance, recycled concrete aggregate can fully replace coarse aggregate
in concrete blocks for enhanced all-round performance upon CO2
curing, whereas to improve fire resistance of blocks a high volume of
crushed brick, concrete slurry and marble waste can be utilized. Either
soda lime glass or CRT glass both can be used for 100% fine aggregate
replacement in concrete blocks and both exhibit superior performance
in activating titanium oxide compounds for self-cleaning purposes.
Discarded crumb rubber, marble waste, concrete slurry, marine sedi-
ment and textile effluent sludge wastes should be controlled below 30%
due to their poor inherent properties (i.e. low strength, high con-
centration of water, etc.). However, the inherent lightweight and ex-
cellent flexible characteristics of crumb rubber can significantly en-
hance the toughness and insulation properties of concrete blocks. From
another perspective concerning usage, cement-based concrete blocks
are also excellent in regard to stabilizing and solidifying heavy metals
of certain wastes (i.e. sediment waste, CRT glass, etc.). In a way, the
cement-based concrete blocks could provide a more effective treatment
solution for such wastes compared to conventional methods.
4. Conclusion
The utilization of waste materials as an aggregate replacement in
concrete blocks has the beneficial environmental effects of reducing
existing solid waste and lowering the consumption of natural resources
commonly used as aggregates. Moreover, due to the unique features of
various types of wastes, concrete blocks adhering to standard require-
ments with value-added performance can be produced. Based on the
review of alternative wastes, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1 In terms of aggregate replacement ratio of wastes in concrete blocks,
materials such as recycled concrete, crushed brick, soda lime glass,
CRT glass, ceramic and tile waste, plastic waste, and GBFS waste can
be used in large quantities (50–100%), mainly due to their proper-
ties which include high hardness, high strength, chemical inertness,
etc. Therefore, these wastes are among the most popular recycled
materials used in concrete blocks and could reduce the demand for
natural aggregate in the concrete blocks industry, whereas for
crumb rubber, marble waste, concrete slurry, marine sediment and
textile effluent sludge wastes, their percentage level is re-
commended to be kept at lower than 30%, as these materials have
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312
intrinsically low strength and a porous structure. However, even at
low replacement levels, most of these wastes can be valorized to
produce different kinds of value-added concrete blocks, owing to the
unique features of each of the wastes.
2 Compressive strength is the most important mechanical property of
concrete blocks, which can be greatly enhanced by using wastes
which have a reasonable portion of fine particles, such as ceramic
and tile waste, concrete slurry waste, soda lime glass (if the particle
size is less than 0.6 mm), and marine sediment waste (after CO2
curing) as natural aggregate replacement. The combination of these
wastes (i.e. fine ceramic tile waste and soda lime glass) with fly ash
could even give encouraging results.
3 In terms of value-added applications, crushed bricks, marble waste
and concrete slurry waste can improve the high temperature re-
sistance of concrete blocks for use particularly in partition walls. As
far as the insulation (sound and thermal) properties are concerned,
part of the natural aggregate can be replaced by lightweight crumb
rubber and plastic waste aggregate. In contrast, the higher density of
CRT glass is more suitable for application in such area as medical
diagnostic rooms which require X-ray radiation-shielding char-
acteristics.
4 For pavement application, wastes such as crumb rubber, plastic and
GBFS can be used to enhance the abrasion, skid and freeze-thaw
resistance of concrete paving blocks. The use of marine sediment
waste can also promote better weathering resistance of the blocks.
Most interestingly, a better photocatalytic property of concrete
paving blocks for air purifying and nitric oxide removal application
in dense trafficking areas, can be achieved by incorporating waste
glass cullets.
In short, the incorporation of waste materials as an aggregate sub-
stitute has great potential for producing eco-friendly value-added con-
crete blocks. Although the unique characteristics of each waste gives
concrete blocks value-added performance, precaution must be taken to
limit certain degrading effects due to the use of these wastes, and this
can be achieved through optimum content selection as well as proper
treatment. Also, if considering the use of wastes for the mass production
of concrete blocks, there is a need to evaluate the consistency and
availability of materials supply in the waste streams as well as the
distance to the concrete block manufactures.
Y. Meng et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 138 (2018) 298–312

Table 2
General view of optimal content of waste materials and their respective characteristics as well as the effect on the properties of concrete blocks.
Waste Materials Optimum Content Characteristics Studied concrete blocks General effects on concrete block
properties

Recycled concrete 55–60% for coarse aggregate Relatively low intrinsic strength and Masonry block, concrete - Decrease in density
waste replacement and 20–25% for fine density, and high porosity and water hollow blocks and - Decrease in compressive strength
aggregate replacement; when treated absorption (due to the old adhered mortar) paving blocks - Increase in water absorption
with CO2, up to 100% can be used - Satisfactory durability, including freeze-
thaw resistance
- With CO2 treatment/curing,
improvement in compressive strength and
resistance to elevated temperature;
decrease in porosity and drying shrinkage
Crushed brick 50–75% for coarse aggregate High porosity and water absorption with Concrete floor blocks, - Decrease in density
waste replacement, and less than 25% is good fire resistance partition wall blocks and - Decrease in mechanical strength (e.g.
recommended for fine aggregate paving blocks compression, splitting tensile)
- Decrease in weathering resistance
- Increase in water absorption
- Increase in residual strength after
exposure to elevated temperatures
Soda lime glass Only suitable for fine aggregate Contains high silica content similar to that Concrete partition wall - Decrease in density
waste replacement and 20–100% is of sand, brittle, smooth surface texture, blocks and paving blocks - Decrease in compressive strength (the
recommended nearly impermeable (∼zero water reduction can be partially compensated for
absorption), high hardness and by using finer particles and other
aesthetically pleasing pozzolans such as fly ash and sewage
sludge ash)
- Decrease in water absorption
- Decrease in drying shrinkage
- Decrease in abrasion resistance
- Increase in photocatalytic activity for
self-cleaning performance due to NO
removal
Cathode ray tube After treated with acid solution, High density (due to the presence of lead), Concrete partition wall - Decrease in compressive strength
(CRT) glass 100% can be used as a fine aggregate smooth surface, near zero water absorption blocks and paving blocks - Decrease in water absorption
waste replacement and transparent feature - Decrease in drying shrinkage
- Increase in density
- Increase in radiation-shielding ability
- Increase in photocatalytic reactivity with
the presence of TiO2
Crumb rubber Only 10% or lower percentage is Low density, better sound insulation, Paving blocks, - Decrease in density
waste recommended as a fine aggregate higher deformability, high toughness and pedestrian blocks and - Decrease in compressive strength
replacement impact resistance hollow concrete blocks - Decrease in stiffness
- Decrease in abrasion resistance
- Increase in thermal insulation
- Increase in sound insulation
- Increase in ductility
- Increase in skid resistance
Ceramic and tile Between 30% and 50% is High strength, rough surface, high abrasion Paving blocks - Decrease in density
waste recommended resistance, chemical inertness, fire and - Decrease in water absorption
electrical resistance - Increase in compressive strength (as fine
aggregate)
Marble waste A maximum of 10% is recommended Good rigidity and hardness, high abrasion Interlocking concrete - Decrease in density
resistance, small temperature deformation blocks and paving blocks - Decrease in mechanical strength (e.g.
compression, splitting tensile, modulus of
elasticity)
- Decrease in water absorption
- Increase in abrasion resistance
- Increase in frost resistance
Plastic waste Between 2% and 50% is Low density, smooth surface and low Concrete blocks, - Decrease in density
recommended as a fine aggregate permeability, good acid resistance, sound pavement concrete - Decrease in mechanical strength (e.g.
replacement insulating, and not easily biodegradable blocks and lightweight compression, splitting tensile and flexural)
concrete blocks - Decrease in water absorption
- Increase in ductility
- Increase in weather resistance
- Increase in sound insulation
- Increase in shock absorption
Concrete slurry A maximum of 30% is recommended High alkalinity, porosity and water Partition wall blocks - Decrease in density
waste absorption - Increase in water absorption
- Increase in drying shrinkage
- Increase in residual strength after
exposure to elevated temperatures
Marine sediment Around 20% as an optimum High porosity and contains impurities Paving blocks - Decrease in water absorption
waste percentage is recommended - Increase in density
- Increase in mechanical strength (after
CO2 curing)
- Increase in weathering resistance
The usage should be limited to 10% High ammonia content Concrete blocks
(continued on next page)

310
Y. Meng et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Waste Materials Optimum Content Characteristics
Textile effluent
sludge waste
Granulated blast- Up to 50% can be used as a fine High water absorption and possesses
furnace slag aggregate replacement hydraulic reactivity
waste (GBFS)
Acknowledgements
The research funding from Key Research Project of Hunan
Provincial Science and Technology Program “one-belt-one-road”
(2017WK2090) and the NSFC International (Regional) Cooperation and
Exchange Program (51750110506) is gratefully acknowledged.
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Studied concrete blocks General effects on concrete block
properties
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