Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PII: S1359-1789(18)30037-5
DOI: doi:10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.010
Reference: AVB 1224
To appear in: Aggression and Violent Behavior
Received date: 13 February 2018
Revised date: 20 July 2018
Accepted date: 24 July 2018
Please cite this article as: Annalaura Nocentini, Giada Fiorentini, Ludovica Di Paola,
Ersilia Menesini , Parents, family characteristics and bullying behavior: A systematic
review. Avb (2018), doi:10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.010
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Via di San Salvi, 12, Complesso di San Salvi Padiglione 26, 50135, Florence
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Address for correspondence:
Annalaura Nocentini
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Via di San Salvi, 12, Complesso di San Salvi Padiglione 26, 50135, Florence
Tel: 0039.055.6237870. Fax: 0039.055.6236047; e-mail: annalaura.nocentini@unifi.it
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Keywords: parents; family; bullying, victimization, systematic review
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Abstract
The review investigates the role played by contextual family processes, relational processes and
parental individual processes on bullying and victimization. A systematic review has been
conducted in five databases (Scopus, Web of Science, PsycINFO, PubMed, ERIC) from1970
through November 2017. Finally, 154 studies were reviewed differentiating among the three levels
of family processes. The majority of the studies addressed single or multiple variables at the same
level of analysis. Only 25% of studies focused on the interplay between different levels of family
functioning. Our review finds evidence about the role of contextual family variables (parental
mental health and domestic violence) and of relational family variables (in particular child abuse
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and neglect, maladaptive parenting, communication, parental involvement and support). A lower
and more controversial evidence has been showed about the role of individual parental variables
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such as parental self-efficacy, parental attitudes toward victimization and parental knowledge about
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bullying.
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1. Introduction
individual repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself”
(Olweus, 1993 p. 48), has increasingly become a topic of public concern and research efforts.
Estimates may vary in relation to the year of publication, measures used and reporting reference
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period (Menesini & Salmivalli, 2017). According to recent international survey (Inchley, Currie,
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Young, Samdal et al., 2015), 13% of children aged 11 years across the world reported that they
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have been bullied at least twice in the past two months and 8% admitted to bullying others. The
review by Juvonen and Graham (2014) estimated that approximately 20–25% of youths are directly
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involved in bullying as perpetrators, victims, or both. Bullying and cyberbullying have relevant
negative consequences on mental health outcomes, increasing the probability of later criminal
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offending and psychotic symptoms for bullies and the levels of anxiety and depression for victims
(Copeland, Wolke, Angold, & Costello, 2013; Menesini & Salmivalli, 2017; Nansel, Overpeck,
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Pilla, & Ruan, 2001; Ttofi, Farrington, Lösel, & Loeber, 2011; Wolke & Lereya, 2015).
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Given the high prevalence of bullying and victimization across the world and the suffering
for both bullies and victims, researchers devoted to this topic relevant attention in terms of
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explaining causal mechanisms of development and maintenance. According to the ecological model
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applied to bullying (Swearer & Espelage, 2004; Swearer & Hymel, 2015; Swearer et al., 2010), the
interaction of intrapersonal, family, school, peer, and community characteristics may influence
bullying and victimization, and in turn modulate the risk for adjustment and behavioral problems.
However, the role of family in bullying and victimization has been understudied compared to the
attention paid to schools and the peer context (Bradshaw, 2014), particularly in intervention
literature.
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Focusing on basic research on the family context, literature analyzed the role of different
variables depending on the theory used for explaining how the family environment influences youth
bullying involvement (i.e., from attachment theory to social learning theory to family systems
theory, see Duncan, 2004). A consistent high risk predictor for bullying and victimization is a
violent family context where parents are involved in domestic violence (e.g., Foshee et al., 2016;
Holt et al., 2008; Lereya et al., 2013). Parent–child relationships characterized by child
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maltreatment and abuse resulted a relevant predictor for bullying and victimization (i.e., Bowes et
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al., 2009; Fisher et al., 2015; Shilds & Cicchetti, 2001). The study of parental influences in children
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school bullying and /or being victimized in school identified the role of several relational variables,
such as parental practices and styles (e.g., Baldry & Farrington, 2000; Bowers, Smith, & Binney,
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1994; Christie-Mizell et al., 2011; Craig, Peters, & Konarski, 1998; Espelage, Bosworth, & Simon,
2000; Kaufmann et al., 2000; Lereya, Samara, & Wolke, 2013; Pepler et al., 2008; Rigby, 1993) the
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quality of attachment (e.g., Eliot & Cornell, 2009; Ševcíková, Machácková, Wright, Dedková, &
Cerná, 2015; Walden & Beran, 2010; Zhu, Chan, & Chen, 2015), the quality of the parent-child
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relationship (e.g., Davis & Koepke, 2016; Murray-Harvey & Slee, 2010), and family functioning
(e.g., Cunningham et al., 2004; Holt et al., 2008; Espelage et al. 2014). Finally, some parents’
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individual variables, such as parents’ attitudes toward bullying and parental beliefs about bullying
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(e.g., Georgiou, 2008; Troop-Gordon & Gerardy, 2012), parental awareness about the phenomenon
and knowledge of its nature, prevalence, effects, and best practices in prevention (e.g., Rigby, 2013)
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bullying and victimization, but only one meta-analysis specifically focused on the role of family
variables (Lereya, Samara, & Wolke, 2013), and it was focused on more proximal parenting
variables affecting the risk of becoming a victim or a bully/victim. Overall, they found that both
victims and bully/victims are more likely to be exposed to negative parenting behavior, including
harsh and maladaptive parenting and abuse and neglectful parenting, whereas positive parental
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behaviour, including good communication between parents and the child, warm and affectionate
relationships, parental involvement and support, and parental supervision resulted to be protective
against peer victimization. However, this study is focused only on victims and bully- victims and
neglected family risk factors for bullies. Besides, other variables related to the family might have a
role on explaining bullying, for example the parents’ individual attitudes or norms about aggression
and bullying, or parental knowledges of the phenomenon and self-efficacy about the strategies to
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help children when involved in bullying and victimization.
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The current review will systematically investigate the role played by different risk and
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protective factors referred to parents and family in relation to bullying, cyberbullying, victimization
and cybervictimization. In particular, we will distinguish among the family context, the relationship
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and the individual level of family functioning and we will investigate:
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1. The role played by contextual family variables indirectly related to the child: parental
2. The role played by relational family variables directly affecting the child. Following
Lereya et al. (2013) these have been defined as: authoritative parenting, parent– child
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communication, parental involvement and support, supervision and parental mediation, warmth
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and affection of the parents, child maltreatment and abuse, maladaptive parenting,
overprotection.
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3. The role played by parents’ individual variables defined as parental attitudes and
4. The multivariate consideration of the three family levels: contextual, relational and
individual.
2. Method
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November 2017 on the family/parental role in predicting bullying and victimization (traditional and
cyberbullying forms). The following 5 electronic databases were searched: Scopus, PsycINFO,
ERIC, PubMed, Web of Science. The following keywords were used ‘bully*’, ‘victim*’, ‘bullying’,
‘parent*’, ‘mother’, ‘father’ and ‘family’. The search was conducted combining Abstract, Title,
Keywords in PsycINFO and Scopus databases. For the Web of Science database only Title was
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used, and the search through ERIC and PubMed was conducted on the whole text, as there was no
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other option.
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2.2 Study inclusion and exclusion criteria
Overall the search in all the five databases included 32,302 articles. There was an overlap of
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27,513 articles. Duplicated articles were excluded from subsequent searches. Other duplicates were
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excluded manually and the final literature search included 3,601 articles (see Figure 1).
Studies were included when: bullying/victimization (traditional and cyber) were considered
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as the outcome, and family/parental variables as predictors. We preferred not to include specific
terms or keywords (i.e., punitive, control, sensitive) in order to consider all the possible variables
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referred to the parenting and to the family system including siblings. Besides, studies from journals,
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book chapters or books published in English and Italian were considered. Studies were excluded
reported; 2) the study was focused on general aggression, violence or abuse and not on
with bullying (i.e., conduct disorder, antisocial behaviour, depression, etc. ); 4) the study was
qualitative; 5) studie focused only on structural family variables were excluded, such as single-
parent family, socioeconomic status, parental education level; 6) papers in languages other than
English and Italian were excluded; 7) dissertation theses, congress abstract, review and meta-
analayses were excluded; 8) indirect effects from bullying and victimization to psychological
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symptoms including family variables as moderators were excluded; 9) guidelines and booklet for
We reviewed the titles and abstracts of all articles found (N=3,601) and we excluded 3,233
under the exclusion criteria reported above (see Figure 1). The full text articles assessed for
eligibility were 368. A total of 214 articles were further excluded according to exclusion criteria.
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Two coders independently distinguished the categories for the family variables found in the
articles. We used the eighth categories identified by Lereya et al. (2103) in order to classify the
involvement and support, 4) supervision and parental mediation, 5) warmth and affection of the
included 3 other categories as well: parental mental health (i.e., maternal or parental stress,
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psychopathology, substance use), family violence (i.e., domestic violence, sibling violence, family
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conflict, family aggression) and parental individual processes including knowledges, attitudes and
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norms (i.e., parental negative attribution toward the child, parental norms about aggression or about
bullying, parental values, parental knowledges on bullying and victimization, parental coping
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strategies in bullying situations). Cohen’s kappa revealed a moderate inter-rater agreement (k=
0.77). The main findings of the articles were reviewed and reported in Table 1 in Appendix. Table 2
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reported a summary of the main findings. Specific family variables analysed in the studies in
relation to bullying and victimization outcomes were reported together with their level of
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significance (significant or not significant) and direction (positive or negative association). The
association was analysed using the bivariate correlation or the univariate relation, when present.
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Specific family variables were defined into higher order family categories which in turns were
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defined into the three family macro- levels (individual, relational and contextual). The same study
3. Results
87 articles out of 154 (56%) were published between 2013 and 2017. Overall, about 92% (142
studies) of studies evaluated were focused on relational family processes. The most frequent
categories considered in the studies reviewed were four: parental involvement and support,
maladaptive parenting, supervision, and finally warmth and affection. Contextual family variables
were considered by 26% of articles (40 studies), and parental individual processes by 8% of studies
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(12 studies). Finally, 25% of studies (38 studies) included interaction between different levels of
family functioning.
In the first part of the results section we describe the main findings of the single categories
(see Table 1 in Appendix and Table 2 for the main findings). In the second part we describe the
studies with the multivariate consideration of the 3 levels of family functioning: Contextual family
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Insert Table 2
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3.1 Contextual family variables
The category “parental mental health” is included in 13 articles for bullying and 8 for
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victimization taking into consideration variables such as parental stress (Alizadeh Maralani,
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Mirnasab, & Hashemi, 2016; Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2017), parental psychopatology
(depression and antisocial behavior) (Bowes et al., 2009; Burkhart et al., 2013; Chui & Chan, 2015;
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Georgiou, 2008; Mlisa et al., 2008; Morcillo, Ramos-Olazagasti, Blanco et al., 2015) mental health
(Shetgiri, Lin, Avila, & Flores, 2012; Shetgiri, Lin, & Flores, 2015), alcohol use (Eiden et al.,
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2010). The large majority of the studies confirmed a positive association of parental mental health
problems with bullying (77%; 10 out of 13) and peer victimization (75%; 6 out of 8), and only 5
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studies, respectively 23% (3) and 25% (2), reported a non significant association.
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The category “domestic violence and conflict” was found in 20 articles for bullying and 26
for victimization. It includes variables such as aggression and violence between parents (e.g.,
Espelage et al., 2014; Fisher et al., 2015; Holt et al., 2008; Knous-Westfall et al., 2012; Le et al.,
2017; Lereya et al., 2013; Low et al., 2013; Oliveira et al., 2016), conflict, aggression and violence
between siblings (Faith et al., 2015; Kim & Kim, 2016; Le et al., 2017; Sapouna et al., 2013) and
parental conflict (Buelga et al., 2017; Caravaca Sanchez et al., 2016; Foshee et al, 2016). The large
majority of the studies confirmed a positive association between domestic conflict and violence
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with bullying (95%; 119 out of 20) and to a lower extent also with peer victimization (77%; 20 out
of 26); only one study reported a non significant association with bullying and 6 studies (23%)
reported a non significant association with victimization. Overall, these studies confirmed the role
played by parental violence and sibling aggression in modeling bullying and cyberbullying behavior
in children. In line with literature on general aggression, negative social interactions and conflict
escalation within the family lead to more reciprocal, aversive conflict and violence in the home and
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in turn to a higher level of bullying and cyberbullying outside the family. The conflictual family
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context may become a training ground for problematic relationships even outside the family (Reid,
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Patterson, & Snyder, 2002). The association of domestic conflict and violence with victimization is
confirmed in the majority of cases as well, although with a consistent proportion of studies (22%)
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where the variable resulted non significant.
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victimization and it takes into consideration the authoritative parenting through which the parents
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offer guidance and direction to their children using communication (e.g., Ahmed, Eliza,
Braithwaite, & Valerie, 2004; Alizadeh et al., 2016; Baldry & Farrington, 2005; Georgiou,
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Stavrinides, & Fousiani, 2013; Luk et al., 2016). In relation to bullying, 40% (4 out of 10) of studies
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reported a negative association and 60% (6 out of 10) reported a non significant association
between authoritative parenting and peer bullying. In relation to victimization, 50% of studies (4
out of 8) reported a negative association and 50% (4 out of 8) reported a non significant association
between authoritative parenting and peer victimization. Overall, we can see that the authoritative
parenting represents a potential protective factor for bullying and victimization, although around
50% of the studies did not show a significant effect. This might be related to the definition and the
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victimization. 20 studies (83%) resulted negatively associated with bullying, 1 (4%) positively
associated with bullying, and 3 studies (13%) showed a non significant association. In relation to
victimization, 2 studies positively associated with victimization, and 5 (28%) studies showed a non
significant association. Overall, the protective role of communication seems to be more relevant for
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bullying as compared to victimization in which a higher variability has been showed. Variables
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considered in the studies were mainly family communication and child disclosure. In general, poor
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communication, few conversations with parents and impossibility of discussing problems with
parents, resulted associated with higher levels of bullying (e.g., Foshee et al., 2016; Shetgiri et al.,
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2012), and cyberbullying (Buelga et al., 2017). Communication difficulties is also related to the
degree of victimization (Da Costa et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2012) and of being involved in
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bully/victim problems (Rigby, 1993). On the contrary, child disclosure, defined as the spontaneous
children’s offering information to their parents about their own life, was found to be negatively
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correlated to bullying (Georgiou et al, 2013; Gomez et al., 2014; Stavrinides, Nikiforou, &
Georgiou, 2015), and cyberbullying (Shapka et al., 2013). Within this category of communication,
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we found 3 studies focused on parents reactive actions, which are ways of dealing with bullying
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incidents once they have occurred (Fekkes et al, 2005; Offrey et al., 2017; Waasdorp et al., 2011).
The study by Fekkes (2005) showed that 33% of children who bullied other children have parents
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talked to them about their bullying behavior. The studies by Offrey et al. (2017) and Waasdorp et
al. (2011) were focused on the victims. The most common parental response when the child
discloses victimization was talking with the child in order to communicate adaptive ways of coping
with the emotions experienced (Waasdorp et al., 2011). Besides, students with a high quality of
more effective than the solutions reported by students in the low communication group (Offrey et
al., 2017).
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bullying and 42 related to victimization. In relation to bullying, 77% (34) reported a negative
association and 18% (8) reported a non significant association between parental involvement and
support and peer bullying. In relation to victimization, 70% (31) of studies reported a negative
association and 30% (13) reported a non significant association. Finally, 2 studies for bullying
reported an opposite association where higher levels of support are positively correlated with the
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outcomes.
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Overall, the majority of studies confirmed the protective role of parental involvement and
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support in relation to bullying and victimization. Higher levels of perceived parental support, of
family cohesion, and of family involvement in children’s school life are associated with lower
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levels of bullying and victimization. The majority of studies in this category are focused on
emotional support, that includes listening, providing praise, affection, empathizing, trust, and
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respect (e.g., Demaray et al., 2003, Herraiz et al., 2016; Isiklar et al., 2012; Konishi et al., 2009;
Kretschmer et al., 2017; Perren et al., 2005). Also in this category we found two studies on reactive
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actions, evaluating the role played by parental support in helping their victimized children (i.e., Holt
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et al., 2008; Yeung & Leadbeater, 2010) or youth getting in trouble at home for bullying
perpetration (Holt et al., 2008). Support by parents for victimized children reduces the stress level
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and is correlated to a lower probability of future re-victimization (Yeung & Leadbeater, 2010).
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victimization. Specifically, the variables considered are parental warmth (Boel-Studt & Renner,
2013; Shin et al., 2008), family/parental/mother secure attachment (Chan & Wong, 2015; Cho,
Hong, Sterzing, & Woo, 2017; Murphy, Laible, & Augustine, 2017; Ševcíková, Machácková,
Wright, Dedková, & Cerná, 2015; Walden & Beran, 2010) and insecure attachment (Eiden et al.,
2010; Eliot & Cornell, 2009). In relation to bullying, 30 studies (83%) reported a negative
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association and 5 (14%) reported a non significant association between warmth and affection and
peer bullying. In relation to victimization, 41% (12) reported a negative association and 55% (16) of
studies reported a non significant association. Finally, one study for bullying and one for
victimization reported an opposite association where higher levels of warmth and affection were
correlated positively with the bullying and victimization. As we can see, warmth and affection
resulted as a relevant protective factor for bullying perpetration, but at a lower extent for
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victimization.
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Overall, parental warmth and affective responsiveness are associated with a lower
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probability of involvement in bullying episodes and with lower levels of children’s victimization
after controlling for preexisting genetic and environmental factors (Bowes et al., 2009). The
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insecure attachment is in general a predictor of bullying, and in contrast, children who have
experienced a secure attachment, are less likely to be involved in bullying (Murphy, Laible, &
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Augustine, 2017). On the online context, cybervictims with a poor parental attachment had lower
chance of experiencing social support; conversely, a secure parental attachment was negatively
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bullying and 37 studies regarding victimization. 34 studies (77%) reported a negative association
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between supervision and bullying and 10 studies (23%) reported a non significant association. In
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associated with victimization and 19 studies (51%) showed a non significant effect. Finally, 1
studies reported an opposite association. Overall, studies showed that a lack of supervision and
monitoring and lower levels of control in family education is associated with bullying others (e.g.,
Atik et al., 2013; Holt et al., 2008; Idsoe et al., 2008; Mann et al., 2015; Marini et al., 2006, 2016;
Morcillo et al., 2015; Oliveira et al., 2016; Pepler et al., 2008; Shetgiri et al., 2012) and with
victimization (e.g., Cenkseven et al., 2008; Davis & Koepke, 2016; Erginoz et al., 2015; Hong et
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al., 2016; Kim et al., 2016; Mello et al., 2016; Rhee et al., 2017). More recently, some studies
focused their attention specifically on parental monitoring of internet use (Hong et. al., 2016;
Khurana et al., 2015; Kokkinos et al., 2016; Low & Espelage, 2013; Rosen et al., 2008; Sasson et
al., 2017). For example, Khurana et al. (2015) demonstrated that parental monitoring aimed to to
regulate specific forms of internet use was associated with reduced rates of online harassment.
These results are in line with another study (Rosen, Cheever & Carrier, 2008) showing how parental
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monitoring plays a key role in teen online behavior. Besides, in terms of reactive actions, social and
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technical supervision by parents is more prevalent among adolescents who reported being
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cybervictims (Sasson et al., 2017), meaning that parents who sense something wrong try to
supervise their teens more intensively. Moreover, Kokkinos et al. (2016) showed that parents, as
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well as teachers, who provide their child (a victim of bullying) emotional support, help him/her to
develop social skills and to cope with the situation of bullying. In line with parental monitoring
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effects, parental restrictive mediation was negatively associated with cyberbullying behaviours
(Chang et al., 2015). As we can see the protective role of parental supervision and monitoring in
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predicting bullying is more consistent across studies, whereas setting rules and supervising the
The category “Abuse/Neglect” is included in 6 articles studying the impact of child abuse and
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maltreatment on bullying and in 17 related to victimization. Overall, 6 studies (100%) for bullying
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and 100% (17) for victimization showed a significant and positive association: this is the most
consistent family risk variable to be associated with bullying and victimization across studies. The
variables considered were child abuse (e.g., Bowes et. al., 2009; Lucas, Jernbro, Tindberg, &
Janson, 2016), child maltreatment (e.g., Bowes et al., 2009; Duncan, 1999; Fisher, Caspi, Moffitt,
Wertz, Gray et al., 2015; Shields & Cicchetti, 2001), physical abuse (e.g., Foster & Brooks-Gunn,
The category “Maladaptive parenting” is included in 49 studies dealing with bullying and
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parenting and bullying, and 7 (14%) reported non significant associations. In relation to
victimization, 50% (18 out of 35) reported a positive association between maladaptive parenting
and victimization, 47% (17 out of 35) reported non significant associations and only 1 (3%) was
negatively associated to the outcome. Three (6%) studies reported a negative association with
bullying, contrary to the general trend. Overall, the risk of maladaptive parenting is mainly related
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The variables considered were authoritarian parenting (e.g., Alizadeh, Mirnasab, & Hashemi, 2016;
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Erdogdu, 2016; Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2017; Georgiou, Stavrinides, & Fousiani, 2013;
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Luk et al., 2016), punitive parenting (Baldry & Farrington, 2000; Hong, Kim, & Piquero, 2017;
Zottis, Salum, Manfro, Isolan, & Heldt, 2013), maternal physical discipline (Duong, Schwartz,
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Chang, Kelly, & Tom, 2009; Espelage et al., 2000) and parental control (Fousiani et al., 2016; Ma
& Bellmore, 2012; Rigby, Slee, & Martin, 2007; Stevens et al., 2002). Authoritarian parenting was
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positively correlated with bullying (Georgiou, Stavrinides, & Fousiani, 2013): parents of severe
victims used this parenting style at a higher extent as compared to parents of non-victims
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(Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2017). Punitive parenting was directly related to bullying
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perpetration (Hong, Kim, & Piquero, 2017). In particular, mothers who used mostly punitive
practices were more likely to have a child who bullies others at school (Zottis, Salum, Manfro,
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Isolan, & Heldt, 2013). There was a moderate correlation between maternal physical discipline and
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victimization, and only for children who were also high in aggression (Duong, Schwartz, Chang,
Kelly, & Tom, 2009). In the three studies where maladaptive parenting was negatively related to
bullying, we might argue that the level of discipline and sanction could be more similar to
monitoring and adaptive parental control instead of cohercive and harsh discipline (Hinduja et al.,
The category “overprotection” is included in 23 articles considering the role of parents who
are overprotective towards their children in relation to bullying outcome and 15 to victimization.
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Eight studies (35%) reported a positive association with bullying, 11 (48%) reported a non
studies reported a positive association, 5 (34%) of studies reported a non significant association and
5 (33%) studies a negative association. The variables considered were: parental overprotection (e.g.,
Floros et al., 2013; Georgiou, 2008; Hokoda et al., 2006; Mohebbi, Mirnasab, & Wiener, 2016),
low authonomy and permissive parenting (e.g., Ayas, 2012, Alizadeh et al., 2016; Fousiani, 2016;
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Garaigordobil, & Machimbarrena, 2017; Gomez-Ortiz et al., 2016; Gomez et al., 2014; Idsoee et
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al., 2008; Luk et al., 2016; Romera & Ortega-Ruiz, 2016). Overall the risk role of overprotection
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for bullying and victimization is not clear.
and 9 considering victimization. Eight (62%) studies reported a positive association with bullying
and 5 (38%) of studies reported a non significant association. In relation to victimization 44% (4 out
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of 9) of studies reported a positive association and 5 (56%) reported a non significant association.
There were no studies that reported a negative association with bullying and victimization. The
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individual variables included are parent’s beliefs supporting peer victimization, bullying and
violence (Espelage et al., 2000; Eslea & Smith, 2000; Harper, 2012; Troop, Gordon, & Gerardy,
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2012), parental knowledges about parenting style and skills (Burkhart et al., 2013), parental self-
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efficacy factors in relation to bullying and victimization (Malm, Henrich, Varjas, & Meyers, 2017),
parents’ knowledge of bullying and parents’ strategies (problem solving skills) to manage bullying
situations (Offrey & Rinaldi, 2017), parents’ values defined by lack of prosocial behaviros as a
means of solving problems (Říčan, 1995). There are also some other variables that play a role as
reactive actions once bullying episodes had occurred: for example, parents’ beliefs on peer
victimization (Troop, Gordon, & Gerardy, 2012), parents’ attitudes on the their children’s behavior
(Eslea & Smith, 2000), parents’ beliefs on peer victimization (Harper, 2012), parental self-efficacy
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factors in relation to bullying and victimization (Malm et al., 2017) all these dimensions have been
analyzed in relation to their role in managing bullying and victimization episodes. Parental beliefs
the relationship between peer victimization and psychosocial adjustment (Troop, Gordon, &
Gerardy, 2012). Overall, parental individual processes seem to be more associated with bullying,
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3.4 Multivariate role of the three family levels
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3.4.1 Multivariate consideration of contextual family processes and relational family processes
Contextual family predictors (i.e., exposure to family domestic violence and family conflict,
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maternal psychopathology or antisocial behaviors, parental stress) are key risk factors for bullying
and victimization also when considered together with other maladaptive parenting styles (e.g.,
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Bowes et al., 2009; Foshee et al., 2016; Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2017; Hemphill et al.,
2012; Kim & Kim, 2016; Knous-Westfall et al., 2012; McMahon et al., 2010; Lucas et al., 2016;
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Morcillo et al., 2015; Oliveira et al., 2016; Shetgiri et al., 2012). In these studies, the association can
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be direct but also indirect through the mediating role, or the moderating role, of parent-child
relationship quality, parenting, attachment, children’s emotion management skills (e.g., Eiden et al.,
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2010; Low & Espelage, 2013). All these moderating and mediating factors are more accessible
through prevention programs than the direct parental/family causes as it is the cases of domestic
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possible to reduce the negative impact of contextual risk family variables on bullying and
victimization through interventions at the relational level, such as on parenting practices and/or on
processes
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Interesting findings and practical implications were suggested by the two of the four studies
where relational and individual variables were considered together (Espelage et al., 2000; Katzer et
al., 2009; Malm et al., 2017; Waasdorp et al., 2011). For example, the additive role played by both
categories is confirmed in the study by Espelage et al. (2000) which included parents individual
variables related to beliefs and attitudes toward aggression (Positive adult messages about violence)
and maladaptive parenting style related to physical discipline. Findings showed that the additive
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effect of both categories may play a substantial role in the development of bullying behaviors, also
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controlling for peer and neighborhood risk factors. Translating these findings into implications for
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prevention and intervention, it means that the improvement in parenting positive style needs to be
conducted together with an effort of changing attitudes and beliefs about aggression. In the study
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by Waasdorp et al. (2011), the parental perception of the school climate is associated with the level
of parent-child communication, and this predicts parents' response to their child's victimization. In
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particular, less positively the parents perceived the school climate, the more likely they were to talk
to their child about the victimization. Translating these findings into implications for prevention, it
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is important to improve the level of communication between parents and their children but also the
parental perception and beliefs about school context. In the other two studies (Katzer et al., 2009;
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Malm et al., 2016) the multivariate analysis showed that only one level of family predictors
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3.4.3 Multivariate consideration of family processes, relational family processes and parental
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individual processes
Only two studies considered the three levels of family predictors at the same time (Burkhart et al.,
2013; Garaigordobil et al., 2017). In the study by Burkhart et al. (2013), parental psychopathology,
parenting skills (i.e., Family Communication and Affection), and parental attitudes and beliefs (i.e.,
Hostile Attributions), were considered simultaneously to explain bullying. The findings showed that
parental hostility is the only significant predictor of bullying when all the variables were considered
together, suggesting that reducing parental hostility could be an important goal for bullying
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prevention in an at risk sample. In the study by Garaigordobil et al. (2017), the role of bully was
significantly predicted at a multivariate level by the parental stress, by higher levels of authoritarian
and permisse parenting and by lower level of parental individual competence. This last study
suggested the need to include all the three levels of family interventions for the prevention of
bullying.
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4. Conclusion
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The general goal of this review was to examine the role of different levels of family
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processes on bullying and victimization experiences. In particular we considered the contextual
level where family attributes are relevant, the relational level which includes parents-child
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education and emotional relationships, and the parental socio-cognitive factors level including
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values, beliefs, attributions. The proportion of studies which consistently showed a significant
association between bullying, victimization and specific family categories, and the proportion of
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studies where this association was not confirmed, have been analysed.
In the last 5 years, there has been an increasing interest in the topic of family correlates and
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predictors of bullying and victimization: 55% of articles were published between 2013 and 2017,
42% between 2000 and 2013, and only 3% before 2000. The majority of the studies addressed
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single or multiple variables at the same level of analysis. Parental involvement and support,
maladaptive parenting, supervision and parental mediation, and warmth and affection were the most
studied categories. Only 25% of studies focused on the interplay between different levels of family
functioning.
Findings of the review showed that some family variables have a more consistent and stable
role as predictors of bullying and victimization across studies, whereas others do not. In particular,
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more stable results across studies for bullying were found for the risk associated with domestic
violence, parental mental health problems, abuse/neglect, maladaptive parenting. The findings
supports the literature reporting whether an hostile family environment characterized by conflict
and violence, child maltreatment, authoritarian coercive and overly controlled parental style is
associated with higher likelihood for the children to perpetrate aggression out of the family (Boel-
Studt et al., 2014; Duncan, 1999). Children exposed to family violence (directly and indirectly) are
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more likely to show aggression, including bullying behaviors, as a result of social learning and
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because they perceive violence as an acceptable method of resolving conflict (Bowes et al., 2009;
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Bandura, 1978). A consistent support was also found for the protective role of family
communication, supervision, warmth and affection, parental involvement and support in relation to
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bullying. These findings confirm the protective role that family relationships characterized by open
and empathic parent-child communication and parental involvement may have in preventing
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bullying and cyberbullying (Buelga et al., 2017; Fanti et al., 2012; Bowes et al., 2009; Georgiou et
al., 2013). On the other side, the role played by authoritative parenting and overprotection for
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bullying is less consistent across studies. This can be related to differences in definitions and
measurement which can affect the results across different studies. Individual parental processes
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(such as acceptance of violence, positive attitudes towards bullying and victimization, lack of
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competence and self-efficacy) showed a considerable role in the explanation of bullying, but very
few studies were conducted on this mechanisms. More studies should address the level of parental
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In relation to victimization, the two variables showing more variability are warmth, affection
and supervision. The inconsistency found for the protective role of supervision for victimization
confirms previous literature in this field (see Hong et al., 2016) suggesting that this mechanism is
more effective for bullying perpetration instead of victimization. In relation to the inconsistency
found for the variable warmth and affection, according to other studies (e.g., Bowes et al., 2009),
we can assume that the relation between parental warmth and being victimized cannot be direct but
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mediated by individual or more proximal relational characteristics. The variables more strongly
associated with victimization are: abuse/neglect, parental mental health, domestic violence, parental
involvement and support, communication. Findings are in line with the results of the metanalysis
conducted by Lereya et al. (2013) where child abuse and neglect are the strongest predictors of
victims and of bullies/victims. Besides, the role of parental involvement, support and the quality of
communication has been confirmed by our review as protective against the risk of been victimized.
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The current study extends previous literature focusing also on contextual variables and on
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individual variables. Contextual variables related to the parents mental health and to interparental
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aggression and conflict are consistent risk factors for bullying, and at a lower level, for
victimization. In relation to individual parental variables linked with victimization, very few studies
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were conducted and, overall, the role of parental self-efficacy, attitudes toward aggression and
The review also examined studies on the reactive family processes in case of victimization.
The findings showed that when the episode of bullying and victimization has already occurred,
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there are some crucial family protective factors which are more capable to buffer the negative
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consequences on children’s distress and to interrupt the negative cycle of victimization. These
protective factors are: open communication between parents and child, high support from parents
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on a daily basis, an increased involvement of parents in school activities, increased monitoring, the
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perception of self-efficacy in managing these situations, along with the perception of having
Finally, the multivariate analysis of the different levels (family contextual risk factors,
parenting and parent-child relationship, parental beliefs and attitudes) suggested interesting
considerations for translating these findings into preventive strategies. These data highlight the
different levels to be more relevant in explaining the children’s involvement in bullying and
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victimization than the unique effect of single factors. For example, individual parental variables and
relational variables seem to be interrelated, therefore addressing both levels through the intervention
Overall, our review of 154 studies highlights a clear impact of family and parental variables
for bullying and victimization. It finds evidence about the role of contextual family variables
(parental mental helath and domestic violence) and relational family variables (in particular child
P T
abuse and neglect, maladaptive parenting, communication, parental involvement and support)
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associated with bullying and victimization. A lower evidence has been showed about the role of
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individual parental variables. A question not answered in this review is why the same family and
parents factors are correlated with both outcomes, albeith in different proportion. More research
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focusing on these variables within a longitudinal design can better explain the different processes
These findings have significant implications for interventions, turning our attention towards
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the family context and how we can help families to prevent and cope with bullying and
victimization. Greater efforts are needed to ensure attention to parents and family processes and
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the effectiveness of these interventions should also highlight if and when these mechanisms are able
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to work better or worse (e.g., the hypothesis of dosage or intensity of the intervention should be
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The first limitation of the current review is that the majority of studies considered were
cross-sectional and thus we cannot consider the predictive role of family variables on bullying and
victimization but only the association between them. Secondly, only studies published in English
and in Italian were used in the analysis. Third, the large number of articles selected did not allow to
describe in detail the findings of the studies, and to consider potential moderators such as gender.
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For this purpose, a meta-analysis would be recommended. Finally, the studies reviewed were
codified starting from their bivariate associations, but some studies presented only the multivariate
analysis. Thus, in these cases, the role of the single variables can be biased.
Notwithstanding these limitations, the study suggests that family and parents processes need
to be included in the prevention and interventions to reduce bullying and victimization. School-
family meetings to increase the awareness on bullying and victimization are important but they are
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not sufficient. Interventions aimed to improve contextual family processes, parent-child
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relationship, and invividual parental knowledges and attitudes are encouraged.
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MA
ED
PT
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Table 2. Summary of the main findings.
BULLYING (CYBER) VICTIMIZATION (CYBER)
Studies Significant Significant Non Studies Significant Significant Non
including and and significant including and and significant
the positive negative the positive negative
variable variable
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Parental Mental Health (PMH)
Domestic Violence (DV)
13
20
10 (77%)
19 (95%)
0
0
3 (23%)
1 (5%)
8
26
R I 6 (75%)
20 (77%)
0
0
2 (25%)
6 (23%)
Authoritative Parenting (AP)
Communication (C)
10
24
0
1 (4%)
4 (40%)
20 (83%)
6 (60%)
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3 (13%) SC 8
18
0
2 (11%)
4 (50%)
11 (61%)
4 (50%)
5 (28%)
Parental Involvement and Support (PIS)
Warmth and Affection (WA)
44
35
2 (5%)
1 (3%)
34 (77%)
A
28 (83%)
N8 (18%)
6 (14%)
44
29
0
1 (4%)
31 (70%)
12 (41%)
13 (30%)
16 (55%)
Supervision (S) 44 0 M
34 (77%) 10 (23%) 37 1(3%) 17 (46%) 19 (51%)
Abuse/Neglect (A/N) 6
E D
6 (100%) 0 0 17 17 (100%) 0 0
Maladaptive Parenting (MP)
Overprotection (O)
E
49
23 PT 39 (80%)
8 (35%)
3 (6%)
4 (17%)
7 (14%)
11 (48%)
36
15
18 (50%)
5 (33%)
1 (3%)
5 (33%)
17 (47%)
5 (34%)
Parental Individual processes (PIP)
C 13 8 (62%) 0 5 (38%) 9 4 (44%) 0 5(56%)
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Studies including the variable=number of studies including the variable
Significant and positive=number of studies showing a positive and significant association between the variable and the outcome
Significant and negative= number of studies showing a negative and significant association between the variable and the outcome
Non significant= number of studies showing a not significant association between the variable and the outcome
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Highlights
Contextual - and relational- family level characteristics are consistently associated with bullying
More variability has been found for victimization
Overprotection and Authoritative parenting were not consistently associated with bullying and
victimization
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