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PAVEMENTS

TYPES OF PAVEMENT
There are two types of pavements based on design considerations i.e. flexible pavement and rigid
pavement. Difference between flexible and rigid pavements is based on the manner in which the loads are
distributed to the subgrade.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous material
and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate quality in layers over the
subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without asphaltic toppings are
examples of flexible pavements.
The design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any magnitude, the intensity of
a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards from the surface by virtue of spreading over an
increasingly larger area, by carrying it deep enough into the ground through successive layers of granular
material.

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials used, the materials with high
degree of strength is used at or near the surface. Thus the strength of subgrade primarily influences the
thickness of the flexible pavement.

Types of Flexible Pavements:


1. Conventional flexible pavements - are layered systems with high quality expensive materials are placed
in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.
2. Full - depth asphalt pavements - are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the soil sub-
grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not available.
3. Contained rock asphalt mats - are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers in
between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade will
significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from surface water.

Typical layers of a flexible pavement:


1. Seal coat - is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid resistance.
2. Tack coat - is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It
provides proper bonding between two layers of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire
surface, and set very fast.
3. Prime coat - is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like granular
bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime
coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.
4. Surface course - is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior
quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC).
5. Binder course - This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course. The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt
and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the
binder course results in more economical design.
6. Base course - is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and it provides
additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage. It may be composed of crushed
stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
7. Sub-Base course - is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary functions are to
provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the
pavement structure. If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve
as a filler between sub-grade and the base course. A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For
example, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features
offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.
8. Sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers above. It is essential
that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the
optimum moisture content.

RIGID PAVEMENTS
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. Grouted concrete
roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements.
The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement concrete slab of sufficient strength
to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to
distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil.

Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural capacity of a rigid pavement.
In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural strength of concrete is the major factor and not the strength
of subgrade. Due to this property of pavement, when the subgrade deflects beneath the rigid pavement,
the concrete slab is able to bridge over the localized failures and areas of inadequate support from
subgrade because of slab action.
Types of Rigid Pavements:
1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP) - are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer
across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.
2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP) - although reinforcements do not improve the structural
capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are
required for load transfer. Reinforcement help to keep the slab together even after cracks.
3. Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP) - Complete elimination of joints are achieved by
reinforcement.
4. Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP)

Difference between Flexible Pavements and Rigid Pavements

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement


1. It consists of a series of layers with the highest It consists of one layer Portland cement concrete
quality materials at or near the surface of slab or relatively high flexural strength.
pavement.
2. It reflects the deformations of subgrade and It is able to bridge over localized failures and area
subsequent layers on the surface. of inadequate support.
3. Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the pavement
interlock, particle friction and cohesion. slab itself by its beam action.
4. Pavement design is greatly influenced by the Flexural strength of concrete is a major factor for
subgrade strength. design.
5. It functions by a way of load distribution It distributes load over a wide area of subgrade
through the component layers because of its rigidity and high modulus of
elasticity.
6. Temperature variations due to change in Temperature changes induce heavy stresses in
atmospheric conditions do not produce stresses in rigid pavements.
flexible pavements.
7. Flexible pavements have self-healing properties Any excessive deformations occurring due to
due to heavier wheel loads are recoverable due to heavier wheel loads are not recoverable, i.e.
some extent. settlements are permanent.

SUB-GRADE AND EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION


CONSTRUCTION OF FILLS AND EMBANKMENT
⁃An stable embankment is attained by spreading the materials into a thin layer then compacted at
a moisture content closer to optimum. These layered process of compaction produces uniformity and
higher density of the material and the moisture content.

EMBANKMENT CONTROL
Basically, there are two procedures employed to assure specified embankment density.
1. To specify the expected value to the minimum acceptable amount of relative compaction and to
ascertain from the fill density tests that the specified value is obtained.
2. To specify the manner and methods of constructing the embankment particularly the layer thickness,
moisture control and the number of passes by a roller of specified type and weight.

The problems encountered in the control of embankment construction are:


1. Difficulties in maintaining uniform moisture content. This is due to:
a) Variable wetness of the soil
b) Problems in evenly distributing and mixing in water
c) Evaporation and rainfall during compaction.
2. Some soil may not easily assimilate water unless wetting agent is employed. Sometimes soil type
cannot be segregated during construction unless brought to laboratory.
3. Materials re-hauled from different sources and segregation of the same type is difficult in the actual
work.

CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS AND EQUIPMENT


A) Density test requirements
B) Moisture control
C) Compaction Equipment like:
1. Tamping Roller - varies from light unit test weight 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. for an 8ft width. For
giant fully loaded roller, 75,000 lbs. for a 10ft. width.
2. Grid Roller - is effective in breaking down clods and soft rock.
3. Pneumatic Tire Roller - with rubber tires, weighing 8 tons or more. 200 tons for airport.
4. Smooth Tired Roller - of two or three-wheeled type used to compact bases and bituminous
surface.
5. Vibratory Compactor - is effective in compacting stones of Macadam road.
6. Hauling and spreading equipment.

DPWH SPECIFICATIONS ON EMBANKMENT


Embankment shall be constructed of suitable materials defined as:
1. Suitable Materials
- Materials acceptable that could be compacted in accordance with the contract as specified. Selected
Borrow for topping. Soils graded particles that passes at 75mm (3”) sieve square openings and not more
than 15 mass percent will pass the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve. The material shall have a Plastic Index not
more than 6 and a liquid limit not more than 30.

2. Unstable Materials
- are materials other than suitable materials such as:
a) Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic substances like grass, roots and
sewage.
b) Highly organic soils like peat and muck.
c) Soils with liquid limit exceeding 80 and or plastic index exceeding 85.
d) Soils with natural water content exceeding 100%.
e) Soils with very low natural density of 800 kg/m3 or lower.

THE SUB-GRADE AND SUB-BASE FOR CONCRETE PAVEMENT


The construction standard for sub-grade and embankment are precise and almost typical for all pavement
types. Under the concrete pavement literature, the under course of selected material is always imposed
upon between the sub-grade or embankment and the concrete slab.
The AASHTO Interim Guides, recommend that the sub-base must be extended from 30-60 centimeters
outside the pavement edge to serve as an edge support. For the heaviest traveled facilities, a treated
cement asphalt sub-base is recommended because it increases the fatigue life and reduces joint failure.
The wide acceptance of stabilizing the sub-base with Portland cement concrete pavement is due to the
investigation result of pumping of concrete slab.
Pumping is the ejection of water and sub-grade soil through the joints and cracks along the edges of the
concrete pavement. A repeated depression of pavement joints by heavy axle load is the activating factor
in pumping.
With the presence of water on the sub-grade and churning it with soil, activates the fluid forming slurry
that expel to the surface. A continued pumping by heavy axle load will flush the soil from beneath the
pavement to the effected locations. Failure of the join will be noticed followed by transverse cracking or
breaking of corners. One crack will invite more chances for pumping action, joint failures and by cracking
that will be progressive.
Pumping is minimal, where the sub grade had been constructed resistant to erosion by cement or
bituminous treatment, or when the pavement slab is underlain by properly graded granular materials.
Despite the continued studies, researches and experimental development made, there is no assurance for
an effective means of excluding free water from the under pavement joints, cracks and edges.
So far, the use of under-courses with drainage provision is being considered as the solution to prevent
pumping.

BITUMINOUS SURFACING

Item 301 Bituminous Prime Coat


Materials
Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing (RC) or Medium Curing (MC) Cutback asphalt, whichever
specified. Prime coat is applied only to dry or slightly moist surface. No prime coat will be applied during
foggy or rainy days.

Item 302 Bituminous Tack Coats


The standard specification for Tack Coat is the same as that of the Prime Coat.

Item 303 Bituminous Seal Coat


This item consists of an application of bituminous materials with or without the application of aggregate
to a bituminous surface course.

Item 304 Bituminous Treatment


This item consists of either single application of bituminous material followed by a single spreading of
aggregate (single surface treatment) or two applications of bituminous material each followed by
spreading of aggregate (double surface treatment).

Item 305 Bituminous Penetration Macadam Pavement


This item consists of furnishing and placing one or more courses of graded aggregate and one or more
application of bituminous materials, followed by Seal Coat cover aggregate constructed on a prepared
base.
Item 306 Bituminous Surface Course
Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing (RC) cutback, Medium Curing (MC) Cut Back or Emulsified
Asphalt. The proportion of bituminous material on the basis of total dry aggregate is from 4.5 to 7.0 mass
percent when cut back asphalt is used and from 6.0 to 10.0 mass percent when emulsified asphalt is used.

BITUMINOUS MATERIAL

Bituminous material or Asphalt in short, is a viscous liquid used as binder for aggregates in road
construction. At normal temperature, asphalt is either slightly thicker than water or hard but brittle
material that breaks under a hammer blow when cold.
1. Bituminous material is in liquid form when mixed or combined with aggregates. This liquid form may
be produced either by heating the hard asphalt, by dissolving in solvent or by emulsifying in water.
However, there are bituminous liquid materials available and ready for use.
2. The action of asphalt binder depends on its type and the aggregate it is combined with. The purpose of
the asphalt binder is to resist the abrasive force brought about by heavy traffic.
3. If road pavement is the open type, consisting entirely of coarse particles and asphalt, heavy binder is
needed requiring more asphalts. On the other hand, id aggregates in the pavement contain fine particles,
cohesion will be developed by surface tension in the thin asphalt film surrounding the fine particles.
Hence, less viscous. Asphalt is required.

BITUMINOUS BINDERS
Asphalt cement is used as binder for almost all high types of bituminous pavement. Asphalt cement is a
semi solid hydrocarbon retained after fuel and lubricating oils are removed form petroleum. The softest
grade used for pavement is the 200-300 penetration. The 60-70 penetrations is the hardest type.
Penetration refers to the consistencies of asphalt cement as described under ASSHTO-T49. It is the
distance that a standard needle penetrates a sample under known conditions of loading time and
temperature. Recently, the procedure used in grading asphalt cement is the Viscosity Test rather than
Penetration Test.
CUTBACK OR LIQUID ASPHALT
1. Liquid asphalt is a petroleum product consisting of asphalt cement with a liquid distillate (diesel,
kerosene or gasoline). The less viscous asphalt contains diluents as little as 15%.
2. The use of cutback is being frowned for two reasons:
a) It is a usable fuel
b) It is an air pollutant
3. Cutback or liquid asphalt is classified into:
a) Slow curing (SC) road soil
b) Medium curing (MC) cutback asphalt
c) Rapid curing (RC) cutback asphalt

EMULSIFIED ASPHALT
Emulsified Asphalt is a kind of mixture wherein the minute globules of asphalt disperses in water.
Asphalt content ranges from 55-70% by weight. Emulsion could be applied or mixed at normal
temperature, because when the water content evaporates, the asphalt remains. It has the following
characteristics.

1. Emulsified Asphalt
- is excellent with wet aggregate because the water medium carries the asphalt into a superior
contact with the particle surfaces.
- is an alternate to cutback asphalt for energy and environmental objectives. It is an effective
material in coating electropositive aggregate such as limestone but tend to strip from
aggregates with high content of silica for having strong electronegative surface charges.
2. Cationic Emulsion
- is very effective on high siliceous aggregates but may strip from high alkaline that carry strong
positive surface changes.
3. Rejuvenating Agent
- is an emulsified petroleum resin sprayed over the surface of an old asphalt road that changes
to asphaltenes causing the binder to harden and cracks. The rejuvenating agent sprayed over
the pavement and softening the binder. Too much application however, produces a slick
pavement surface.

OXIDIZED ASPHALT AND ROAD TAR


Oxidized asphalt is suitable only for roofing and similar applications. Highway used of oxidized asphalt is
limited to water proofing of structures and filling joints of concrete pavement.
Road tar is a by-product of the distillation process of coal. Tars are produced from gas-house coal tar,
cook oven tars and water gas tar.

EPOXY RESIN AS BINDERS


Epoxy binders are produced in a clear, dark, rigid and flexible form for application to either concrete or
asphalt pavement. Hardening can be attained by mixing the resin and the catalyst hardener prior to
application. The result is called thermosetting. Meaning, it will not soften under the influence of heat or
the action of solvent like water or petroleum products. The high cost of resin has restricted its use to
bridge surfacing and other special non-skid seal coating surface only.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BITUMINOUS BINDERS


1. The thickness of asphalt film in the pavement, ranges from .005 to .010 mm. Test result showed that
the thicker the asphalt film, the lesser is the process of aging. Where pavement has lower percentage of
voids, aging is also relatively low.
2. Mixtures that are too dry, cracks and breaks easily.
3. Higher asphalt content and lower percentage of voids may cause instability of the pavement.
4. Improper construction procedures can age asphalt prematurely. One example is mixing asphalt with an
overheated aggregate.
5. Storing the mixed materials, or an extended period of mixing, the temperature produces substantial
reduction of asphalt penetration.
6. Climatic conditions can seriously affect the behavior of asphalt binders.
7. Different brand or source has variability in behavior. The viscosity of some asphalt varies with
temperature from that of the others.
8. An asphalt meeting a specified penetration requirement at 77*F but with high viscosity temperature
ratio will become hard and brittle at lower temperature.

BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT
The bituminous pavement is a combination of mineral aggregate and binders. The mixtre of rock material
particles with asphalt has created so many names to wit:
-Asphalt macadam -Asphalt sheet
-Asphaltic concrete -Road mic
-Mastic -Armor coat
-National paving -Oil mat
-Plant mix
Although several names were affixed to bituminous pavement, yet, there is only one thing to remember
that, all bituminous roadways are nothing more than a mixture of mineral aggregates and asphalt.
Meaning, asphalt road is virtually a Bituminous Road.

QUALITIES OF ASPHALT ROAD


To consider an asphalt road in good service, it must possess in its full life the following qualities:
1. The surface must be free from cracks or raveling due to shrinkage and fatigue failure.
2. It must withstand weather condition, including the effect of surface water, heat, cold and oxidation.
3. It must be resistant to internal moisture such as water vapor.
4. It must possess a tight or porous impermeable surface as the case may be suitable to underlying base on
sub-base.
5. It must be smooth riding and skid free surface.

A satisfactory asphalt pavement could be attained under the following construction procedures:
1. Viscous asphalt binder us heated to a fluid condition and mixed with heated aggregates. The mixture is
then laid and compacted while still hot.
2. Mixing liquid or emulsion asphalt with aggregates at normal temperature is either by plant or road
mixing. The mixture is laid and compacted at normal temperature before the solvent evaporates or the
emulsion breaks.
3. Spread and compact the clean crushed stones, sprayed with heated or emulsified asphalt binder over it.
Cover the sprayed pavement with fine aggregate. This process is referred to as the ‘penetration method’.

ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT


The term Asphalt Concrete refers to a dense graded road surface made of hot mineral aggregates, mixed
with hot asphalt and laid at high temperature of about 275*F to 300*F. Asphalt concrete is the highest
type of dense bituminous pavement suitable for the most heavily traveled roads. A prime coat is first
applied over untreated and treated base before asphalt concrete is laid. The purpose is to bind any loose
particles of the base and likewise act as bond between the base and the pavement to deter rising moisture
from penetrating the pavement.
The thickness of compacted asphalt concrete ranges from 2 inches for lightly traveled road to 6 inches or
more for roads where traffics is considerably heavy.

BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT FAILURE


Bituminous pavement failures are caused by excessive load. Heavy load creates deflection on the road
surface, with insufficient underlying strength. Repetitious application of excessive load will roughen and
crack the road pavement that ultimately result to complete failure of the roadway. Deflection on the road
surface may be the effect of elastic deformation from the consolidation of the base and subsoil or from the
combination of elastic and plastic deformation. Repeated heavy wheel load on highly resilient soil causes
deflection leading to fatigue failure of the asphalt surface.

MACADAM ASPHALT MAT


Bituminous macadam road has large amount of voids in the lower part of the aggregate layers. Its base or
surface is composed of two or three layers of progressively smaller, clean, sharp angular stones bonded by
asphalt.

SURFACE TREATMENT
Road surface treatment method is applied to upgrade untreated surface and to rejuvenate an existing
pavement. The inverted penetration method is applied wherein the binder asphalt is first prayed over a
prepared surface then covered with fine aggregates.
Surface treatment is subdivided as follows:
- Dust palliatives - is a surface treatment of asphalt to control dust and fine sand along the
highway.
- Prime coat or track coat - to plug the capillary voids in the pavement in order to stop the upward
movement of moisture. Also to improve adhesion between the base and surface course.
- Armor coats - is a surface treatment using thin bituminous binder covered by mineral aggregate
applied to an earth, gravel or water bound macadam surface or to stabilize the base. And, provide
protection for untreated surfaces.
- Seal coats and retreads - is the application of asphalt binder to a pavement surface covered with
aggregate. To improve the skid resistance of bleeding bituminous surface which had been
polished under traffic.
- Sheet asphalts - is a mixture of sand filters and asphalt cement.
- Cold laid coats - is a mixture of coarse and fine aggregates and liquid asphalt or emulsion.
- Slurry seals - is a combination of sand, crushed stone, emulsified asphalt and water.
- Asphalt overlay - is a layer of asphalt bound aggregate laid an existing pavement. The purpose is
to level out distorted surface or to cover cracks and joints of the pavement.

CONCRETE PAVEMENT
PORTLAND CEMENT is a combination of limestone, marl or other calcareous materials and clay,
shale, or like argillaceous substances.
Different types of Portland cement specified by AASHTO are the following:
Type 1 or 1A (Air entraining) - this type of cement is for general concrete construction when the specified
properties of the other four types are not required.
Type II or IIA (Air entraining) - his type is for general concrete construction exposed to moderate action
or where moderate heat of hydration is required.
Type III or IIIA (Air entraining) - his type is for high strength concrete.
Type IV is for low heat of hydration
Type V for high sulfate resistance

Definition of Terms
Deterioration
- Deterioration of concrete pavement is due to stress brought about by load, moisture and
temperature.
Distress of Concrete
- is generally grouped into the following categories:
a) Distortion
b) Cracking
c) Disintegration

Distortion
- is a vertical displacement of concrete slab at the joints or cracks. Distortion is due to failure or
weakness of concrete joints.
Faulting
- For faulting to occur, there must be free water on top of the base course and pavement deflection
across the joint due to heavy axle loads. Faulting is the result of pumping tremendous force or
load that develop under pavement. Caused of faulting are:
a) Loss of slab support
b) Erosion of sub base
Cracking
- can take many forms in concrete pavement that could be the result from; applied load,
temperature or moisture changes. Most common types of cracks are:
a) Corner cracks associated with excessive corner deflection
b) Transverse cracks associated with mixture or temperature stresses, or poor construction
methods.
Disintegration
- appears in the form of durability cracking, scaling or spalling, as the result of the mix design or
construction related problems like:
a) Durability Cracking - results from freeze-thaw action
b) Scaling - a network of shallow fine hairline cracks which extend through the upper surface of
the concrete.
c) Spalling - is the breaking or chipping of the joint edges. It is the result from excessive stresses
at joint, weak concrete, poorly designed or constructed joints.
Changes in Temperature and Moisture Content
- create slab curling, flexure stresses and overall lengthening and shortening of the slabs. The
tendency of the slab to shorten is due ti temperature drop or drying that create tensile stresses. On
the other hand, the tendency to lengthen is due to temperature rise or increased in moisture that
creates compression stresses.

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