T E M P L E U N I V E R S I T Y P H Y S I C S

Fluids

Part I. Fluid Dynamics

Learning Goals for this Laboratory:
 Understand the terms comprising the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation, including cross
section area, volume flow rate, flow speed, pressure and density.
 Practice predicting relationships between measured values based on theory.
 Practice symbolic manipulation of equations to derive useful relations.

What happens to a fluid or an object in a fluid when the fluid is motion? This knowledge is
fundamental to our understanding of everything from airplane flight to atherosclerosis. Fluids in this
context includes both liquids and gases. In Figure 1 below, the flow of air around a wing is simulated
for an incompressible fluid.

𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑃1 𝑃2

Figure 2. Fluid flow in a pipe

Figure 1. Dark blue areas indicate higher

pressure, lighter indicate lower pressure.
Source: Wikipedia Commons

When an incompressible fluid flows through a pipe with a constriction as in Figure 2, mass
conservation tells us that the volume flow rate 𝑄 must be constant, so we can write

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (1)

Where 𝐴 is the pipe cross-section area and 𝑣 is the fluid speed. This is called the continuity equation.

Bernoulli’s equation is a conservation of energy statement comparing the fluid flow at two points in a
pipe. Assuming there is no height difference between the two points in the pipe, Bernoulli’s equation
can be written
1 1
𝑃1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 2 𝜌𝑣22 (2)

1 11/12/2018 9:14 PM
T E M P L E U N I V E R S I T Y P H Y S I C S

where 𝑃 is the fluid pressure and 𝜌 is the fluid density. By solving Eq. 1 for 𝑣 and plugging into Eq. 2,
we can eliminate 𝑣 in Eq. 2 to obtain an expression for the volume flow rate in terms of only the
pressure, density, and area. In other words, we can make a flowmeter using two pressure sensors. That
is precisely the goal of this experiment.

Question 1. Obtain the following flow meter equation by rearranging Eq. 1 for 𝑣 in terms of 𝑄 and 𝐴
and substituting this in to Eq. 2. Be sure to show intermediate steps.

2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑄 =
√ 1 1
𝜌 ( 2 − 2)
𝐴2 𝐴1

Question 2. Make a prediction based on the equations: do you think the pressure will be higher in the
wider area (at point 1) or in the constriction (at point 2) in Fig. 2? Support you answer.

Question 3. Will 𝑄 be higher at point 1 or at point 2?

Question 4. What are the SI units of 𝑄?

Venturi apparatus, pressure sensors, tubing, computer with interface and

A P P A R A T U S
Capstone software, air supply with rubber stopper

1. Connect the rubber tubing to the left end of the Venturi apparatus so that the first sensor
connection port is at a wide area. Do not arrange it such that a sensor port is at the inlet; this port
will have not have laminar flow so Bernoulli’s won’t apply.

2. Connect a low pressure sensor to two ports on the Pasco Venturi apparatus so that we can measure
the pressure as fluid flows from a large cross section area followed by a small cross section area as
shown in Fig. 2.

3. There are two types of pressure sensors. Follow the Capstone setup instructions for the type you
have.

a. Blue Digital Pressure sensors. Plug them into the interface, and open Capstone. In the
Hardware setup menu, they should be detected automatically. These sensors are autocalibrated.

b. Black analog pressure sensors. Carefully plug in the sensors noting that the top of the plugs is
cleverly labeled “TOP.” Open Capstone, and use the Hardware Setup menu to select the ports
to which the sensors are connected. Be sure to select the correct sensor type: Pressure
Sensor, Low (or Pressure Sensor, Relative).

Zero the pressure sensors as follows. In the Calibration menu, select both pressure sensors for
calibration, choose the “One Standard (1 point offset)” method, then “Set the Current Value
to the Standard Value” which should be zero kPA. Be sure to click Finish.

4. Create a graph display of pressure versus time for each of the pressure sensors. Set the units
displayed to Pascals (Pa) by clicking directly on the units on the axis.

2 11/12/2018 9:14 PM
T E M P L E U N I V E R S I T Y P H Y S I C S

5. Click Record in Capstone and then turn on the air supply to any output level you like (just note
what the level is because we’ll do another run at a different level). In the graphs, you should see the
pressure values increase for a few seconds then stabilize. Once the values are stable for about 30
seconds, stop data collection and turn off the air supply.

6. In Capstone use the highlighter tool to make a box around several seconds of data in the region
where the pressure was stable. Use the statistics tool to calculate the mean pressure in the
highlighted region. Do this for both sensors, recording the mean pressure along with the air supply
level setting.

Question 5. Which pressure sensor measured a higher pressure? Was this the same one that you
predicted in Question 2?

7. Repeat data collection with the blower set to a different output level. Again highlight the stable
pressure region and find the mean pressure for both sensors.

8. Now that we have pressure data, the only remaining unknowns in our flowmeter equation are the
cross section areas. To find the cross section area, remove the top plate of the Venturi apparatus by
unscrewing the eight thumbscrews on top. Use a ruler to find the width and depth of the channel
in both the wide area and in the constriction.

9. Replace the top plate on the Venturi apparatus - tighten the thumbscrews finger tight, do not
over tighten them.

10. Use the flowmeter equation and the data you collected to calculate the volume flow rate for both
air supply output levels. Be sure to use SI units.

Question 6. Rather than solving Eq 1 and putting it into Eq 2 to get our flowmeter equation, we could
have instead derived an expression for the fluid speed 𝑣2 in terms of known quantities. Do this by
rearranging Eq 1 for 𝑣1 in terms of 𝑣2 , 𝐴1 , and 𝐴2 and then plugging this into Eq 2. Rearrange the
result for 𝑣2 . Be sure to show intermediate steps. This is the equation that is most often given online
accompanying descriptions of Venturi flowmeters.

2(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑣2 =
√ 𝐴22
𝜌 ( 2 − 1)
𝐴1

11. Plug in your experimental values to this equation to obtain the flow speed 𝑣2 for both air supply
levels.

Question 7.As mentioned, Bernoulli’s principle is a statement of conservation of energy. Give at least
one assumption that was made in order to apply Eq. 2 to this experiment.

3 11/12/2018 9:14 PM
T E M P L E U N I V E R S I T Y P H Y S I C S

Part II. Fluid Statics (The Buoyant Force & Specific Gravity)
Learning Goals for this Laboratory:
 Understand how to experimentally find the buoyant force acting on an object.
 Be able to find the density of an unknown object by measuring its specific gravity.

Whenever a solid object is submerged in a fluid, it displaces a volume of fluid equal to its own volume.
The displaced volume of fluid had been in equilibrium with the surrounding fluid before being
displaced, so we know that the buoyant force on the displaced fluid was equal to its weight, and thus an
equal buoyant force will be exerted on the object that replaced the fluid.

In other words, the buoyant force acting on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced; this is Archimedes’ Principle. This is true whether the fluid is a liquid or a gas and whether
the object is wholly or partially submerged. Archimedes’ Principle is quite useful for determining
whether a hot air balloon will float in air, or whether a ship will float on water, or a submarine will need
to adjust its ballast to alter its depth. It can also help us determine the density of unknown objects. All
of these calculations are possible because of the relationship between mass, volume and density: 𝜌 =
𝑚
.
𝑉

Mathematically, Archimedes’ Principle can be expressed as:

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑏 𝑔 (1)

where 𝐹𝐵 is the buoyant force, 𝑊𝑓 is the weight of the fluid displaced, 𝑚𝑓 is the mass of the
displaced fluid, 𝜌𝑓 is the density of the fluid, 𝑉𝑓 is the volume of the fluid and 𝑉𝑏 is the volume of the
body. Note that we have made use of the fact that 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉. Also notice that the last equality comes
from the fact that a submerged solid object will displace a volume of fluid equal to its own volume.

If a solid body is suspended in a fluid and kept stationary as in Figure 3 below, it will be acted upon by
three forces: the buoyant force 𝐹𝐵 , gravity (i.e. weight, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔), and the tension 𝐹𝑇 in the rope from
which the object is suspended (see Figure 3b).

Because the body is in equilibrium, we can use Newton’s first law to obtain find the buoyant force in
terms of measurable quantities:

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝑇 (2)

That is, the buoyant force is the difference of the object’s weight in air (𝑊) to its weight in fluid (𝐹𝑇 ).
Obtaining Equation 2 is left as an exercise for the lab report.

The objective of this experiment is to use the equilibrium condition to indirectly measure the buoyant
force acting on an object that sinks (brass cylinder) and an object that floats (wooden cylinder). We will
also determine the density of these materials using Archimedes’ Principle.

4 11/12/2018 9:14 PM
T E M P L E U N I V E R S I T Y P H Y S I C S

a b
𝐹𝑇 = 𝑊 𝐹𝑇 = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝐵

𝐹𝑇
𝐹𝑇

𝐹𝐵 𝑊
𝑊

Figure 3. Setup showing object suspended from a spring balance. a) For the object
suspended in air 𝐹𝑇 = 𝑊. b) For the object submerged in water 𝐹𝑇 = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝐵 .

spring balance or force sensor, wooden cylinder, standard masses, glass

A P P A R A T U S
bottle, brass cylinder, aluminum cylinder, vernier caliper, 1000 ml
graduated cylinder, metric ruler, water, and PASCO low pressure sensor (CI-6534).

Note: be sure to record your measurements with the maximum precision allowed and use a
reasonable number of significant digits.

Question 8. Derive Equation 2 from the equilibrium condition (net force acting on the object is zero).

1. Suspend the brass cylinder from the spring balance (or forces sensor if using one) and find the
weight of the brass cylinder in air (see Figure 3a).

2. Find the weight of the brass cylinder in water (i.e. the tension in the string in Equation 2, and
Figure 3b).

3. Calculate the buoyant force acting on the brass cylinder.

4. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of an object to the density of water. The following
method can be used to find the density of an unknown object without having to measure its
volume. Archimedes famously determined that a gold crown was actually made from lead this way.
For an object of unknown material 𝑥, the ratio of its weight to the weight of the water it displaces
equals specific gravity 𝑆𝐺:
𝑊𝑥 𝑊𝑥 𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝑔 𝜌𝑥
𝑊𝐻20
= 𝐹𝐵
=𝜌 =𝜌 = 𝑆𝐺 (3)
𝐻2𝑂 𝑉𝑥 𝑔 𝐻2𝑂

5. Calculate the specific gravity and density of brass from your measurements.
5 11/12/2018 9:14 PM