B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

This study guide is in no way exhaustive. As stated in class, any type of question from class, quizzes,
exams, and homeworks are fair game.

1. Some Algebra Review

(a) Logarithm Properties

i. y = logb x is equivalent to x = by .
ii. logb b = 1
iii. logb 1 = 0, ln 1 = 0

iv. logb (br ) = r, ln(er ) = r

v. logb (xr ) = r logb (x), ln(xr ) = r ln(x)
vi. logb (M N ) = logb (M ) + logb (N )
 
M
vii. logb = logb (M ) − logb (N )
N
viii. The domain of logb (u) is u > 0
ix. All the rules above hold for ln x. Remember that ln x = loge x
x. Change of Base
ln M logb M
loga (M ) = =
ln a logb a
This is useful if you’re asked to find the derivative of y = log5 (x + 1)

(b) Exponential Properties

i. an am = an+m 1
v. a−n =
an
ii. (an )m = anm
1
vi. = an
iii. (ab)n = an bn a−n
an 1
iv. m = an−m = m−n vii. am/n = (am )1/n = (a1/n )m
a a

(c) Properties of Radicals

√
i. n
a = a1/n
√
ii. n
am = am/n

2. Limits

(a) Notation

i. General Limit Notation: lim f (x) = L

x→a

ii. Left Hand Limit: lim− f (x) = L

x→a
iii. Right Hand Limit: lim f (x) = L
x→a+
iv. If lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L then lim f (x) = L
x→a− x→a+ x→a

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

(b) Limits at ±∞. Assume all polynomials are in descending order.

a axn + ... a
i. lim = 0, r > 0 iii. lim =
x→∞ xr n
x→∞ bx + ... b
axm + ... axm + ...
ii. If n > m, then lim =0 iv. If m > n, then lim = ±∞
x→∞ bxn + ... x→∞ bxn + ...

(c) Evaluation Techniques

i. If f (x) is continuous, then lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

p p √
lim x2 + 4 = 32 + 4 = 13
x→3

ii. Factor and Cancel

0
If you evaluate a rational function and get , then try to factor.
0

x2 − 9 (x − 3)(x + 3) (x + 3)
lim = lim = lim =6
x→3 x − 3 x→3 x−3 x→3 1
iii. Rationalizing Numerators / Denominators
Try this technique if you have radicals. Multiply top and bottom by the conjugate.

√ √ √
x−4 x−4 x+4 x − 16 1
lim = lim ·√ = lim √ = lim √
x→4 x − 16 x→4 x − 16 x + 4 x→4 (x − 16)( x + 4) x→4 x + 4
iv. Combine by Using Common Denominators
Try this when you need to combine fractions within fractions

2 2 2 2
x+4 − a+4 x+4 − a+4 (x + 4)(a + 4) 2(a + 4) − 2(x + 4)
lim = lim · = lim
x→a x−a x→a x−a (x + 4)(a + 4) x→a (x − a)(x + 4)(a + 4)
2a − 2x −2(x − a) −2 −2
= lim = lim = lim =
x→a (x − a)(x + 4)(a + 4) x→a (x − a)(x + 4)(a + 4) x→a (x + 4)(a + 4) (a + 4)(a + 4)

v. L’Hospital’s Rule and limits can be found later in this guide.

(d) Piecewise Functions - Know how to graph and evaluate Piecewise Functions. These are good
ones to test your understanding of left-hand, right-hand, and general limits. They are also used
to test your understanding of continuity.

(e) Definition of Continuity

A function f is continuous at x = a if the following three conditions are satisfied:

i. f (a) must exist

ii. lim f (x) must exist
x→a

iii. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

3. Derivatives

(a) Limit Definition of a Derivative

f (x + h) − f (x) f (x) − f (a)

f 0 (x) = lim or f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h x→a x−a
(b) Tangent Lines
When asked to find the equation of a tangent line on f at x = a, you need two things: A point
and a slope.

i. You’re usually given the x value. If they don’t tell you the y value, you must plug the x
value into f (x) to get the y value. Now you have a point (a, f (a))

ii. To find the slope m, you find m = f 0 (a).

iii. The equation of the tangent line is y − f (a) = f 0 (a)(x − a). You may need to write this in
slope-intercept form.

(c) Derivative Formulas

d d 1
i. (c) = 0 xv. (ln(f (x))) = · f 0 (x)
dx dx f (x)
d d
ii. (f ± g) = f 0 ± g 0 xvi. (sin x) = cos x
dx dx
d d
iii. (x) = 1 xvii. (cos x) = − sin x
dx dx
d d
iv. (kx) = k xviii. (tan x) = sec2 x
dx dx
d d
v. Power Rule: (xn ) = nxn−1 xix. (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
vi. ([f (x)]n ) = n[f (x)]n−1 · f 0 (x) xx. (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx dx
vii. Product Rule: (f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0 d
 0 xxi. (cot x) = − csc2 x
f f 0 g − f g0 dx
viii. Quotient Rule: = d 1
sin−1 x = √


g g2 xxii.
0 dx 1 − x2
ix. Chain Rule: (f (g(x))) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) d −1
cos−1 x = √


d x xxiii.
x. (a ) = ax ln a dx 1 − x2
dx d 1
tan−1 x =


d x xxiv.
xi. (e ) = ex dx 1 + x2
dx d −1
cot−1 x =


d 1 xxv.
xii. (ln x) = dx 1 + x2
dx x
d 1 d 1
sec−1 x = √


xiii. (loga x) = xxvi.
dx x ln a dx x x2 − 1
d f (x)
d −1
csc−1 x = √


xiv. e = f 0 (x) · ef (x) xxvii.
dx dx x x2 − 1

REMEMBER: all of these derivatives have a version for the chain rule. For example:

d 1
tan−1 (ex ) = · 2e2x


dx 1 + (e2x )2

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

(d) Critical Points

x = c is a value of f (x) if f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.

(e) Increasing / Decreasing

i. If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval I, then f (x) is ii. If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval I, then f (x) is
increasing. decreasing.

(f) Concave Up / Concave Down

i. If f 00 (x) > 0 on an interval I, then f (x) is ii. If f 00 (x) < 0 on an interval I, then f (x) is
concave up. concave down.

(g) Inflection Points

x = c is an inflection point of f if

i. The point at x = c must exist. ii. Concavity changes at x = c

(h) First Derivative Test to find Local (Relative) Extrema

i. Find all critical value of f (x) where f 0 (c) = 0

ii. Local Max at x = c if f 0 (x) changes from (+) to (−) at x = c.

iii. Local Min at x = c if f 0 (x) changes from (−) to (+) at x = c.

iv. If f 0 (x) does not change signs, it’s still an important point to plot. It may be a place where
the slope is 0, a corner, an asymptote, a vertical tangent line, etc.
v. Make sure you write your relative max and mins as points (c, f (c))

(i) Second Derivative Test to find Local (Relative) Extrema

i. Find all critical value of f (x) where f 0 (c) = 0

ii. Local Max at x = c if f 00 (c) < 0

iii. Local Min at x = c if f 00 (x) > 0

iv. Make sure you write your relative max and mins as points (c, f (c))

(j) Absolute Extrema

i. (c, f (c)) is an absolute maximum of f (x) if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in the domain.
ii. (c, f (c)) is an absolute minimum of f (x) if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in the domain.

(k) Finding Absolute Extrema of a continuous f (x) over [a, b]

i. Find all critical values of f (x) on [a, b].

ii. Evaluate f (x) at all critical values.
iii. Evaluate f (x) at the endpoints, f (a) and f (b).

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

iv. The absolute max is the largest function value and the absolute min is the smallest function
value.

(l) L’Hospitals Rule

i. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then

x→a x→a

f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 , g 0 (x) 6= 0
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

ii. If lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞, then

x→a x→a

f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

iii. Indeterminate Form of Type 0 · ∞

0 ∞
Given lim f (x)g(x), you do the following to put it in the form or
x→a 0 ∞
f (x)
A. Rewrite f (x)g(x) as
1/g(x)
g(x)
B. Rewrite f (x)g(x) as
1/f (x)
iv. Indeterminate Form of 00 , ∞0 , or 1∞
Given lim f (x)g(x) , rewrite the limit as
x→a

lim eg(x) ln(f (x))

x→a

then take the limit of the exponent

lim g(x) ln(f (x))

x→a

This should put the limit in the Indeterminate Form of Type 0 · ∞

v. Indeterminate Form of ∞ − ∞
The first thing to try to combine the functions into One Big Fraction. Then try
L’Hospitals Rule. Another option would be to factor and turn it into a product of two
functions.

(m) Inverse Derivative Theorem

Let f (x) be a one-to-one function.

0 1
f −1 (b) =
f 0 (f −1 (b))

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

4. Summary of Curve Sketching − Always start by noting the domain of f (x)

(a) x and y intercepts

i. x-intercepts occur when f (x) = 0

ii. y-intercept occurs when x = 0

(b) Find any vertical, horizontal asymptotes, or slant asymptotes.

i. Vertical Asymptote: Find all x-values where lim f (x) = ±∞. Usually when the denomi-
x→a
nator is 0 and the numerator is not 0. Rational function MUST be reduced.
ii. Horizontal Aymptotes: Find lim f (x) and lim f (x). There are shortcuts based on the
x→∞ x→−∞
degree of the numerator and denominator.
iii. Slant Asymptotes: Occurs when the degree of the numerator is one larger than the denom-
inator. You must do long division to determine the asymptotes.

(c) Find f 0 (x)

i. Find the critical values, all x-values where f 0 (x) = 0 or when f 0 (x) does not exist.
ii. Plot the critical values on a number line.
iii. Find increasing / decreasing intervals using number line
iv. Use The First Derivative Test to find local maximums / minimums (if any exist).
Remember to write them as points.
A. Local Max at x = c if f 0 (x) changes from (+) to (−) at x = c.
B. Local Min at x = c if f 0 (x) changes from (−) to (+) at x = c.
C. Note: If f 0 (x) does not change signs, it’s still an important point. It may be a place
where the slope is 0, a corner, an asymptote, a vertical tangent line, etc.

(d) Find f 00 (x)

i. Find all x-values where f 00 (x) = 0 or when f 00 (x) does not exist.
ii. Plot these x-values on a number line.
iii. Find intervals of concavity using the number line
iv. Find points of inflection
A. Must be a place where concavity changes
B. The point must exist (i.e, can’t be an asymptote, discontinuity)

(e) Sketch

i. Draw every asymptote

ii. Plot all intercepts
iii. Plot all critical points (even if they are not relative extrema). They were critical points for
a reason.
iv. Plot all inflection points.
v. Connect points on the graph by using information about increasing/decreasing and its
concavity.

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

5. Integrals

(a) Definitions

i. Antideriative: An antiderivative of f (x) is a function F (x), where F 0 (x) = f (x).

ii. General Antiderivative: The general antiderivative of f (x) is F (x) + C, where F 0 (x) =
f (x). Also known as the Indefinite Integral
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C

iii. Definite Integral: Z b

f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

(b) Approximation Integration Techniques

Z b
b−a
Given the integral f (x) dx and n (for Simpson’s Rule n must be even), with ∆x =
a n
and xi = a + i∆x, then
Z b
Left-hand f (x) dx = ∆x [f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + ... + f (xn−1 )]
a
Z b
Right-hand f (x) dx = ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + ... + f (xn )]
a
Z b
Midpoint f (x) dx = ∆x [f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + f (x∗4 ) + ... + f (x∗n )] , where x∗i is midpoint in [xi−1 , xi ]
a
Z b
∆x
Trapezoid f (x) dx = [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 2f (x3 ) + ... + 2f (xn−2 ) + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )]
a 2
Z b
∆x
Simpson’s f (x) dx = [f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + ... + 2f (xn−2 ) + 4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )]
a 3
(c) Common Integrals
Z Z
i. k dx = kx + C xi. ln x dx = x ln x − x + C

xn+1
Z Z
ii. xn dx = + C, n 6= −1 xii. cos x dx = sin x + C
n+1 Z
Z
1
iii. dx = ln |x| + C xiii. sin x dx = − cos x + C
x Z
Z
1 1
iv. dx = ln |kx + b| + C xiv. sec2 x dx = tan x + C
kx + b k Z
Z
v. ex dx = ex + C xv. csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
Z Z
1
vi. ekx dx = ekx + C xvi. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
k Z
Z
1
vii. ekx+b dx = ekx+b + C xvii. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C
k
ax
Z Z
x
viii. a dx = +C xviii. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
ln a
Z Z
1
ix. akx dx = akx + C xix. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
k ln a
Z Z
1
x. akx+b dx = akx+b + C xx. csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| + C
k ln a

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

Z Z
1 1 −1 x
 
xxi. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C xxiv. − dx = cot +C
Z a2 + x2 a a
1
Z
1 x
xxii. √ dx = sin−1 +C xxv. √ dx = sec−1 (x) + C
a2 − x2 a x x 2−1
Z
1
Z
1 1 −1 x
 
xxiii. dx = tan +C xxvi. − √ dx = csc−1 (x) + C
a2 + x2 a a x x2 − 1

(d) Every integral must be written into the proper form in order to use the formulas. For example,

√
Z Z
x dx = x1/2 dx
Z Z
3 3 −4
dx = x dx
5x4 5
Z Z
8
√
5
dx = 8x−9/5 dx
x9
(e) Finding Area under or between Curves

6. Solids of Revolution

(a) Disk Method - in terms of x (c) Disk Method - in terms of y

Z b
V = πR(x)2 dx Z d
a V = πR(y)2 dy
(b) Washer Method - in terms of x c

(d) Washer Method - in terms of y

Z d
V = πR(y)2 − πr(y)2 dy
c
Z b
V = πR(x)2 − πr(x)2 dx
a
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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

You may have to rotate around an axis other than the x or y axis. If you do, you need to adjust the
radius. For example,

Z d
V = π(1 + R(y))2 + π(1 + r(y))2 dy
c

(a) Shell - in terms of x (b) Shell - in terms of y

Z b Z d
V = 2πxH(x) dx V = 2πyH(y) dx
a c

7. Arc Length

(a) In terms of x (b) In terms of y

Z b p Z d p
L= 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx L= 1 + (g 0 (x))2 dy
a c

8. Area of a Surface of Revolution

(a) Rotated around the x-axis

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

s 2 s 2
Z b  Z d 
dy dx
SA = 2πy 1+ dx SA = 2πy 1+ dy
a dx c dy

The first integral is in terms of x. That means the y in front of the square root should be in
terms of x. For example, y = x2 + 2. You use x2 + 2 instead of y.

(b) Rotated around the y-axis.

The formula doesn’t change much.

s 2 s 2
Z b  Z d 
dy dx
SA = 2πx 1 + dx SA = 2πx 1 + dy
a dx c dy
The second integral is in terms of y. That means the x in front of the square root should be in
√ √
terms of y. For example, if y = x2 , solve for x (x = y) and use y instead of x.

9. Integration Techniques

(a) u Substitution
Z b
Given f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx,
a
i. Let u = g(x)
ii. Then du = g 0 (x) dx
iii. If there are bounds, you must change them using u = g(b) and u = g(a)
Z b Z g(b)
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = f (u) du
a g(a)

(b) Integration By Parts Z Z

u dv = uv − v du
Z
Example: x2 e−x dx

u = x2 dv = e−x dx
du = 2x dx v = −e−x
Z Z
x2 e−x dx = −x2 e−x − −2xe−x dx

You may have to do integration by parts more than once. When trying to figure out what to
choose for u, you can follow this guide: LIATE

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

L Logs
I Inverse Trig Functions
A Algebraic (radicals, rational functions, polynomials)
T Trig Functions (sin x, cos x)
E Exponential Functions

(c) Products of Trig Functions

Z Z
i. sinn x cosm x dx ii. tann x secm x dx
A. m is odd (power of cos x is odd). Fac-
A. m is even (power of sec x is even). Fac-
tor out one cos x and place it in front
tor out one sec2 x and place it in front
of dx. Rewrite all remaining cos x as
of dx. Rewrite all remaining sec x as
sin x by using cos2 x = 1−sin2 x. Then
tan x by using sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x.
let u = sin x and du = cos x dx
Then let u = tan x and du = sec2 x dx
B. n is odd (power of sin x is odd). Fac-
B. n is odd (power of tan x is odd). Fac-
tor out one sin x and place it in front
tor out one sec x tan x and place it
of dx. Rewrite all remaining sin x as
in front of dx. Rewrite all remain-
cos x by using sin2 x = 1−cos2 x. Then
ing tan x as sec x by using tan2 x =
let u = cos x and du = − sin x dx
sec2 x − 1. Then let u = sec x and
C. If n and m are both odd, you can
du = sec x tan x dx
choose either of the previous methods.
C. If n odd and m is even, you can use
D. If n and m are even, use the following
either of the previous methods.
trig identities
1 D. If n is even and m is odd, the previous
sin2 x = (1 − cos(2x))
2
methods will not work. You can try to
1
cos2 x = (1 + cos(2x)) simplify or rewrite the integrals. You
2
sin(2x) = 2 cos x sin x may try other methods.

(d) Partial Fractions

Z
p(x)
Use this method when you are integrating dx, the degree of p(x) must be smaller than
q(x)
the degree of q(x). Factor the denominator q(x) into a product of linear and quadratic factors.
There are four scenarios.

Unique Linear Factors: If your denominator has unique linear factors

x A B
= +
(2x − 1)(x − 3) 2x − 1 x − 3

To solve for A and B, multiply through by the common denominator to get

x = A(x − 3) + B(2x − 1)

1
You can find A by plugging in x = . Find B by plugging in x = 3.
2

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

Repeated Linear Factors: Every power of the linear factor gets its own fraction (up to the
highest power).
x A B C D
= + + +
(x − 3)(3x + 4)3 x − 3 3x + 4 (3x + 4)2 (3x + 4)3
Unique Quadratic Factor:
3x − 1 A Bx + C
= + 2
(x + 4)(x2 + 9) x+4 x +9
To solve or A, B, and C, multiply through by the common denominator to get

3x − 1 = A(x2 + 9) + (Bx + C)(x + 4)

Repeated Quadratic Factor: Every power of the quadratic factor gets its own fraction (up
to the highest power).
2x A Bx + C Dx + E Fx + G
= + 2 + 2 + 2
(3x + 4)(x2 + 9)3 3x + 4 x +9 (x + 9)2 (x + 9)3
(e) Trig Substitution
If you see Substitute Uses the following Identity
√
a2 − x2 x = a sin(θ) 1 − sin2 (θ) = cos2 (θ)
√
a2 + x2 x = a tan(θ) 1 + tan2 (θ) = sec2 (θ)
√
x2 − a2 x = a sec(θ) sec2 (θ) − 1 = tan2 (θ)
x3
Z
Example: √ dx Let x = 4 sin θ, dx = 4 cos θ dθ. So x3 = 64 sin3 θ
16 − x2

x3 64 sin3 θ 64 sin3 θ · 4 cos θdθ

Z Z Z Z
√ dx = p · 4 cos θ dθ = = sin3 θ dθ
16 − x2 16 − 16 sin2 θ 4 cos θ

Now you have an integral containing powers of trig functions. You can refer to that method to
solve the rest of this integral.
cos3 θ
Z
sin3 dθ = − cos θ + C
3

To get back to x, we need to use a right triangle with the original substitution x = 4 sin x.

√
16 − x2
If cos θ = , then
4
√ 3
16−x2 √
x3 16 − x2
Z
4
√ dx = − +C
16 − x2 3 4

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

10. Improper Integrals

(a) Infinity as a bound

Z ∞ Z t
Z ∞ Z c Z ∞
i. f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx iii. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a t→∞ a −∞ −∞ c
Z b Z b
ii. f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
−∞ t→−∞ t

(b) Discontinuity at a bound

Z b Z b
i. Discont. at a: f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
a t→a+ t
Z b Z t
ii. Discont. at b: f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx
a t→b a
Z b Z c Z b
iii. Discont. at c, a < c < b: f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c

11. Sequences and Series

(a) Sequences: A list of numbers in a definite order, {a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , ...}

i. Sequeeze Theorem If an < bn < cn , for iii. Geometric Sequence

n ≥ N and lim an = lim cn = L, then 
n→∞ n→∞ 
0, if − 1 < r < 1
lim bn = L



n→∞
lim rn = 1, if r = 1
n→∞ 



Diverge, elsewhere

iv. A typical heirarchy of sequences

ii. Useful Theorem
If lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0 C < ln n < np < an < n! < nn
n→∞ n→∞

(b) Series

i. Definition iii. Geometric Series: If −1 < r < 1, then

∞
∞ X a
X
an = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ... arn =
n=0
1−r
n=1
∞
X a
ii. Partial Sums arn−1 =
n=1
1−r
N ∞
X X a
SN = an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + aN arn−k =
1−r
n=1 n=k

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B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

12. Summary of Convergence Tests

Test Theorem Comments

X
Divergence Given the series an , if lim an 6= 0, the series Can only be used to test for divergence. It
n→∞
Test diverges. can never be used to test for convergence.
∞
X 1
P-Test The series p
converges if p > 1. If p ≤ 1, You’re normally using this series as a com-
n=1
n
∞ parison for Direct or Limit Comparison
X 1
then diverges.
n p Tests
n=1
X
Integral Given the series an , if you can write an = f (n) The function f should be easily integrated
Z ∞ X
Test and f (n) dn converges, then so does an . using one of our integration techniques
Z ∞1 X from previous chapters. This test should
If f (n) dn diverges, so does an
1 not be used when an has factorials.
X X
Direct Com- Let an and bn be series such that 0 ≤ an ≤ You need to be able to anticipate the con-
X X X
parison Test bn . If bn converges, so does an . If an vergence. This allows you to choose an ap-
X
diverges, so does bn . propriate comparison. You should know
the convergence of one of the series.
X X
Limit Com- Let an and bn be series where an ≥ 0 and Can be easier than Direct Comparison
an
parison Test bn ≥ 0. If lim = L, where L is a positive Test since getting the required inequali-
n→∞ bn
finite number, then either both series converge or ties to work can be time consuming.
they both diverge.
X
Alternating Given the series (−1)n bn , if bn > 0, decreasing, You have to check for absolute or
Series Test and bn → 0, then the series converges. conditional convergence by testing
X X
|(−1)n bn | = bn .
 
X  an+1 
Ratio Test Let an be a series. Let L = lim   . Use this test when you have exponential
n→∞ an 
If L < 1, the series converges absolutely. functions or factorials.
If L > 1, the series diverges.
If L = 1, the test is inconclusive.
X p
Root Test Let an be a series. Let L = lim n |an |. Use this test when an = (bn )n .
n→∞
If L < 1, the series converges absolutely.
If L > 1, the series diverges.
If L = 1, the test is inconclusive.
X X X
Absolute If the series an converges absolutely, then it If |an | converges, when an is abso-
Conver- converges. lutely convergent.
gence
X X X
Conditional If the series an converges but |an | diverges, You’re usually checking if |an | con-
X X
Conver- then the series an converges conditionally. verges because an converged by AST
gence

14
B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

13. Estimating a Series

X
(a) Remainder Estimate for Integral Test: If an is convergent, f (n) is continuous,
n=1
positive, and decreasing, then Z ∞
RN ≤ f (n) dn
N
X
If you’re asked to estimate an to 4 decimals (or have an error less than 0.0001), then solve
n=1
integrate and solve for N . Z ∞
f (n) dn < 0.0001
N
X X
(b) Alternating Series Estimation Theorem: Given a convergent alternating series an = (−1)n bn ,
n=1 n=1
then
|RN | ≤ bN +1

14. Power Series

(a) A power series centered at 0 the radius of convergence is R = 0.

X This happens when the Ratio Test gives
cn xn = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + ...
n=0 L > 1.
(b) A power series centered at a
ii. The series converges for all x. The in-
X
n 2 3
cn (x−a) = c0 +c1 (x−a)+c2 (x−a) +c3 (x−a) +... terval of convergence is (−∞, ∞) and
n=0
the radius of convergence is R = ∞.
(c) Radius and Interval of Convergence:
This happens when the Ratio Test gives
Perform the Ratio Test or Root Test (usu-
L = 0.
ally Ratio Test) For a given a power series
∞
iii. The series converges on an interval (a −
X
cn (x − a)n , there are only three possibil-
n=1 R, a+R). This happens when the Ratio
ities:
Test gives K|x − a|, where you need to
i. The series converges only when x = a.
solve K|x − a| < 1.
The interval of convergence is {a} and

15. Writing Functions as a Power Series

∞
X
Given f (x) = cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ... with a radius of conver-
n=0
gence R > 0, then
∞
X
f 0 (x) = ncn (x − a)n−1 = 1c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + 4c4 (x − a)3
n=1
∞
cn (x − a)n+1
Z X 1 1 1
f (x) dx = = c0 (x − a) + c1 (x − a)2 + c2 (x − a)3 + c3 (x − a)4 + ...
n=0
n+1 2 3 4

1
You use this technique if you’re asked to find a power series of a function like , ln(1 + x),
(1 + x)2
−1
tan x, etc. Your goal is to differentiate or integrate your function f (x) until it’s in the proper form
A
1−u

15
B Veitch Calculus 2 Study Guide

A and u can be anything. Once it’s in the proper form, you can write it as a power series.

A X
= A · (u)n
1 − u n=0

(a) If you had to integrate to get the proper (b) If you differentiated to get the proper form,
form, then differentiate the power series to then integrate the power series to get back
get back to the original f (x). to the original f (x).

16. Taylor Series / Macluarin Series

(a) Taylor Series is centered at a (b) Maclaurin Series is centered at 0

X X
f (x) = cn (x−a)n = c0 +c1 (x−a)+c2 (x−a)2 +... f (x) = cn (x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + ...
n=0 n=0

f n (a) f n (a)
with cn = with cn =
n! n!

It may helfpul to determine the coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 , ... by using the table

f n (a)
n f n (x) f n (a) cn = n!
f (a)
0 f (x) f (a) c0 = 0!
f 0 (a)
1 f 0 (x) f 0 (a) c1 = 1!
f 00 (a)
2 f 00 (x) f 00 (a) c2 = 2!
000 000 f 000 (a)
3 f (x) f (a) c3 = 3!

(a) If you need to find the Taylor / Maclaurin Series, find a pattern for cn . Then you write the
following series with the appropriate cn
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n
n=0

(b) If you need to find the n-th degree Taylor / Maclaurin Polynomial, then just find the coefficients
you need. For example, a 3rd degree Taylor Polynomial requires the coefficients up to c3 .

f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3

16