AC – Alternating Current

• it is time varying signal

• the movement (or flow) of electric charge periodically reverses
direction.

An electric charge would for instance move forward,

then backward, then forward, then backward, over and
over again

Different types of signals

Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to

businesses and residences. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a
sine wave, however in certain applications, different waveforms are used,
such as triangular or square waves.

Types of Alternating signals

The sine wave is the fundamental type of alternating current (ac) and alternating
voltage. It is also referred to as a sinusoidal wave, or, simply, sinusoid.

Sine waves, or sinusoidals, are produced by two types of sources: rotating electrical
machines (ac generators) or electronic oscillator circuits. The electrical service provided by
the power companies is in the form of sinusoidal voltage and current.

Why sinusoidal?
1. is easy to generate, transmit and distribute
2. is easy to handle mathematically
3. Simplifies the design of electric system

A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
• Sinusoidal varying function can be expressed with either the sine function or
the cosine function
• Sinusoidal function produces both (natural) transient response and a (forced)
steady-state response
The natural response dies out with time so that only the
steady-state response remains after a long time.

 Sinusoidal varying function; Y = Ym sin ωt the waveform is representing three

basic waveforms: the waveform of a n AC voltage, the waveform of an AC
current, & also the waveform of induced flux.
 1
f = Where;
t
t = coefficient of time,period
2π
ω= = 2π f f = frequency, Hz (cycle/sec)
t
ω = 2π f ω = angular freq. of the sine wave, radian/s
θ ⇒ω t
180 0
no . of degree = no . of radian
π

One way to express the intensity or magnitude (amplitude) of an AC waveform

quantity is to measure its peak height (maximum height).

Peak value or Maximum value

Another way is to measure the total height between opposite peaks. This is known
as the peak-to-peak value of an AC waveform
Peak-to-Peak value

A sine wave varies with time (t) in a definable manner. The time required for a
given sine wave to complete one full cycle is called the period (T).

FREQUENCY
Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completes in one
second. Frequency (f) is measured in units of hertz. One hertz (Hz) is equivalent to

one cycle per second .

The relationship between frequency and period is important.

The formulas for this relationship are as follows:

1 1
t = ; f =
f t

There is a reciprocal relationship between frequency and period.

The more cycles completed in one second, the higher the frequency.

Polarity of a Sine Wave

A sine wave changes polarity at its zero value; that is, it alternates
between positive and negative values.
Average value of a Sinusoid

The average value of a sine wave when taken over one complete cycle is always
zero because the positive values (above the zero crossing) offset the negative
values (below the zero crossing).

The average value of a sine wave is defined over a half-cycle rather than over a
full cycle

1 T /2
Yave = ∫ 0 Ym sin ωt dt
T /2

2Ym T /2
=− cos ωt 0
Tw

2Ym
Yave =
π

Root-mean-square (RMS) value of a Sinusoid

 The term RMS stands for root mean square. It refers to the mathematical
process used to derive this value. The RMS value is also referred to as the
effective value. Most AC voltmeters display the rms value of a voltage.

 The RMS value of a sinusoidal voltage is actually a measure of the heating

effect of the sine wave.

 The RMS value of a sinusoidal voltage is equal to the dc voltage that

produces the same amount of heat in a resistance as does the
sinusoidal voltage

1 T 2 2
Y r m =s T ∫0
Y m s in ω t
 Y m2 T
= [t − ( ) ( s 2iωnt ) ]T
2T 2ω 0

Ym
Yrms =
2

Form factor

 In the form factor of an alternating current waveform (signal) is the

ratio of the RMS (root-mean-square) value to the average value
(mathematical mean of absolute values of all points on the waveform).

 In case of a sinusoidal wave form, the form factor is approximately

1.11.

Yrms
Form Factor = = 1.11
Yave

Phase angle difference

General Expression of Sinusoidal: Y = Ym sin( ωt ±φ)

Two waveform with different phases. Comparing two different waveforms
Y1 and Y2.

Waveform Y2 is lagging Y1 by Ф electrical degrees. Or simply, Y2 lags Y1 by Ф

Waveform Y1 is leading Y2 by Ф electrical degrees. Or simply, Y1 leads Y2 by Ф

Respond of the current to the alteration of the source voltage

• When a sinusoidal voltage source (Vs) is applied to a resistive circuit, an alternating

sinusoidal current results.

• During the positive alternation of the source voltage Vs, the current is in the CW
direction.
  When the voltage changes polarity, the current correspondingly changes direction as
indicated.

 During a negative alternation of the source voltage, the current is in the opposite
(CCW) direction.

Elements of AC Circuit
for pure element
V = IR

V
I =
R

di
VL = L
dt
V L dt
iL = ∫
L
 i L dt
VC = ∫
C

dV C
iC = C
dt

Voltage-Current relationship for pure elements

RESISTORTerminal voltage is Vt = Vm sin ωt

Solving for the current, i R

Vm sin ωt
iR =
R

Vm
iR = sin ωt
R

Vm
Where, Im =
R

i R = I m sin ωt

*** The voltage and the current are in phase

INDUCTOR

Terminal voltage across the inductor is Vt =Vm sin ωt

Solving for the current i L

V L dt
iL = ∫ Where,
L

Vm sin ωt dt Vm
iL = ∫ im =
L ωL

Vm cos ωt
iL = −
ωL

Vm sin( ωt − 90 0 )
iL =
ωL
 Vm
iL = sin( ωt − 90 0 )
ωL

i L = im sin( ωt − 90 0 )

*** The current is lagging the voltage by 900

CAPACITOR

Terminal voltage across the capacitor is Vt =Vm sin ωt

solving for the current, iC

dV C
iC = C
dt

dV m sin ωt
iC = C
dt

iC = Cω (Vm cos ωt )

Vm cos ωt
iC =
1
Cω

Vm
iC = sin( ωt + 90 0 )
1
( )
ωC

Vm
im =
Where, 1
( )
ωC

iC = im sin( ωt + 90 0 )

*** The current is leading the voltage by 900

Ohm’s Law in AC Circuit

Resistor load

Vt =Vm sin ωt
 Vm
iR = sin ωt
R

Inductor Load

Vt =Vm sin ωt
Vm
iL = sin( ωt − 90 0 )
ωL

Inductive Reactance, XL ; Ohms

X L = ωL where; ω = 2π f

X L = 2π f L

Capacitor Load

Vt =Vm sin ωt

Vm
iC = sin( ωt + 90 0 )
1
( )
ωC

Capacitive Reactance, XC ; Ohms

1
XC = where; ω = 2π f
ωC

1
XC =
2π f C

Characteristics of Passive Element

What is a resistor?

A resistor is a two-terminal electric component that produces a voltage

across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in
accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits. Practical
resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance
wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,

maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics
include temperature coefficient.

Resistance

The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the

passage of a steady electric current. An object of uniform cross section will
have a resistance proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area, and proportional to the resistivity of the material.
Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.
Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.

L
R=ρ
A
•

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does
not depend on the amount of current through or the amount of voltage
across the object, meaning that the resistance R is constant for the given
temperature and material.

AC resistance

If a wire conducts high-frequency alternating current then the effective cross

sectional area of the wire is reduced because of the skin effect. If several
conductors are together, then due to proximity effect, the effective
resistance of each is higher than if that conductor were alone.

The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric

current (AC) to distribute itself within a conductor so that
the current density near the surface of the conductor is
greater than that at its core. That is, the electric current
tends to flow at the "skin" of the conductor. The skin
effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to
increase with the frequency of the current. Skin effect is
due to eddy currents set up by the AC current
What is an Inductor?

An inductor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a

magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An
inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in
units of henries. Typically an inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil,
the loops helping to create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due to
Faraday's law of induction. Inductors are one of the basic electronic
components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time,
due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.

Inductance (L) (measured in henries) is an effect resulting from the magnetic

field that forms around a current-carrying conductor that tends to resist
changes in the current. Electric current through the conductor creates a
magnetic flux proportional to the current.

A change in this current creates a change in magnetic flux that, in turn, by

Faraday's law generates an electromotive force (EMF) that acts to oppose
this change in current. Inductance is a measure of the amount of EMF
generated per unit change in current.

For example, an inductor with an inductance of 1 henry

produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the
inductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. The
number of loops, the size of each loop, and the material it is
wrapped around all affect the inductance.

Ideal and real inductors

An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance, and does not dissipate
or radiate energy. A real inductor may be partially modeled by a combination
of inductance, resistance (due to the resistivity of the wire and losses in core
material).

Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit where a change in the

electric current through that circuit induces an electromotive force (EMF)
that opposes the change in current.

In honor of Joseph Henry, the unit of inductance has been given the name
Henry (H):
What is a capacitor?

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electric component consisting of a

pair of conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential
difference exists between the conductors, an electric field is present in the
dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between
the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,

which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The
conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference,
to smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They
are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select
particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

In electromagnetism and electronics, capacitance is the ability of a body to

hold an electrical charge. Capacitance is also a measure of the amount of
electric charge stored (or separated) for a given electric potential. A common
form of charge storage device is a parallel-plate capacitor. In a parallel plate
capacitor capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the
conductor plates and inversely proportional to the separation distance
between the plates. If the charges on the plates are +Q and −Q, and V gives
the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance is given by

The SI unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad = 1 coulomb per volt.

The energy (measured in joules) stored in a capacitor is equal to the work

done to charge it. Consider a capacitance C, holding a charge +q on one
plate and -q on the other. Moving a small element of charge dq from one
plate to the other against the potential difference V = q/C requires the work
dW:
where W is the work measured in joules, q is the charge measured in
coulombs and C is the capacitance, measured in farads.

We can find the energy stored in a capacitance by integrating this equation.

Starting with an uncharged capacitance (q=0) and moving charge from one
plate to the other until the plates have charge +Q and -Q requires the work
W:

What is an Impedance?

Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of

opposition to electron flow, including both resistance and reactance. It is
present in all circuits, and in all components. When alternating current goes
through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is somewhere
between 0o and 90o out of phase with the current. Impedance is
mathematically symbolized by the letter “Z” and is measured in the unit of
ohms (Ω), in complex form.

Perfect resistors (Figure below) possess resistance, but not reactance.

Perfect inductors and perfect capacitors (Figure below) possess reactance
but no resistance. All components possess impedance, and because of this
universal quality, it makes sense to translate all component values
(resistance, inductance, capacitance) into common terms of impedance as
the first step in analyzing an AC circuit.

Perfect resistor, inductor, and capacitor.

The impedance phase angle for any component is the phase shift between
voltage across that component and current through that component. For a
perfect resistor, the voltage drop and current are always in phase with each
other, and so the impedance angle of a resistor is said to be 0 o. For an
perfect inductor, voltage drop always leads current by 90o, and so an
inductor's impedance phase angle is said to be +90o. For a perfect capacitor,
voltage drop always lags current by 90o, and so a capacitor's impedance
phase angle is said to be -90o.

Power in AC circuit
Power dissipation in a resistor

Instantaneous AC power in a pure resistive circuit is always positive.

Note that the power is never a negative value. When the current is positive
(above the line), the voltage is also positive, resulting in a power (p=ie) of a
positive value. Conversely, when the current is negative (below the line), the
voltage is also negative, which results in a positive value for power (a
negative number multiplied by a negative number equals a positive
number).

This consistent “polarity” of power tells us that the resistor is always

dissipating power, taking it from the source and releasing it in the form of
heat energy. Whether the current is positive or negative, a resistor still
dissipates energy.

Power in an inductor
Note: Current lags voltage by 90o in a pure inductive circuit.

In a pure inductive circuit, instantaneous power may be positive or negative

Because instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous voltage

and the instantaneous current (p=ie), the power equals zero whenever the
instantaneous current or voltage is zero. Whenever the instantaneous
current and voltage are both positive (above the line), the power is positive.
Because the current and voltage waves are 90o out of phase, there are times
when one is positive while the other is negative, resulting in equally frequent
occurrences of negative instantaneous power.

But what does negative power mean? It means that the inductor is releasing
power back to the circuit, while a positive power means that it is absorbing
power from the circuit. Since the positive and negative power cycles are
equal in magnitude and duration over time, the inductor releases just as
much power back to the circuit as it absorbs over the span of a complete
cycle. What this means in a practical sense is that the reactance of an
inductor dissipates a net energy of zero, quite unlike the resistance of a
resistor, which dissipates energy in the form of heat. Mind you, this is for
perfect inductors only, which have no wire resistance.
Power in a capacitor
Note: Voltage lags current by 90o in a pure capacitive circuit.

In a pure capacitive circuit, the instantaneous power may be positive or

negative.

As with the simple inductor circuit, the 90 degree phase shift between
voltage and current results in a power wave that alternates equally between
positive and negative. This means that a capacitor does not dissipate power
as it reacts against changes in voltage; it merely absorbs and releases
power, alternately.