INTRODUCTION

A stirling engine is a heat engine that operates by cyclic compression and expansion of air
or other gas (the working fluid) at different temperatures, such that there is a net
conversion of heat energy to mechanical work, more specifically, the stirling engine is a
closed-cycle regenerative heat engine with a permanently gaseous working fluid. Closed-
cycle, in this context, means a thermodynamic system in which the working fluid is
permanently contained within the system, and regenerative describes the use of a specific
type of internal heat exchanger and thermal store, known as the regenerator. Strictly
speaking, the inclusion of the regenerator is what differentiates a stirling engine from other
closed cycle hot air engines.
Robert stirling is considered as one of the fathers of hot air engines, notwithstanding some
earlier predecessors, notably amontons, who succeeded in building, in 1699, the first
working hot air engine.
He has been later followed by cayley. this engine type was of those in which the fire is
enclosed, and fed by air pumped in beneath the grate in sufficient quantity to maintain
combustion, while by far the largest portion of the air enters above the fire, to be heated
and expanded; the whole, together with the products of combustion, then acts on the
piston, and passes through the working cylinder; and the operation being one of simple
mixture only, no heating surface of metal is required, the air to be heated being brought
into immediate contact with the fire.
Stirling came up with a first air engine in 1816. the principle of the stirling air engine
differs from that of sir george cayley (1807), in which the air is forced through the furnace
and exhausted, whereas in stirling’s engine the air works in a closed circuit. It was to it
that the inventor devoted most of his attention. A two horse-power engine, built in 1818
for pumping water at an ayrshire quarry, continued to work for some time, until a careless
attendant allowed the heater to become overheated. This experiment proved to the
inventor that, owing to the low working pressure obtainable, the engine could only be
adapted to small powers for which there was at that time no demand.
The stirling 1816 patent was also about an "economiser", is the predecessor of the
regenerator. In this patent (# 4081) he describes the "economiser" technology and several
applications where such technology can be used. Out of them came a new arrangement
for a hot air engine. In 1818, one engine was built to pump water from a quarry in ayrshire,
but due to technical issues, the engine was abandoned for a time.
Stirling patented a second hot air engine, together with his brother james, in 1827. They
inverted the design so that the hot ends of the displacers were underneath the machinery
and they added a compressed air pump so the air within could be increased in pressure to
around 20 atmospheres.
The two stirling brothers were followed shortly after (1828) by parkinson & crossley[11]
and arnott in 1829.
These precursors, to whom ericsson should be added, have brought to the world the hot
air engine technology and its enormous advantages over the steam engine. Each of them
came with his own specific technology, and although the stirling engine and the parkinson
& crossley engines were quite similar, robert stirling distinguished himself by inventing
the regenerator.
Parkinson and crosley introduced the principle of using air of greater density than that of
the atmosphere, and so obtained an engine of greater power in the same compass. James
stirling followed this same idea when he built the famous dundee engine.
The stirling patent of 1827 was the base of the stirling third patent of 1840. the changes
from the 1827 patent were minor but essential, and this third patent led to the dundee
engine.
James stirling presented his engine to the institution of civil engineers in 1845. the first
engine of this kind which, after various modifications, was efficiently constructed and
heated, had a cylinder of 12 inches (approx. 30 cm) in diameter, with a length of stroke of
2 feet (approx. 61 cm), and made 40 strokes or revolutions in a minute (40 rpm). This
engine moved all the machinery at the dundee foundry company's works for eight or ten
months, and was previously found capable of raising 700,000 lbs one foot in a minute
(approx. 21 hp).
Finding this power insufficient for their works, the dundee foundry company erected the
second engine, with a cylinder of 16 inches (approx. 40 cm) in diameter, a stroke of 4 feet
(approx. 1.20 m), and making 28 strokes in a minute. This engine has now been in
continual operation for upwards of two years, and has not only performed the work of the
foundry in the most satisfactory manner, but has been tested (by a friction brake on a third
mover) to the extent of lifting nearly 1,500,000 lbs (approx. 45 hp).
This gives a consumption of 2.7 lbs. (approx. 1.22 kg) per horse-power per hour; but when
the engine was not fully burdened, the consumption was considerably under 2.5 lbs.
(approx. 1.13 kg) per horse-power per hour. This performance was at the level of the best
steam engines whose efficiency was about 10%. After james stirling, such efficiency was
possible only thanks to the use of the economiser (or regenerator).
Originally conceived in 1816 as an industrial prime mover to rival the steam engine, its
practical use was largely confined to low-power domestic applications for over a century.
1.1 Thermodynamic cycle

Thermodynamics

HEAT FLOW: FIGURE: 1

A thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of thermodynamic processes transferring
heat and work, while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually
returning a system to its initial state. In the process of going through this cycle, the system
may perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a heat engine.
State quantities depend only on the thermodynamic state, and cumulative variation of such
properties adds up to zero during a cycle. Process quantities (or path quantities), such as
heat and work are process dependent, and cumulative heat and work are non-zero. The
first law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net work output
over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous operation,
making the cycle an important concept in thermodynamics. Thermodynamic cycles often
use quasistatic processes to model the workings of actual devices.

Heat and work

Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are power cycles and heat pump cycles.
Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into a mechanical work output,
while heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using mechanical
work input. Cycles composed entirely of quasistatic processes can operate as power or
heat pump cycles by controlling the process direction. On a pressure volume diagram or
temperature entropy diagram, the clockwise and counterclockwise directions indicate
power and heat pump cycles, respectively.

RELATIONSHIP TO WORK

Example of P-V diagram of a thermodynamic cycle

Thermodynamic cycles may be used to model real devices and systems, typically by
making a series of assumptions. Simplifying assumptions are often necessary to reduce
the problem to a more manageable form. For example, as shown in the figure, devices
such a gas turbine or jet engine can be modelled as a Brayton cycle. The actual device is
made up of a series of stages, each of which is itself modelled as an idealized
thermodynamic process. Although each stage which acts on the working fluid is a complex
real device, they may be modelled as idealized processes which approximate their real
behavior. A further assumption is that the exhaust gases would be passed back through
the inlet with a corresponding loss of heat, thus completing the idealized cycle.
The difference between an idealized cycle and actual performance may be significant. For
example, the following images illustrate the differences in work output predicted by an
ideal Stirling cycle and the actual performance of a Stirling engine
HISTORY:
The Stirling engine were invented in 1816 by Robert Stirling in Scotland, some 80 years
before the invention of diesel engine, and enjoyed substantial commercial success up to
the early 1900s. A Stirling cycle machine is a device, which operates on a closed
regenerative thermodynamic cycle, with cyclic compression and expansion of the working
fluid at different temperature levels. The flow is controlled by volume changes so that
there is a net conversion of heat to work or vice versa. The Stirling engines are frequently
called by other names, including hot-air or hot-gas engines, or one of a number of
designations reserved for particular engine arrangement. In the beginning of 19th century,
due to the rapid development of internal combustion engines and electrical machine,
further development of Stirling engines was severely hampered.

FIGURE: 6 Sketch of Robert Stirling of his invent

 LITERATURE REVIEW

The Stirling Engine is one of the hot air engines. It was invented by Robert Stirling (1790-
1878) and his brother James. At this period, he found the steam engines are dangerous for
the workers. He decided to improve the design of an existing air engine. He hope it wound
be safer alternative. After one year, he invented a regenerator. He called the “Economizer”
and the engine improves the efficiency. This is the earliest Stirling Engine. It is put out
100 W to 4 kW. The Ericsson invented the solar Energy in 1864 and did some
improvements for after several years. Robert’s brother, James Stirling, also played an
important role in the development of Stirling engines.

FIGURE: 7 Earliest Stirling engine

The original patent by Reverend Stirling was called the "economizer", for its Improvement
of fuel-economy. The patent also mentioned the possibility of using the device in an
engine. Several patents were later determined by two brothers for different configurations
including pressurized versions of the engine. This component is now commonly known
as the "regenerator" and is essential in all high-power Stirling devices. During the early
part of the twentieth century the role of the Stirling engine as a "domestic motor" was
gradually usurped by the electric motor and small Internal combustion engines until by
the late 1930s it was largely forgotten, only produced for toys and a few small ventilating
fans. At this time Philips was seeking to expand sales of its radios into areas where mains
electricity was unavailable and the supply of batteries uncertain. Philips’Management
decided that offering a low-power portable generator would facilitate such sales and
tasked a group of engineers at the company research lab (the Nat. Lab) in Eindhoven to
evaluate the situation. After a systematic comparison of various prime movers the Stirling
engine was considered to have real possibilities as it was among other things, inherently
quiet (both audibly and in terms of radio interference) and capable of running from any
heat source (common lamp oil was favored). They were also aware that, unlike steam and
internal combustion engines, virtually no serious development work had been carried out
on the Stirling engine for many years and felt that with the application of modern materials
and know-how great improvements should be possible.

PRESENTATION OF STIRLING ENGINES

The Stirling engine cycle is a closed cycle and it contains, most commonly a fixed mass
of gas called the "working fluid" (air, hydrogen or helium). The principle is that of thermal
expansion and contraction of this fluid due to a temperature differential.
So the ideal Stirling cycle consists of four thermodynamic distinct processes acting on the
working fluid: two constant-temperature processes and two constant volume processes.
Each one of which can be separately analyzed:

Stirling thermodynamic cycle: FIGURE:8

Process Involved In Stirling Cycle:

 1-2: isothermal compression process. Work W1-2 is done on the working fluid,
while an equal amount of heat Q1-2 is rejected by the system to the cooling
source. The working fluid cools and contracts at constant temperature TC.
 2-3: constant volume displacement process with heat addition. Heat Q 2-3 is
absorbed by the working fluid and temperature is raised from TC to TH. No
work is done.
 3-4: isothermal expansion process. Work W3-4 is done by the working fluid,
while an equal amount of heat Q3-4 is added to the system from the heating
source. The working fluid heats and expands at constant temperature TH.
 4-1: constant volume displacement process with heat rejection. Heat Q4-1 is
rejected by the working fluid and temperature decrease from TC to TH. No work
is done.

ANALYSIS OF THE STIRLING-CYCLE ENGINE

Work done by an ideal Stirling-cycle engine

The net work output of a Stirling-cycle engine can be evaluated by considering the cyclic
integral of pressure with respect to volume:

W=-∮ 𝑝. 𝑑𝑉

This can be easily visualized as the area enclosed by the process curves on the pressure-
volume. To evaluate the integral we need only consider the work done during the
isothermal expansion and compression processes, since there is no work done during the
isochoric processes, i.e.

𝑉2 𝑉4
W=-[ ∫𝑉1 𝑝. 𝑑𝑉 +∫𝑉3 𝑝. 𝑑𝑉] (4.1)
By considering the equation of state:
pV =mRT

and noting that T is constant for an isothermal process, and m is constant for a closed
cycle, then an expression for work done during an isothermal process can be formulated:

𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑉𝐵
∫𝑉𝐴 𝑝. 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑉𝐴 𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝐴
(4.2)

so that by substitution of Equation 4.2 into Equation 4.1,we can evaluate the work
integral:

𝑉2 𝑉4
𝑊 = −[𝑚𝑅(𝑇𝐻)𝑙𝑛 ( ) + 𝑚𝑅(𝑇𝐿)𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉1 𝑉3

Where the subscripts H and L denote the high and low temperature isotherms
respectively.
This equation can then be further simplified by noting that V4 = V1 and V3 = V2 so that
a final equation for work can be obtained:

𝑉2
𝑊 = −𝑚𝑅𝑙𝑛( 𝑉1 )(TH -TL) (4.3)

The work done represents energy out of the system, and so has a negative value
according to the sign convention used here.
Inspection of Equation 4.3, therefore, shows that the work output for a Stirling-cycle
machine can be increased by maximizing the temperature difference between hot and cold
ends (TH-TL), the compression ratio (V2/V1), the gas mass (and hence either the total
volume of the machine and/or the mean operating pressure), or the specific gas constant.
Material strength/temperature considerations and practicalities such as the overall size of
the machine usually limit the amount that the temperature, volume, or pressure can be
increased.
However, it is interesting to note that the specific work output (i.e. work output per
kilogram) can be dramatically enhanced in a Stirling-cycle machine simply by selecting a
working gas with a high specific gas constant.
One of the reasons that hydrogen and helium are so often used as the working gas in
large Stirling-cycle machines can be deduced by inspection of the values for specific gas
constants given in Table 4.1. (another reason is the lower flow losses that occur with
smaller molecule gases).
Table: Specific gas constants for a variety of gases at 300 K

Gas Specific gas constant,

R (J/kgK)

Air 319.3
Ammonia 488.2
Carbon dioxide 188.9
Helium 2077.0
Hydrogen 4124.2
Nitrogen 296.8
Propane 188.6
Steam 461.5

Specific gas constants: TABLE: 2

2.2.2 Heat flow in an ideal Stirling-cycle engine

The heat flowing into and out of a Stirling-cycle engine can be evaluated by considering
the integral of temperature with respect to entropy:

𝑄 = ∫ 𝑇 𝑑𝑆

Since the isochoric heat transfers within the regenerator are completely internal to the
cycle, i.e. -Q2-3 = Q4-1, then to evaluate the heat flows into and out of the system we need
only consider the isothermal processes.
For the isothermal expansion process in a closed cycle (where T and m are constant, and
where the subscripts H and L denote the high and low temperature isotherms respectively):

S2
QH= ∫S1 T H dS

This integral can be most easily evaluated by considering the First Law of
Thermodynamics in the form:
U2 V2
QH=∫U1 𝑑𝑈 + ∫V1 𝑝. 𝑑𝑉

and by considering the equation of state:

pV=mRT n be expressed in terms of volume and temperature, and (noting that there is no
change in internal energy during an isothermal process) the integral can be easily solved:

U2 V2 𝑚𝑅 V2 𝑚𝑅
QH=∫U1 𝑑𝑈 + ∫V1 T H dV = 0 + ∫V1 T H dV
V V

giving:
𝑉2
QH = mRTH ln (𝑉1) (4.4)

which is a somewhat convoluted (but hopefully instructive) method of derivation. The

same expression can, of course, be obtained much more easily by simple inspection of
Equation 4.3., since the heat and work transfers for an isothermal expansion process are
equal but opposite.
The isothermal compression process can also be readily evaluated (noting that V4 = V1 and
V3 = V2, and where the subscripts H and L denote the high and low temperature isotherms
respectively), giving:
2.2.4 Actual Stirling Engine

Actual Stirling Engine: FIGURE: 9

In real life, it is not possible to have isothermal and isochoric process because they are
instantaneous. In stirling cycle heat addition and rejection is assumed to be instantaneous
which is not possible and because of some internal losses in friction and other the actual
graph is oval shape.

ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS
Mechanical configurations of Stirling engines are classified into three important distinct
types: Alpha, Beta and Gamma arrangements.
These engines also feature a regenerator (invented by Robert Stirling). The regenerator is
constructed by a material that conducts readily heat and has a high surface area (a mesh
of closely spaced thin metal plates for example).
When hot gas is transferred to the cool cylinder, it is first driven through the
Regenerator, where a portion of the heat is deposited. When the cool gas is transferred
back, this heat is reclaimed. Thus the regenerator “pre heats” and “pre cools” the working
gas, and so improve the efficiency.
But many engines have no apparent regenerator like beta and gamma engines
configurations with a “loose fitting” displacer, the surfaces of the displacer and its cylinder
will cyclically exchange heat with the working fluid providing some regenerative effect.

Alpha Stirling :
Alpha engines have two separate power pistons in separate cylinders which are connected
in series by a heater, a regenerator and a cooler. One is a “hot” piston and the other one a
“cold piston”.

Alpha Stirling:
The hot piston cylinder is situated inside the high temperature heat exchanger and the cold
piston cylinder is situated inside the low temperature heat exchanger. The generator is
illustrated by the chamber containing the hatch lines.

Alpha type Stirling.

Expansion: At this point, the most of the gas Transfer: At this point, the gas has
in the system is at the hot piston and expands, expanded. Most of the gas is still in
pushing the hot piston down, and flowing the
through the pipe into the cold cylinder, Hot cylinder. As the crankshaft
pushing it down as well. continues to turn the next 90°,
transferring the bulk of the gas to the
cold piston cylinder. As it does so, it
pushes most of the fluid through the
heat exchanger and into the cold
piston cylinder

Contraction: Now the majority of the
expanded gas is shifted to the cool
piston cylinder. It cools and contracts,
drawing both pistons up.
Transfer: The fluid is cooled and now crankshaft
turns another 90°. The gas is therefore pumped
back, through the heat exchanger, into the hot
piston cylinder. Once in this, it is heated and we
go back to the first step.
This type of engine has a very high power-to-volume ratio but has technical problems due
to the usually high temperature of the "hot" piston and its seals.

Beta Stirling
The Beta configuration is the classic Stirling engine configuration and has Enjoyed
popularity from its inception until today. Stirling's original engine from his patent drawing
of 1816 shows a Beta arrangement.
Both Beta and Gamma engines use displacer-piston arrangements. The Beta engine has
both the displacer and the piston in an in-line cylinder system. The Gamma engine uses
separate cylinders.
The purpose of the single power piston and displacer is to “displace” the working gas at
constant volume, and shuttle it between the expansion and the compression spaces through
the series arrangement cooler, regenerator, and heater.
A beta Stirling has a single power piston arranged within the same cylinder on the same
shaft as a displacer piston. The displacer piston is a loose fit and does not extract any
power from the expanding gas but only serves to shuttle the working gas from the hot heat
exchanger to the cold heat exchanger.

Beta Stirling
Expansion: At this point, most of the
gas in the system is at the heated end
of the cylinder. The gas heats and
expands driving the power piston
outward.
Contraction: Now the majority of the
expanded gas has been shifted to the
cool end. It contracts and the displacer is
almost at the bottom of its cycle.
Transfer: At this point, the gas has expanded.
Most of the gas is still located in the hot end of the
cylinder. Flywheel momentum carries the
crankshaft the next quarter turn. As the crank goes
round, the bulk of the gas is transferred around the
displacer to the cool end of the cylinder, driving
more fluid into the cooled end of the cylinder.
Transfer: The contracted gas is still located
near the cool end of the cylinder. Flywheel
momentum carries the crank another quarter
turn, moving the displacer and transferring
the bulk of the gas back to the hot end of the
cylinder. And at this point, the cycle repeats.
Gamma Stirling
A gamma Stirling is simply a beta Stirling in which the power piston is mounted in a
separate cylinder alongside the displacer piston cylinder, but is still connected to the same
flywheel. The gas in the two cylinders can flow freely between them and remains a single
body. This configuration produces a lower compression ratio but is mechanically simpler
and often used in multi-cylinder Stirling engines. Gamma type engines have a displacer
and power piston, similar to Beta machines, but in different cylinders. This allows a
convenient complete separation between the heat exchangers associated with the displacer
cylinder and the compression and expansion work space associated with the piston.

Gamma engine’s configuration

Furthermore during the expansion process some of the expansion must take place in the
compression space leading to a reduction of specific power. Gamma engines are therefore
used when the advantages of having separate cylinders outweigh the specific power
disadvantage.
The advantage of this design is that it is mechanically simpler because of the convenience
of two cylinders in which only the piston has to be sealed. The disadvantage is the lower
compression ratio but the gamma configuration is the favorite for modelers and hobbyists.

TECHNICAL COMPLEXITY OF TOPIC

The Stirling cycle is a highly advanced subject that has defied analysis by many experts
for over 190 years. Highly advanced thermodynamics are required to describe the cycle.
Professor Israel Urieli writes: "...the various 'ideal' cycles (such as the Schmidt cycle) are
neither physically realizable nor representative of the Stirling cycle" [
The analytical problem of the regenerator (the central heat exchanger in the Stirling cycle)
is judged by Jakob to rank 'among the most difficult and involved that are encountered in
engineering '.
Piston motion variations

A model of a four-phase Stirling cycle

DESIGN AND DRAWING

MATERIAL LENGTH DIAMETER THICKNESS

(mm) (mm) (mm)

CYLINDER 1 TIN 200 80 1

2 TIN 105 50 1

PISTON 1 HARD FIBRE 25 78 3

(HOLLOW) 2 HARD FIBRE 15 48 1

LINK 1 ALUMINIUM 250 3 SOLID

2 ALUMINIUM 300 3 SOLID

 3 ALUMINIUM 270 3 SOLID

4 WOOD 300 25* 8

BEARING STAINLESS 6000z

STEEL

MATERIAL CRANK RADUIS 1

CRANKSHAFT
(mm)

PLASTIC 22

(Note: * Represents rectangular section width)

DESIGN: TABLE: 3

Clearance volume, V1= (D1)2 L1 = 1.231 x 10(-5) m3

V2 = D2 L2

=2.155 x 10(-5) m3
Heat given (through wax i.e. candle) = m x C.V.

= x V x C.V.
=0.93(g/cm3) x 3.53(m3) x 10(-5) x 106 x 7.8(kJ/g)
=253.8 kJ

Work done , TH -TL)

Assuming TH = 120 0C (Temperature of hot air)

TL = 40 0C (Temperature of cold air)
W = 5.358 x m kJ

Hence, efficiency, = = 0.328=32.8 %( on assumed conditions)

 PRO-ENGINEEER DESIGN & SPECIFICATION
Components Used Stirling Engine.
1. Piston
2. Piston Cylinder
3. Fly Wheel
4. Connecting Rod
5. Cam Shaft

Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors
and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that
is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is
to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or
connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the
crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder.
In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the
cylinder.

An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the expanding combustion
gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts
downwards through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is
attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted
within the piston: unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead (except big
two stroke engines).
The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the
connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both components.
All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the
cylinder wall, usually by circlips.
Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of narrow iron rings,
fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at a point
in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two
types of ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings
have narrow edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many proprietary
and detail design features associated with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing
pistons may be forged instead. Billet pistons are also used in racing engines because they
do not rely on the size and architecture of available forgings, allowing for last-minute design
changes. Although not commonly visible to the naked eye, pistons themselves are designed
with a certain level of ovality and profile taper, meaning they are not perfectly round, and
their diameter is larger near the bottom of the skirt than at the crown.

Piston Cylinder
A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in
which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a
bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before
receiving precision machine work. Cylinders may be sleeved (lined with a harder
metal) or sleeveless (with a wear-resistant coating such as Nikasil). A sleeveless
engine may also be referred to as a "parent-bore engine".

A cylinder's displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its

cross-sectional area (the square of half the bore by pi) by the distance the piston travels
within the cylinder (the stroke). The engine displacement can be calculated by
multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. A piston is
seated inside each cylinder by several metal piston rings [1] fitted around its outside
surface in machined grooves; typically two for compressional sealing and one to seal
the oil. The rings make near contact with the cylinder walls (sleeved or sleeveless),
riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil; essential to keep the engine from seizing and
necessitating a cylinder wall's durable surface.

During the earliest stage of an engine's life, its initial breaking-in or running-in period,
small irregularities in the metals are encouraged to gradually form congruent grooves
by avoiding extreme operating conditions. Later in its life, after mechanical wear has
increased the spacing between the piston and the cylinder (with a consequent decrease
in power output) the cylinders may be machined to a slightly larger diameter to receive
new sleeves (where applicable) and piston rings, a process sometimes known as
reboring.

Fly Wheel

A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational

energy. Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The
amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational
speed. The way to change a flywheel's stored energy is by increasing or decreasing its
rotational speed by applying a torque aligned with its axis of symmetry,

Common uses of a flywheel include:

Smoothing the power output of an energy source. For example, flywheels are used in
reciprocating engines because the active torque from the individual pistons is
intermittent.
Energy storage systems

Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source. This is achieved by
collecting energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that
exceed the abilities of the energy source.

Controlling the orientation of a mechanical system, gyroscope and reaction wheel

Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings; these are
generally limited to a maximum revolution rate of a few thousand RPM. High energy
density flywheels can be made of carbon fiber composites and employ magnetic
bearings, enabling them to revolve at speeds up to 60,000 RPM (1 kHz).

Carbon-composite flywheel batteries have recently been manufactured and are

proving to be viable in real-world tests on mainstream cars. Additionally, their
disposal is more eco-friendly than traditional lithium ion batteries.

Applications

Flywheels are often used to provide continuous power output in systems where the
energy source is not continuous. For example, a flywheel is used to smooth fast
angular velocity fluctuations of the crankshaft in a reciprocating engine. In this case,
a crankshaft flywheel stores energy when torque is exerted on it by a firing piston, and
returns it to the piston to compress a fresh charge of air and fuel. Another example is
the friction motor which powers devices such as toy cars. In unstressed and
inexpensive cases, to save on cost, the bulk of the mass of the flywheel is toward the
rim of the wheel. Pushing the mass away from the axis of rotation heightens rotational
inertia for a given total mass.

Modern automobile engine flywheel

A flywheel may also be used to supply intermittent pulses of energy at power levels
that exceed the abilities of its energy source. This is achieved by accumulating energy
in the flywheel over a period of time, at a rate that is compatible with the energy
source, and then releasing energy at a much higher rate over a relatively short time
when it is needed. For example, flywheels are used in power hammers and riveting
machines.

Flywheels can be used to control direction and oppose unwanted motions, see
gyroscope. Flywheels in this context have a wide range of applications from
gyroscopes for instrumentation to ship stability and satellite stabilization (reaction
wheel), to keep a toy spin spinning (friction motor), to stabilize magnetically levitated
objects (Spin-stabilized magnetic levitation)

Connecting Rod

A connecting rod is a rigid member which connects a piston to a crank or crankshaft

in a reciprocating engine. Together with the crank, it forms a simple mechanism that
converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion.

A connecting rod may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion, its
original use. Earlier mechanisms, such as the chain, could only impart pulling motion.
Being rigid, a connecting rod may transmit either push or pull, allowing the rod to
rotate the crank through both halves of a revolution. In a few two-stroke engines the
connecting rod is only required to push.

Today, the connecting rod is best known through its use in internal combustion piston
engines, such as automobile engines. These are of a distinctly different design from
earlier forms of connecting rod used in steam engines and steam locomotives.

The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon pin or wrist pin, which is currently
most often press fit into the connecting rod but can swivel in the piston, a "floating
wrist pin" design. The big end connects to the crankpin (bearing journal) on the crank
throw, in most engines running on replaceable bearing shells accessible via the
connecting rod bolts which hold the bearing "cap" onto the big end. Typically there is
a pinhole bored through the bearing on the big end of the connecting rod so that
pressurized lubricating motor oil squirts out onto the thrust side of the cylinder wall to
lubricate the travel of the pistons and piston rings. Most small two-stroke engines and
some single cylinder four-stroke engines avoid the need for a pumped lubrication
system by using a rolling-element bearing instead, however this requires the
crankshaft to be pressed apart and then back together in order to replace a connecting
rod. The connecting rod is under tremendous stress from the reciprocating load
represented by the piston, actually stretching and being compressed with every
rotation, and the load increases as the square of the engine speed increase. Failure of
a connecting rod, usually called throwing a rod, is one of the most common causes of
catastrophic engine failure in cars, frequently putting the broken rod through the side
of the crankcase and thereby rendering the engine irreparable; it can result from fatigue
near a physical defect in the rod, lubrication failure in a bearing due to faulty
maintenance, or from failure of the rod bolts from a defect, improper tightening or
over-revving of the engine. In an unmaintained, dirty environment, a water or
chemical emulsifies with the oil that lubricates the bearing and causes the bearing to
fail. Re-use of rod bolts is a common practice as long as the bolts meet manufacturer
specifications. Despite their frequent occurrence on televised competitive automobile
events, such failures are quite rare on production cars during normal daily driving.
This is because production auto parts have a much larger factor of safety, and often
more systematic quality control.

Cam shaft
A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral
part. The camshaft was first described in Turkey (Diyarbakır) by Al-Jazari in 1206.
He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, and water clocks such
as the castle clock. The camshaft later appeared in European mechanisms from the
14th century.

Among the first cars to utilize engines with single overhead camshafts were the
Maudslay designed by Alexander Craig and introduced in 1902 and the Marr Auto
Car designed by Michigan native Walter Lorenzo Marr in 1903.

Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These include:

Chilled iron castings: Commonly used in high volume production, chilled iron
camshafts have good wear resistance since the chilling process hardens them. Other
elements are added to the iron before casting to make the material more suitable for
its application.

Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft or low volume production is required,
engine builders and camshaft manufacturers choose steel billet. This is a much more
time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods.
However, the finished product is far superior. CNC lathes, CNC milling machines,
and CNC camshaft grinders will be used during production. Different types of steel
bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from
EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding, which changes the
micro-structure of the material. It gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types
of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines.
METHODOLOGY
ASSEMBLY AND PROCEDURE
a. Firstly we have designed our stirling engine model on the software Wildfire Pro-
Engineer designing software 5.0; We have calculated our Dimensions requirement
on the software. All the analysis taken on the software taken into consideration for the
fabrication of our project.
b. As per the requirement we have gathered our parts from various places from the
market.Both the cylinders are connected perpendicularly via a small diameter pipe
through welding & M-seal .
c. For the assembly of our project our workshop was the better place for the fabrication
as we get all the facilities at the same place.
d. For the piston cylinder arrangement. We have used Tin Cylinders for vertical position
and PVC Pipe for Horizontal cylinder. For the fabrication of piston for vertical we
buyed solid hard fiber of cylindrical shape.than by using LATHE machine available
in workshop. By the operations turning on that fiber with a small clearance of 2mm.
e. As per cylinder diameter is considered.Reciprocation of piston in the cylinder is quiet
freely. On piston a aluminium link has been attached..(LENGTH AND DIAMETER
SPECIFICATION IN TABLE 3) By cutting the upper portion of cylinder for placing
the horizontal cylinder of varying dia.and upper portion for the air movement.All this
parts were arranged than fixed by M-Seal making the arrangement air tight.
f. Our Fan which is Acting as crank for both the arrangement is fixed on the bearing
which is fixed by us on the wood frame fabricated by us in Carpentry shop. Rest of
the assembly was done by us at our home.
g. Crank and links are connected. Now this whole model is placed on rigid structure
and clamped by strips to make It rigid while working.Hinged support for the
vertical cylinder piston & FAN arrangement is done by cutting a PVC pipe and
providing wood rip between the PVC and Attaching both the arrangement on the
hinged support. than fabricating horizontal piston & connecting rod and attaching it to
the crank.
h. Our model is ready to work by providing Heat BY candle. Than by providing
sufficient heat so that expansion of air takes place by which the reciprocation of piston
takes place easily which will help to rotate our crank easily. Every arrangement in the
 engine is so light weighted so that reciprocating motion can be achieved easily in both
the cylinders.
i. Working: Through the expansion of air inside the cylinders piston moves vertically
upwards and which helps in moving the cold air above the piston to the horizontal
cylinder by reciprocating the piston backwards, the link and the connecting rod
arrangement is done in such a way that the reciprocation of piston in respective
cylinders helps in the rotation of fan by the hinged support.
This process is continuous and thus fan rotates by small amount of heat. and this cycle
is ecofriendly and thus providing pollution free environment.
j. Future Aspects of our project: Continuous rotation of fan can be used for the
generation of electricity ,by providing Dynamo at the shaft of fan .

ADVANTAGES

There are several reasons to use a Stirling Engine:

1. Inside the pistons can be used air, helium, nitrogen or hydrogen and you don’t have to
refill it because it uses always the same body of gas.
2. To produce heat you can use whatever you want: fuel, oil, gas, nuclear power and of
course renewable energies like solar, biomass or geothermal heat.
3. The external combustion process can be designed as a continuous process, so the most
types of emissions can be reduced.
4. If heat comes from a renewable energy source they produce no emissions
5. They run very silent and they don’t need any air supply. That’s why they are used a
lot in submarines. E.g. in the Royal Swedish Navy.
6. They can run for a very long time because the bearings and seals can be placed at the
cool side of the engine → they need less lubricant and they don’t have to be checked
very often ( longer period between the overhauls ).
 DISADVANTAGES

5.1 PROBLEMS AND ITERATION

1. Initially we have made crankshaft using separate flywheel for both cylinders, in which
link-crankshaft assembly functioning is not proper. Hence it is replaced by crankshaft
made by bending the rod.
2. Firstly we have used large links, this increases weight and vibration. Therefore we
have reduced their length.
3. Due to the large clearance between piston and cylinder, it is not able to displace by
hot air. Hence for decreasing clearance small diameter cylinder is used and
reassembling of the model has done.

5.2. CAUSES OF FAILURE

1. Required precision between the crankshaft and link arrangement is not achieved.
High precision equipments are costly.
2. Proper clearance between piston and cylinder is not provided.
3. Weight of the link is more.
4. Improper welding, machining and surface finishing.
ANALYZE FROM ECONOMIC POINT

As said above the Stirling engine is a kind of external combustion engine, and it can use
a variety of fuels. It can be estimated that combustible gases are the best material,
including gasoline, diesel, propane, sunshine and salad oil; even cow dung can be run on
as fuels.
A cup of coffee cannot become a cup of gasoline, but it can be also used as a
Stirling engine driver. There is a famous experiment that a Stirling engine can easily run
on a cup of coffee. The Stirling engine is a kind of piston engine. In the external heating
sealed chamber, the expansion of gases inside the engine promotes the pistons work. After
the expanded gases cooling down in the air –conditioned room, next process is taking on.
As long as a certain value of the temperature difference exists, a Stirling Engine can be
formed.

Stirling Engine working on a cup of coffee

FIGURE: 23
This experiment shows that only a very small power operation can carry out a Stirling
engine, which contributes a lot to energy conservation. This characteristic especially
shows out on economy point. The benefits obtained from the Stirling engine are definitely
far beyond the costs.
So once solar is used to produce energy for the Stirling engine, the cost would surely be
cut down for quite a lot. As long as there is sunshine, the Stirling engine will run on and
on. Of course it costs much to manufacture a Stirling engine, as it requires a high level of
the materials and manufacturing processes.
Some engines cause a lot of pollution, so much is cost for pollution control and
government. On contrast, Stirling engine exhausts cleanly and avoid this type of matter.
Development and utilization of solar will not pollute the environment, as solar is one of
the cleanest energy. While the environmental pollution is becoming more and more
serious today, this characteristic is extremely valuable. It saves the cost for a lot while
making sustainable development.

Nowadays, more and more countries have recognized that a society with sustainable
development should be able to meet the needs of the community without endangering
future generations. Therefore, use clean energy as much as possible instead of the high
carbon content of fossil energy is a principle which should be followed during energy
construction. Vigorously develop new and renewable sources of energy utilization
technology will be an important measure to reduce pollution. Energy problem is a
worldwide one, and it is sooner or later to get into the transition-to-new-energy period.
Because of its sustainability, renewably and efficiency, the Stirling engine is just the very
one being consistent with the requirements of the times.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE STIRLING POWER

7.1. Cars

In the ages of 1970s and 1980s several automobile companies like “General
Motors” or “Ford” were researching about Stirling Engine. This device is good for a
constant power setting, but it is a challenge for the stop and go of the automobile.
A good car can change the power quickly. One possibility to obtain this important
characteristic is design a power control mechanism that will turn up or down the burner.
This is a slow method of changing power levels because is not enough to accelerate
crossing an intersection.

7.2. Submarine

“Kockums”, a Swedish defense contractor, produce Stirling Engines for the Navy making
the quietest submarines in the world.This high-technology is named air-independent
propulsion (AIP). There are
four submarines equipment with Stirling AIP. The models are HMS Näcken, which was
launch in 1978 and after ten years 1988 became the first submarine equipped with AIP
system, by means of a cut and lengthened by an intersection of a Stirling AIP section,
which before the installation is equipped by two Stirling units, liquid oxygen (LOX) tanks
and electrical equipment.

7.3. Nuclear power

Steam turbines of a nuclear plan can be replaced by Stirling engine thus reduce the
radioactive by-products and be more efficient. Steam plants use liquid sodium as coolant
in breeder reactors, water/sodium exchanger are required, which in some cases that
temperature increase so much this coolant could reacts violently with water.
NASA has developed a Stirling Engine known as Stirling Radioisotope (SRG) Generator
designed to generate electricity in for deep space proves in lasting missions. The heat
source is a dry solid nuclear fuel slug and the cold source is space itself. This device
converter produces about four times more electric power from the plutonium fuel than a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator.

7.4. Solar Energy

Placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror a Stirling engine can convert solar
Energy to electricity with efficiency better than non-concentrated photovoltaic cells.

In 2005 It is created a 1 kW Stirling generator with a solar concentrator, this was a herald
of the coming of a revolutionary solar, nowadays It generates electricity much more
efficiently and economically than Photovoltaic (PV) systems whit technology called
concentrated solar power (CPS). Nowadays the company Infina Applications has
development a 3 kW Solar Stirling Product.

By a mirror to focus the sun’s rays on the receiver end of a Stirling engine. The internal
side of the receiver then heats hydrogen gas, which expands.
The pressure created by the expanding gas drives a piston, crank shaft, and drive shaft
assembly much like those found in internal combustion engines but without igniting the
gas. The drive shaft is connected to a small electricity generator.

This solar application is called concentration solar power (CSP) and is significant
potential grid for water pumping or electrification.

7.5. Aircraft engines

Stirling engines may hold theoretical promise as aircraft engines, if high power density
and low cost can be achieved. They are quieter, less polluting, gain efficiency with altitude
due to lower ambient temperatures, are more reliable due to fewer parts and the absence
of an ignition system, produce much less vibration (airframes last longer) and safer, less
explosive fuels may be used.
 CONCLUSION

Our Stirling engine model has a good point that they can be constructed in a way that they
produce no emissions. That means, in combination with solar or geothermal heat, they can
be used as a renewable energy source to produce electricity by means of dynamo.

The real renewable energy is the solar application for this device because the
other ways to produce the heat source are burning something. It is possible to decrease the
emissions of CO2 or other toxic gases but not eliminate completely this problem for the
earth and therefore for humans. This application could be one of the different ways to
solve the problem of greenhouse gas emissions and to continue and also to develop our
comfort. No high-tech materials are needed.

Future Aspects of our project: Continuous rotation of fan can be used for the generation
of electricity ,by providing Dynamo at the shaft of fan .

8. REFERENCE

http://www.kockums.se/News/photostock/photo.html
http://www.moteurstirling.com/alpha.htm
www.stirlingenergy.com/solar_overview.htm
www.stirlingenergy.com/images.asp?Type=solar