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Computer Fundamentals

Hardware
Software
Networking
What are Computers and Networks?

Definitions
• (Collins English Dictionary): 'A device, usually electronic, that
processes data according to a set of instructions'
• (Que’s Computer Users Dictionary): 'A machine capable of
following instructions to alter data in a desirable way and to
perform at least some of these operations without human
intervention'.
• (Microsoft Press Computer Dictionary, 3rd Ed.: 'Any machine
that does three things: accepts structured input, processes it
according to prescribed rules, and produces the results as output'.

Basically, a computer is:


• An electronic device
• Operates under the control of instruction stored in its own
memory unit
• Can accept data (input)
• Processes data arithmetically and logically
• Produces results (output)
• Can store the results for future use
Types of Computer Systems

Computers can be "classified" on the basis of:

1. Type of data
2. Use
3. Size and complexity
4. Function
Types of Computer Systems
(Based on the type of data)

1. Digital Computers - store data in discrete units and perform


arithmetical and logical operations at very high speed
2. Analog Computers - have no memory and are slower; have
continuous rather than discrete input; widely used in laboratory
equipment to monitor ongoing, continuous changes and
record/graph these.
Types of Computer Systems
(Based on their use)

1. General Purpose
o Perform a wide variety of processing tasks
o These are the most common

2. Dedicated or Special Purpose


o Fundamentally the same as a general purpose
o Programmed for a specific purpose
o Advent of cheap microprocessors has lead to massive
growth in usage/market penetration
o Used in a variety of consumer products, microwaves,
telephones, washing machines, etc.
Types of Computer Systems
(Based on size and complexity)

1. Mainframes These categories are almost


out-of-date because of the
2. Minicomputers wide scale introduction of
3. Microcomputers computer networks and
powerful PCs.
4. Personal Digital Assistants
Mainframes

• A multi-user computer designed to meet the computing needs of a


large organization
• Originally the term referred to the metal cabinet housing the CPU
• Generally refers to computers of the 1950s and 1960s
• Large number of dumb terminals were used for input/output and
it had a large number of peripherals attached
• Can process a number of applications concurrently. This is known
as multi-processing which aims to keep the CPU as busy as
possible
• Usually housed in special rooms.
Minicomputers

• Scaled down mainframe


• Designed to meet the computing needs of a department or small
company. Typically 4-100 concurrent users.
• Usually run without a special environment
• Can support a number of concurrent applications and often uses a
time-sharing operation system that aims to keep the users busy.
Microcomputer

• Based on a single silicon chip (IC or microprocessor)


• Appeared mid-to-late 70s. (E.g. Apple II, TRS-80, Sinclair
Spectrum, Commodore PET, etc.)
• 'Multi-media' systems now available
o Enable the integration of sound, video, graphics, as well as
text into software
o At present the incorporation of a sound card, speakers,
microphone, and CD-ROM drive defines a multi-media PC
• Portable versions now available.
o Basically, the same except for the Video Display Unit.
o Peripherals connected via PCMCIA/PC Card are now
popular

Notes:
• Since mid 80s the distinction between micro and mini has become
blurred
• Now microcomputers (PCs and Workstations) are more powerful
than older mainframes (see below)
Personal Digital Assistants

• PDAs are portable computers taken further


• Pocket sized designed for use on the move
• Use a pen as input (write directly to screen)
• Software 'attempts' to translate handwriting by reference to
stored prototypes
Types of Computer Systems
(Based on function)

1. Centralized Computing systems - Services several users


simultaneously
2. Stand-alone Computers - Have no sharing of resources, e.g. a self-
contained PC
3. Distributed Computing Systems
1. Each user has access to the computing power of the
machine they are on, however certain resources and
peripherals are shared (e.g. file store and printing)
2. Users can usually obtain further computing facilities and
power by connecting to other computers (nodes) on the
network
What is a Network?
• A network is often referred to as a Local Area Network [LAN].
• Can be defined as a computer based communication and data
exchange system;
• Is created by the physical connection between two or more
computers;
• Is capable of supporting computers providing special services.
1. A File Server
• Provides access to files for (all) workstations on the LAN
• Usually is a single, powerful machine with fast huge hard
disk(s)
• Requires a type of Network Filing System (NFS) to operate.
This enables the disks on the file server to appear as though
they are local disks on users workstation. (Often referred to
as ‘mounted’ disks)
2. A Print Server
• A computer dedicated to receiving and temporarily storing
files to be printed. The print server runs special print
spooler software that establishes printer queues and enables
background printing. This enables the print server to
perform other tasks as well as print serving.
3. A Computer Server
• A computer dedicated to performing complex calculation.
4. Other Servers
• A HTTP server provides WWW pages
• A FTP server provides files via File Transfer Protocol (an
asynchronous communication method. Used extensively for
transfer of programs)
Data Representation
Data is either in Digital or Analog form.

• Most Computers work with Digital Data

• Computers store all data as a series of ones and zeros.

• Computers Use the Binary System to represent


numbers and other characters.
Binary Numbers

Binary digits are used to represent information in computers using


magnetic or electrical devices.

Terminology:
• A Bit is short for Binary Digit.

• Bits can either have the value of 1 or 0, which corresponds to true


and false (or ON and OFF).
• 8 bits make a byte.
• 1024 bytes make up a kilobyte (Kb).
• 1024 kilobytes make up a megabyte (Mb).
• All machines have a wordsize
o Wordsize is a fundamental unit of storage, for example 8-
bits, 16-bits 32-bits, etc.
• The size of a word (in bytes) differs between machines. A Pentium
based machine is 32-bit.

(2n -1)

where
n = # of bits
Decimal Number System
(base10)

This is the numbering system that we have grown up with.

To understand the other numbering systems (binary, octal,


hexadecimal) we will start by recalling the 'rules' associated with the
decimal (or base10) system.

With the decimal numbering system, we use a base of 10.

This means that we go up in increments of 10:

1
10
100
1000
etc…..

Example
Consider the following decimal number:

136.25.

What does this actually mean?

This number means:


102 * 1 = 100.0
101 * 3 = 30.0
100 * 6 = 6.0
10-1 * 2 = 0.2
10-2 * 5 = 0.05

total = 136.25
Binary Number System
(base2)
With the binary numbering system, we use a base of 2 instead of a base
of 10.

This means that we go up in increments of 2:

1
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
etc…..

Example:
Consider the binary number

1101.01.

Again in its full form this means:

23 * 1 = 1000.0 (8 in decimal)
22 * 1 = 100.0 (4 in decimal)
21 * 0 = 00.0 (0 in decimal)
20 * 1 = 1.0 (1 in decimal)
2-1 * 0 = 0.0 (0.0 in decimal)
2-2 * 1 = 0.01 (0.25 in decimal)

total = 1101.01 (13.25 in decimal)


The following shows the first integers and their binary equivalents (and
how they are derived):

decimal binary
0 0000 (0 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 0 * 20)
1 0001 (0 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20)
2 0010 (0 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20)
3 0011 (0 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 1 * 20)
4 0100 (0 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 0 * 20)
5 0101 (0 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20)
6 0110 (0 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20)
7 0111 (0 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 1 * 20)
8 1000 (1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 0 * 20)
9 1001 (1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20)
Octal Number System
(base8)
With the octal numbering system, we use a base of 8 instead of a base of
10 or 2.

As it turns out, each octal "digit" will represent a group of 3 bits or


binary digits.

Example:
Consider the binary number

110101010

This 9 bit binary number can be grouped into 3 groups of 3 bits:

110 101 010

6 5 2

This gives us the octal number:

6528

This octal number (and associated binary number) is a representation


of the following decimal number:

42610
Hexadecimal Number System
(base16 or baseH)
Although it is very convenient for computers to use 0 and 1 it is difficult
for humans to readily identify binary numbers.

Hexadecimal (Hex) acts as an interim number system between binary


and ourselves as it is more recognizable yet easy to convert to and from
binary.

With the hexadecimal numbering system, we use a base of 16 instead of


a base of 10, 8, or 2.

As it turns out, each hexadecimal "digit" will represent a group of 4 bits


or binary digits (1 byte can be expressed by two hexadecimal digits).

The Hexadecimal system uses the following "digits"

Hexadecimal Digit Decimal Digit


1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
A 10
B 11
C 12
D 13
E 14
F 15
Example:
Consider the binary number

100101110100

This 12 bit binary number can be grouped into 3 groups of 4 bits:

1001 0111 0100

9 7 4

This gives us the hexadecimal number:

97416 = 974H
A table providing decimal, binary, and hex equivalents for the first 16
integers is:
decimal binary Hex
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F

A few further examples of binary and hexadecimal numbers follow:

0100 1100 0001 1111 = 4C1F16 = 4C1FH


1101 0110 1100 0000 = D6C016 = D6C0H
Hardware
There are 5 Categories of Computer Hardware

These units are all interconnected through various buses.


A bus is a set of wires (a physical path for the signals to travel).
Output Device

Processing
Output Device

Storage Device
Communication
Storage Device Device

Input Device

Input Device Output Device


floppy drive
power supply
CD-ROM

open bay
ports and
connectors open bay
open bay
expansion
board

hard disk

memory
mother expansion
board slots CPU
Terminology of Components "Inside" the Box

Power Supply:
A power supply regulates the supply of electricity to the various
components of the computer.

Motherboard:
The motherboard is the most important part of the system. It acts as the
foundation of your computer and supplies all of the electrical connections
between components.

ROM (Read-Only Memory):


Read-only memory contains the commands your computer needs to get
itself going. The ROM is non-volitile, meaning that the contents of ROM
are retained even when the power is off. The instructions in ROM allow
the comuter to get started when the power is turned on.

CPU (Central Processing Unit):


The CPU is the brain of the computer. The CPU is a chip that actually
processes instructions and carries out commands. Every other part of
your comuter serves the microprocessor so it can do its job.

RAM (Random-Access Memory):


RAM is the working memory of the computer. For instance, when you
run a program, it is loaded from your hard disk into RAM and remains
therre while you use it. You have to save work onto a disk because
whatever is in RAM gets erased when the computer is turned off. RAM
chips are physical components that contain the memory and are grouped in
rows called banks.

Floppy Drives:
Floppy drives allow you to write information to, and read, floppy
diskettes.

Add-on Boards:
Add-on boards, that extend the abilities of your computer. These boards
are inserted into the computer’s expansion slots. The slots allow you to
add boards such as serial and parallel prots, modems, video cards, mice
and fax boards.

Disk Controler:
The disk controller connects the disk drives, floppy or hard, to the CPU.
Without this card, the CPU would not be able to communicate with the
drives, and the computer would have no way to save or retrieve
information.
Processing Unit
The processing unit is made up of the Central Processing Unit and
memory.
1. Central Processing Unit
Has 3 different parts:
a) Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
* Performs arithmetic and logic operations
b) Instruction Control Unit (ICU)
* Coordinates the machine's activities
c) Memory (Registers)
* Special memory cells in the CPU that is used
as temporary holding places.
* Certain registers are assigned special tasks
(e.g. instruction register, storage register,
accumulator etc)

Top View Bottom View

2. Main Memory
* Stores data and program instructions
* each physical storage unit is assigned a unique address
* a location in main memory is accessed by its address
Communication

Main Memory
There are two parts to the main memory - ROM and RAM

ROM (Read only memory)


• Contains BIOS and start-up programs. The BIOS are
instructions to perform many elementary functions such as
telling the computer how to "be a computer" and how to "boot
itself up" or turn itself on.
• ROM memory cannot be altered, and is not cleared when the
power is turned off.
• Very slow compared to RAM memory (see below).

RAM (Random Access memory)


• Control Unit can only directly interact with RAM.
• Temporary storage that serves as the "working" memory of
the computer.
• RAM's memory contents can be changed, and are cleared
when the power is turned off (i.e. it's volatile).
• Very fast memory access.
Computer memory is usually characterized by how much storage they
can hold.

• Each storage location has an address.

• Storage locations can hold instructions or data

• The # of locations and size determines how much information can


be kept in memory.

• Analogous to a post office and the post office boxes.

The amount of computer memory is expressed in units of bytes.


(i.e. 32 MB, 64 MB, 128 MB)

1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes


1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB's
Communication

The Control Unit


• Decodes each program instruction, and then executes it by
sending and/or retrieving data to/from memory locations or
sections of the computer.

Arithmetic Logic Unit


• Circuitry to perform +-*/ on only two numbers, or compare
two numbers.

Registers
• Part of control unit, not memory
• Very high speed storage locations.
• Used only in low level programming.
The Motherboard
All processing unit components are placed on the motherboard and are
connected by something called a bus.
So, how does a Computer's CPU actually do something?
Secondary Storage Units

• Non-volatile (compared to RAM)


• Cheap per MB (compared to RAM/ROM)
• Convenient (compared to filing cabinet)
• Relatively fast (compared to filing cabinet)
• Slow compared to RAM

There are two main classifications of secondary storage units:


1. Direct Access devices:
• Data is located directly according to its address without
reading through the other data.
• Example: magnetic or optical disk drives
• Advantages: fast access to data
• Disadvantages: easy to erase data
More expensive than sequential devices
(see below)

2. Sequential Access devices:


• Data is located by reading from the beginning of the media
until the desired data is located.
• Example: magnetic tape
• Advantages: cheap
• Disadvantages: very SLOOOOWWWW retrieval of data
Types of Sequential Access Storage Units:
• Magnetic Tape
• Cartridge tape

Types of Direct Access Storage Units:


• Floppy Disks
• Hard Disks
• CD-ROM
• Magnetic-Optical drive
• PC Cards
• Smart Cards
Formatting a Disk
All Direct Access Devises have to be "Formatting"
• Defines the tracks and sectors on the surface of the disk.
• Generally erases all data ('cleans' the disk)
• Creates FAT (File Allocation Table) and root directory
structure
• FAT contains information on sectors for each file plus free
sectors

Disk Block
Sector

Tracks

This disk is divided


into 18 sectors.
Magnetic and Cartridge Tape

• Thin plastic ribbon


• Sequential storage
• Support read and write
operation

• Plastic Mylar or Polyester tape covered on one side with a magnetic


coating (iron-oxide) that permits the recording of data
• Data can only be accessed sequentially (compare to disk)
• QIC (Quarter Inch Cartridges) and DAT (Digital Audio Tape forms
are most common now.
• Storage 200MB to 10+GB
• Useful for:
Are now used primarily for backing-up data and archiving
from magnetic disks
Distributing large programs
TAPE ORGANISATION:

• QIC records data in narrow tracks along the length of the tape.
When the end is reached, the tape reverses direction and data is
recorded on the next track in the opposite direction. This is called
longitudinal or serpentine recording.
• DAT drives use helical scan technology to record data across the
width of the tape at a 6-degree angle.
• Older reel-to-reel tape drives record data across the width of the
tape on 9 tracks.
Floppy Disks
• Consists of magnetic "platter" that rotates at speeds of
approximately 360 rpm
• Read and Write heads is in close contact with the surface of the
disk or platter
• Usually very low capacity storage (usually around 1.44 MB)

Shutter

Rigid Plastic Shell

Paper Liner

Metal Hub

Plastic Disk

Magnetic Coating
Hard Disks
• Consists of magnetic "platter" that rotates at speeds of 3600+
rpm
• Read and Write heads 'floats' over the surface of these platters
• Usually high capacity storage (range from 40MB to 10GB+)
Two types:
1. Fixed
• What we think of as hard drives inside the computer box
2. Removable (disk cartridges such as Zip or Jazz disks)
• Zip disks:
o Stores 100 - 250 MB;
o This has become a kind of standard because so
many have been sold.
• JAZZ disks:
o Stores 1 or 2 GB.

Disk Cartridge
Key differences between floppy disks and hard disks:
Floppy disk: Head is in close contact with surface of the disk
Hard disk: Heads "fly" on a film of air a fraction of a mm above
the disk's surface.

If head touches dirt or the disk then you have what is


called a "head crash" which destroys the surface of
disk and disk head.
CD-ROM

• CD-ROM:
o store 650 MB, or 74 minutes of CD quality music (so about
9 MB/minute)
• CD-R (CD-Recordable):
o these can be “burned” once. The media cost about $1 each
for 650 MB, so media cost is negligible.
• CD-RW (CD-Rewrite):
o these can be written over. They cost $10 or so each, and
thus are a lot more costly than plain CD-R.
• DVD:
o store the equivalent of 5-6 CD-ROMs.
Magnetic-Optical drive

• Combines magnetic and optical (laser) technology


• Magnetic field changes polarity of spot.
• Capacity ~ 500 MB - 2.3 GB
PC Cards

• Very small
• Most often used with portable computers
• Can store more than 300 MB of data
Smart Cards
• Credit card-sized devices that contain a microprocessor in the
center left section.
• Microprocessor can store up to 8,000 bytes of information.
• Examples of uses -
o Prepaid telephone card
o Employee time and attendance tracking.
Input Units

Input devices: These are peripheral equipment that allows data and
instructions to be entered into the computer.

Allows the conversion of "human language" into


"computer language"

Two types of Input Device Classifications:

1. Direct
• Machine data input
• Machines make better input devices

2. Non-direct
• Human data entry
• Most often used method

Examples of Direct Entry Input Devices:

o Scanners (OCR - optical character readers)


o Bar code readers
o Microphones/Sound digitizers
o 2D/3D-Digitizers
o Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC's)
o Voice recognition devices
o Virtual Reality headsets and gloves
o Sensors (pressure and/or heating sensors)
o Others????
Examples of non-direct Entry Input Devices:

o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Joystick
o Touch sensitive screens
o Light pens
o Others????
Output Units
Output devices: These are peripheral equipment that allows data from
the computer to be converted to human readable
forms.

Allows the conversion of "computer language" into


"human language"

Two types of Output Device Classifications:


i. Hard Copy
• Printer
• Plotter
• Microfilm
• Film and VHS/video

ii. Soft Copy


• Video Display Units (VDU's or "screens" or
"monitors")
• Voice
• Sound Cards
• Another computer
• Others?????
Types of printers:

Impact printers
Impact a solid image of a character onto an inked ribbon up
against the paper.

i. Daisy wheel, band, chain and drum printers


(Old technology)
ii. Dot Matrix:
Line of solid pins that moves across the page
9 and 24 pin printers
Can print graphics

Non-impact printers
No physical contact between paper and printing device
Dot matrix concept used to form characters
i. Laser

ii. Ink jet

iii. Thermal
Types of Video Display Units (VDU's):

Also called screens, terminals, and monitors.

Types of screens:

Most common screen


cathode ray tube (CRT)

Another screen
liquid crystal display(LCD)
Gas Plasma
Most CRT screens use a technology called raster-scan technology.

The electron gun scans left to right/top to bottom across the


screen grid.
Monochrome
Monitor

Color
Monitor
Communication Units
Communication devices: These are peripheral equipment that
allows data from one computer to be
transferred to another computer.

Allows computers to "talk" to one


another.
Examples:
• Modems
• Network Cards (Ethernet cards)
• Serial Ports
• Parallel Ports
• SCSI Ports

Parallel port: used for the printer, external ZIP drives, scanners,
and cameras. These use a 25-pin connector on the
PC.
Serial port: used for external modems, mice, and connecting
instruments. Most new ports use a 9-pin connector,
but some older ones have a 25-pin connector.
USB: (Universal Serial Bus) a faster and better connection
that lets you changes components on the fly. The
computer should recognize the peripheral and not
require re-booting. The connectors are small
rectangular plugs.
SCSI: (Small Computer System Interface) less common
standard for computers that requires interface cards
that look like large printer connectors.

• Parallel Ports • Serial Ports


– SCSI Port – MIDI Port
Computers can send information in one of two ways:
1. Synchronous
2. Asynchronous
Glossary of Terms
ALU
Arithmetic Logic Unit
CPU
Central Processing Unit
DLL
Dynamic-link Library:
• A feature of the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems and OS/2 that allows
executable routines to be stored separately as files with DLL extensions and to be loaded
only when needed by a program. A dynamic-link library has several advantages. First, it
does not consume any memory until it is used. Second, because a dynamic-link library is
a separate file, a programmer can make corrections or improvements to only that module
without affecting the operation of the calling program or any other dynamic-link library.
Finally, a programmer can use the same dynamic-link library with other programs.
DRAM
Dynamic RAM
EPROM
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Email
Electronic MAIL
FLOPS
Floating Point Operations Per Second
FTP
File Transfer Protocol
GIF
Acronym for Graphics Interchange Format.
• A graphics file format developed by CompuServe and used for transmitting raster images
on the Internet. An image may contain up to 256 colors, including a transparent color.
The size of the file depends on the number of colors actually used. The LZW
compression method is used to reduce the file size still further.

• GIF images are often only 8 bit colour rather than 24 bit bit.

• Can contain hidden information that may be used by special applications.

• Can be animations, i.e. contain several images that are displayed in sequence.
HTTP
HyperText Transfer Protocol
IC
Integrated Circuit
JPEG
Joint Photographic Experts Group
Acronym for Joint Photographic Experts Group. An ISO/ITU standard for storing images in
compressed form using a discrete cosine transform. JPEG trades off compression against loss; it
can achieve a compression ratio of 100:1 with significant loss and possibly 20:1 with little
noticeable loss.
LAN
Local Area Network
LSI
Large Scale Integration
MIPS
Millions of Instructions Per Second
MPEG
Acronym for Moving Pictures Experts Group.
A set of standards for audio and video compression established by the Joint ISO/IEC Technical
Committee on Information Technology. The MPEG standard has different types that have been
designed to work in different situations.
MSB
Most Significant Bit
NFS
Network Filing System
OCR
Optical Character Recognition
PCMCIA
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PDA
Personal Digital Assistant
PNG
Portable Network Graphics
A file format for bit mapped graphic images, designed to be a replacement for the GIF format,
without the legal restrictions associated with GIF
RAM
Random Access Memory
RISC
Reduced Instruction Set Computer
ROM
Read Only Memory
SVGA
Super Video Graphic Adapter
.tif or .tiff
Identifies bit map images in Tagged Image File Format
A standard file format commonly used for scanning, storage, and interchange of gray-scale
graphic images. TIFF may be the only format available for older programs (such as older versions
of MacPaint), but most modern programs are able to save images in a variety of other formats,
such as GIF or JPEG.
URL
Uniform Resource Location
VDU
Video Display Unit
VGA
Video Graphic Adapter
VRAM
Video RAM
WORM
Write Once, Read Many
WWW
World Wide Web

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