Chapter 8.
4
COMPUTER METHODS
K HOSROW B ADIOZAMANI
8.4.1 INTRODUCTION
To provide a description of computer methods used in min-
ing, one must first define the area of interest. The extension of
computer usage to the many facets of mining is too numerous
and complex to be described in a short chapter. Today computers
are used in all areas of mining, from exploration and drilling to
mine planning and mine design, mine operation, reclamation,
surveying, maintenance, inventory control, accounting, payroll,
and marketing, to name a few. For computer applications in
mining, the reader is referred to the appropriate sections and
chapters of this Handbook.
In this chapter, concentration is on the scientific and techni-
cal aspects of mining and only on major topics. The plan is to
examine the what, where, how, and when aspects of computer
usage, that is, what a computer is used for, where it is used,
how it is used, and when it should be used. Then the concepts,
advantages, and disadvantages of computer usage are expanded
to provide a better understanding of the details involved in its
usage. In addition, an attempt is made to provide some guidelines
on how to select a system of hardware and software. It is under-
stood that rapid changes in the state-of-the-art of hardware and
software technology make it difficult to establish long-lasting
selection criteria; however, the main ideas and concepts should
stand the test of time and provide useful and general guidelines.
8.4.1.1 Where Computers Are Used
Computers are used for storage, retrieval, and analysis of
geologic data plus design, simulation, and monitoring of mine
plans and mining operations.
The majority of effort in computerization has been concen-
trated in the areas of storage, retrieval, and modeling. Early
efforts were concentrated on automating manual methods to
reduce error and increase efficiency. As the user’s acceptance of
the automated methods has increased, along with the complexity
of ore bodies, the need for more sophisticated techniques has
moved computer usage to a new frontier. Geostatistics and com-
plex mathematical modeling provide ore-reserve approximation
techniques and simulation approaches that are basically imprac-
tical to perform manually.
Blind application of computers to all situations, however, is
not advisable. Computers should only be used where they pro-
vide an immediate or long-range advantage. For situations with
little data and only one time evaluation or calculation, it may
be easier and less costly to use manual methods. It should be
remembered that computers are another tool in the engineer’s
tool kit. They have their place and can be useful if used properly
and can complicate the situation if not.
8.4.1.2 How Computers Are Used
Computer applications vary with the type of mineral deposit
and the complexity of the ore body. The basic ore body modeling
concept, however, remains the same even though the method of
compositing varies from one type of deposit to another. Table
Table 8.4.1. Decision Tree
8.4.1 provides a simple look at the classification of modeling
based on the type of commodity, stratabound vs. disseminated
type of deposits, and the locale of mining, that is, surface or
underground. From this table, it is obvious that to provide a
complete explanation for all available options is not practical
within the space allotted to this Handbook. As a result, except
for conditions common to all deposits and types of mining, our
discussion will concentrate on the stratabound type of deposits
and mostly on surface applications.
8.4.1.3 Basic Concepts in Use of Computers
The main objective of computer application is to simplify
the process of data collection, retrieval, analysis, and modeling.
In addition, computer modeling removes the possibility of an
undetected error in calculation and allows evaluation of more
alternatives in a shorter period of time than is possible by the
manual approach. As a result, computer modeling will assist in
achieving the ultimate goal of mine planning, which is to provide
the “best” strategy for developing and mining a deposit. The
best may not necessarily be the optimum and will be dependent
on the goals set by each corporation. The reason is that to obtain
an optimum solution, one may need to spend a great deal of
computer resources, and at the end the optimum solution may
not be practical.
As easier deposits are exhausted and the need for designing
more complex mine plans become commonplace, computers can
assist in reducing tedious tasks and allow the specialist to concen-
trate on his/her area of expertise, which is mine design.
Computers can be regarded simply as devices that are fed
raw information. These raw data are processed, analyzed, and
modeled, and the result is an output in the form of reports, maps,
and graphs. In other words, the operation is based on three
simple activities: input, processing, and output (Fig.8.4.1). The
main task is to make sure that the correct information is con-
tained in the input and the right type of process is selected to
assure correct results as output.
A major benefit of computerization is compulsory collection
of all data in advance of modeling. This process in actuality
forces many users to collect all data, maps, and information from
various individuals involved in the project in one area rather
than having them scattered in different file cabinets and drawers.
 COMPUTER METHODS
Input Processing
Fig. 8.4.1. Stages of computer processing.
The initial collection and input of data into computers forces
purging of invalid and incorrect data or simply forces cleansing
of information before use. In fact, a sign of a well-designed
system is its ability to assist users in differentiating between valid
and invalid data by processing the information before permitting
its transfer to the database.
8.4.2 RESOURCE MODELING
8.4.2.1 Data Acquisition
Resource modeling starts with the gathering of information,
that is, drillers’ data, core-hole information, geophysical logs,
topographic maps, cross sections, and survey data. In some cases,
detailed drillhole information is not available, and only pre-
viously generated structures or isopach maps are provided.
The initial task is to organize the data in appropriate catego-
ries, because each set of data is handled differently. Drillhole
information is either transferred to preprinted forms or it is
directly entered into the computer using formatted screens.
Even though it is possible for the geologist to input data
directly into the computer, if more than 50 to 100 drillholes need
to be processed, it is advantageous to have data entry clerks enter
the data. After all the information is entered, the geologist can
check the results for inconsistencies or possible data-entry errors.
As mentioned earlier, a good system provides automatic
checking of the data as much as possible. In the following pages,
for the sake of demonstration, examples from EAGLES, a com-
599
Output
prehensive geologic and mine planning system developed at Mor-
rison-Knudsen Co., are presented. There are many other systems
available on the market that are suitable for modeling and mine
planning of various types of deposits. These models vary in their
scope and the range of mining options they cover. Their functions
mainly reflect the area of expertise of the primary developers
and the type of mining the model was intended for. One should
examine the functionality of a system carefully to ensure that
it can adequately perform the functions specified. A detailed
discussion of the hardware and software selection is provided at
the end of this chapter to assist readers in the selection process.
8.4.2.2 Minimum Data Requirements and
Database Concepts
To analyze and model a property, one has to have a mini-
mum set of data. The basic data consist of a set of information
that defines drillhole location and geologic as well as assay or
analytic data. As a minimum, the database should contain:
1. Drillhole name, collar elevation, X-coordinate, Y-coordi-
nate, drillhole deviation, seam/unit ID, seam/unit top intercept,
seam/unit bottom intercept, grade/assay, analytic/quality,
lithology/rock type.
2. Additional information, such as property name, driller’s
logs, geophysical logs, special codes for geologic conditions,
water table, and many other such items of information may be
also added to the database.
A database may be set up with two different concepts in
mind. The first is to set up a database as a repository for all the
600 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
information. In this type of database, in addition to items speci-
fied previously, information such as lithologic characteristics,
mineralogical, petrographic, and alteration descriptions are also
stored. To accomplish this, a number of text fields are assigned
to the descriptions and narrative information provided by the
drillers or geologists.
The second type of database is mainly set up for mapping
and modeling. Such a database does not contain much text or
narrative information, and only data pertinent to modeling will
be coded and entered into the database. The majority of available
commercial modeling systems are of this type, where they pro-
vide for storage of data pertinent to modeling. The advantage of
this type of database is that it minimizes the disk space required,
and by reducing the size of the database it will expedite updating
and retrieval of the data.
A separate database contains property boundaries, physical
structures, pipelines, power lines, and so on. This type of data is
normally available in the form of maps or survey information.
Map data needs to be digitized.

8.4.2.3 Digital Map Data

To transfer plotted information to the computer, a map is
positioned on the digitizer tablet, and after initialization the data
are digitized. If the X and Y (easting and northing) scales are
the same, two separate points digitized on the map can establish
the scale. However, if the X and Y scales are different, three
Gridded Pattern
points are required to establish the scale. The points digitized
for the initialization process should be at the extremities of the
map to assure correct scale and to compensate automatically for
the stretch or shrinkage in the map. Paper maps stretch and
shrink depending on the moisture content in the air; therefore,
providing a map scale directly to the system may result in error.
Following establishment of the scale, each individual line is
traced either in a continuous or in a point mode. Most systems
allow editing capability during digitization or immediately after.
Data can be stored as individual files or they can be directly
input into a database and tagged with identifiers.
Survey data is regularly provided in a digital form by photo-
grammetric companies or by survey crews through a total station
or survey notes. These data can be added to the system by
automatic reading of the digital tapes or by direct input of the
data via formatted screens.
Photogrammetric companies can provide topographic data
in digital or map form. Digital data are provided in one of two
forms: (1) in rows and columns at a given interval, that is, on a
grid pattern; or (2) as a set of irregularly spaced data depicting
breaks in elevation taken throughout the region of interest (Fig.
8.4.2). Irregularly spaced data may be provided by way of cross
sections parallel to Y (northing) or X (easting) and points taken
at the break points greater than specified elevation difference
(Fig. 8.4.3).
Each set of data provided by any of the foregoing methods
has its advantages and disadvantages. The gridded data is the Irregular Pattern
simplest to handle, because all that needs to be done to it is to Fig. 8.4.2. Digital sampling of topographic data.
read it and store it in the desired format. As long as the same
grid increment or multiples of it are used throughout the opera-
tion, there is no problem. As soon as a smaller grid interval this method represent the actual elevations as closely as possible,
becomes necessary, however, the data has to be regridded. As a the main reason being that during sampling, all major breaks in
general rule, the accuracy of the regridded data is less than the topography are picked. The gridding process uses this data
original data, and the grids may be off by a substantial amount to arrive at a value for each node. The main problem with the
from the actual. The difference between the estimated and actual irregularly spaced data option is the enormous number of data
surface elevation is a function of changes in topography, that is, points sampled and the tremendous amount of processing re-
the more rugged the terrain the more deviation from the actual. quired to generate a gridded surface from this data.
The irregularly spaced data option eliminates this problem The cross-sectional method is a cross between the two other
and allows generation of grids of any size. Grids generated by options (Fig. 8.4.3). It provides the number of data at the break
 COMPUTER METHODS
CROSS-SECTIONAL PATTERN
SECTION A-A
Fig. 8.4.3. Cross-sectional sampling of topographic data.
points in one direction, but it is set at regular intervals in the
other direction. The processing requirement is not as intense as
the irregularly spaced option, but it is more than gridded data.
The accuracy factor, however, is not as good as the irregularly
spaced option, because it lacks the necessary detail in one direc-
tion. For this reason, the cross-sectional data are not as useful
as the other two. If the possibility of regridding is minimal, then
the gridded data provide the best and fastest result. In particular,
if the initial grid is generated at small enough increments, then
larger grid increments can be generated without losing accuracy.
If gridding increments are to be changed on a regular basis, or
a suitable grid interval cannot be decided upon, then the irregu-
larly spaced option is a better choice. Experience shows that a
100-ft (30-m) grid increment is a satisfactory increment for most
operations in the United States, Canada, and most other parts
of the world.
601
8.4.2.4 Geologic Modeling
The most important task in any modeling process is collec-
tion and editing of the data. The reason for emphasis on the need
for thorough data checking and validation is to minimize wasted
time and effort during the modeling process. Discovery of an
erroneous data point during the modeling stage is a very costly
and time-consuming endeavor because the entire process of data
checking, retrieval, and modeling has to be repeated again. If
the problem is not discovered on time, it may result in inaccurate
interpretation and improper decision, with grave consequences.
Following the completion of data entry, checking, and editing,
the modeling task begins.
Geologic modeling, in essence, is reconstruction of the three-
dimensional geologic picture of a deposit from a handful of
sample data. The process combines the power of imagination
with mathematical formulations to arrive at a satisfactorily re-
constructed model. There are numerous approaches to the prob-
lem. In the following pages, the major approaches to the process
are described.
To model a property, three pieces of information—the topog-
raphy, the geologic and assay data, and the properties or other
physical information—are required. The data may be obtained
through any of the previously mentioned processes.
8.4.3 DATA INPUT
8.4.3.1 Topography
Topographic data are obtained either through photogram-
metric means or digitization of existing maps. If data are avail-
able from photogrammetric services, the tape provided is loaded
into the system, and through usage of a translation program, it
is translated into a specific required format.
If the provided information is in the form of irregularly
spaced data, it is passed through a gridding program with desired
grid increments specified. The resultant grid then is used in the
subsequent operations, and the raw data are stored on tape for
possible later use. Cross-sectional data may or may not need any
processing, depending on the capability of the system. EAGLES
provides cross-sectional, gridded, and variable block modeling
techniques, and their usage is dependent on the type of deposit
and the degree of pitch of the strata. For steeply dipping deposits
or for very complex geology, a cross-sectional modeling ap-
proach is more appropriate. The cross sections can be used at
any time to generate a gridded surface. This data then can be
used in the subsequent operations. At the end of this process, a
model of the topography is developed for the area of interest.
8.4.3.2 Geologic Input
Geologic data-input requirements vary depending on the
commodity of interest, the complexity of the geologic conditions,
and the size of the property. As a general rule, the more complex
the geology, the more information is required. Also a coal deposit
normally requires more data than, say, a gold deposit. In addition
to basic information such as the ones specified, quality data for
proximate and ultimate analysis, washability, ash-fusion temper-
atures, and trace-element analyses are regularly provided for
coal. Other commodities such as phosphate may require infor-
mation for the processing plant as well. Regardless of the type
of commodity, the data input deserves a great deal of attention.
The input determines the usefulness of the model. Companies
usually assign their most junior geologists or engineers to this
important task and as a result spend a great amount of time
rectifying the resulting problems during or after modeling.
602 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Data Verification: After loading the data into the database,
various reports should be generated and reviewed for accuracy
of input and for elimination of invalid data. Statistical tables
showing the range of data and the mean and standard deviations
for each field can assist in data verification. It is useful to display
the number and the X,Y locations of the drillholes that contain
the maximum and minimum values for each field. These reports
and statistical tables should be reviewed carefully to ensure that
the data extremes are valid.
Another verification method is to generate a contour map
of the data and look for “bull’s eyes” on the map. They invariably
point to the error in the data, that is, either input error or
assignment of the wrong X and Y location to the hole. All errors
should be corrected in the database, and new reports generated.
The process should be repeated as long as erroneous data are
found.
Use of Database: The database should contain data in their
raw form and without any regard to mining criteria or minability
of any unit. Many companies allow their interpretation of the
minability of the units to determine which ones will be entered
into the database. This practice is unwise, and as mining and
economic conditions change, the database becomes useless, re-
sulting in another round of data input. The preferred method is
to keep data in the database in their rawest form possible but
allow the retrieval programs to combine and sort the data, based
on the economic criteria specified at the time of retrieval. This
simple concept will ensure the longevity of the database while
providing the possibility of unlimited mining and economic com-
bination alternatives throughout the life of the project.
Correlation: Bedded deposits require extensive amounts of
time to correlate individual units across the property. This pro-
cess is not only very time-consuming but repetitive. The geologist
has to analyze each drillhole in conjunction with all other holes
and for all units down-hole. An on-line correlation program with
direct access to the database can save many man-months of
efforts. The concept is simple but somewhat hard to implement.
EAGLES allows the user to select a set of cross sections from a
plan-view location map of the area. Sections can be defined either
by a traverse line and an area of influence to either side of the
line or by selecting individual drillholes. Following the selection
process, all drillholes will be retrieved from the database, and
the geologist can examine any of the sections by recalling that
section. In addition, geophysical logs for each hole can be dis-
played, along with the stratigraphic logs, to assist in the correla-
tion process. A comprehensive set of commands provide full
correlation capability right on the graphic terminal. Key holes
can be set up as the guiding holes for the rest of the data.
Modified drillholes will be updated directly into the database,
therefore providing an up-to-the minute set of data to all users.
8.4.4 DATA RETRIEVAL
8.4.4.1 Retrieval Process: How and What to
Include
A good retrieval system is essential to a good geologic sys-
tem. Not so obvious is the fact that a strong retrieval system can
simplify, and at the same time, enhance the geologist’s task. It
can simplify a task because the geologist does not have to decide
on the details of what should be included in the database; instead,
concentration will be on actual data input and correlation. It
will enhance the geologist’s capability because it will allow re-
trieval of data in any set of combinations desired. Many factors
such as economic conditions, minability of the thin units, and
geologic factors such as erosion or pinching seams can be speci-
fied at the retrieval time for alternative evaluation. The retrieval
process normally is customized for the type of commodity being
modeled.
8.4.4.2 Coal
For coal deposits, structural and thickness data are retrieved
and modeled first, to delineate the extent of the deposit and its
spatial distribution. If borehole deviation or pitching seam data
are available, the necessary correction is made to provide for a
true-thickness calculation. However, a true-thickness calculation
is not necessary if the model is going to be used for volumetric
calculation. A majority of the volumetric programs calculate the
in-place or as-mined volumes directly from the model.
Following or concurrent with retrieval and modeling of
physical data, quality data are also retrieved and modeled. Sam-
ples usually need to be combined for a given seam or range of
seams. If washability data are available, washability tables are
generated to determine the appropriate specific gravity of wash.
Quality data for desired specific gravities are retrieved and mod-
eled. Reduction and dilution factors may be incorporated in the
data at this time, or they may be postponed and applied to the
gridded model at the time of mining. Reduction and dilution can
be on a percentage basis or based on a specified thickness from
top and/or bottom of each seam. Cumulative information may
be necessary if seams are too thin or the parting is less than a
given thickness that can be mined separately.
The retrieval system provides for selection of raw or washed
data and for conversion of as-received data to dry basis and back.
It should be able to use any of the three moisture data in the
database, that is, sample moisture, equilibrium moisture, or air-
dry moisture for these calculations.
8.4.4.3 Noncoal
For nonstratabound deposits and for disseminated ore bod-
ies, physical data retrieval is combined with retrieval and com-
positing of the assay data for each mineral and for a given
bench height. Correction for borehole deviation, if applicable for
dipping seams, is made at this time. Compositing of samples is
necessary for various reasons. The sample size, length, and
weight of sample vary among drillholes, and to arrive at a com-
mon size for a given interval, samples are composited. Depending
on the deposit, it is necessary to combine samples into common
weight segments representing a segment of ore body for volume
or grade calculation. The compositing process is the same for
various commodities; however, depending on the type of deposit,
care should be taken not to composite among dissimilar geologic
zones.
Provided that the sample length and associated assay values
are available, compositing is accomplished by summing the prod-
ucts of sample lengths and corresponding assay values, then
dividing this sum by the total of sample lengths, to arrive at a
weighted average (Barnes, 1980a). The composite interval is
usually determined by the bench height at the time of mining.
For example, if samples are taken at 10-ft (3-m) intervals, and a
35-ft (11-m) bench is required, then the first three samples and
half of the fourth are used to arrive at the composite value for
that bench (Fig. 8.4.4). This assumes that the entire bench is
part of the same geologic unit. Extreme care should be taken to
avoid compositing of dissimilar data. Barnes (1980) suggests the
term draped composite for a compositing process that uses a
surface or multiple surfaces to initiate the compositing. This
process allows the use of the surface of the mineralized zone
as the starting point for compositing rather than an arbitrary
 COMPUTER METHODS
elevation, resulting in a more accurate representation of the
mineralized zone.
Badiozamani et al., (1988a, 1988b) have developed a new
compositing and variable-zone modeling process to deal specifi-
cally with the problem of inclusion of geologic and depositional
environment in the compositing and modeling process. The
model was developed to handle complex geology and the varia-
tion in ore content of deltaic tar sand deposits. However, the
same modeling process can be applied to other mineral deposits.
with only minor modification to the compositing routine.
Variable Zone Compositing: This compositing process starts
with first definition of depositional environment and correlation
of geologic units across the property. The groups and formations
are identified, and each group or formation is further divided
into their depositional subunits or so-called zones. For example,
a group may be divided into marine, transitional, and continental
zones. If additional information is available, each of these zones
may be further divided into subzones. For instance, a transitional
zone may be divided into delta plain, delta front, and prodelta
subzones. By using the depositional environment to arrive at the
subzones, advantage is taken of the available geologic knowledge
to limit the grade estimation across the property to only compa-
rable units. In essence, we take advantage of other parameters
contributing to grade variation such as porosity and permeabil-
ity, especially when secondary mineralization is involved.
Following identification of the zones, the combination of
each unique lithology and depositional facies is identified. We
refer to this unique combination as material type (MT), which
is used as the basic unit for interpolation and compositing be-
tween the drillholes. For example, a channel sand and a point bar
sand constitute two different material types. During modeling,
regardless of the algorithm used, only similar material types are
used for interpolation within each subzone.
In addition to material type, a zone may be divided into
smaller subzones by using sudden grade variation down-hole as
Fig. 8.4.4. Bench compositing.
another criterion for control of lateral interpolation. Figs. 8.4.5
and 8.4.6 depict the effect of zone, subzone, material type, and
grade variations on defining each interpolation region. Fig. 8.4.5
shows the entire region being divided into zones one, two, and
three. Then each one of these zones is further divided into four
material types. Fig. 8.4.6 shows how each of these material types
is subsequently divided into a number of subzones as a result of
grade variations of more than 3%.
As indicated previously, this process allows inclusion of
maximum geologic and depositional control into interpolation
process. After zone and subzone designation, and prior to inter-
polation, grade and other values need to be assigned to each
subzone. Generally, the sample intervals do not coincide with
the top and bottom of each subzone, or multiple samples may
be available for each subzone. If the subzone and the sample
intervals coincide, the value of the sample interval is assigned to
the subzone. However, if there is more than one sample per
subzone, the samples are composited and the composite value is
assigned to the subzone. Composite value may be weight aver-
aged by thickness of the samples or, where there is a noticeable
difference in the density of the samples, by the product of the
thickness and density. The weight averaging is performed only
for those values that are reported as weight percentage such as
grade, and not for the values that are reported as volume percent
such as porosity.
8.4.5 MODELING AND RESERVE ESTIMATION
8.4.5.1 Modeling Selection
The modeling process starts with results of data retrieval or
compositing. Modeling choices are extensive and depend on the
type of deposit, the commodity being modeled, the value of
interest, the complexity of the geologic deposit, and the user’s
 MT = Material Type

Fig. 8.4.5. Zone and subzone designation based on material type.

Fig. 8.4.6. Subzone designation based on material type and grade variation.

acceptance and familiarity with various modeling techniques.
There are essentially three major modeling concepts and a few
other approaches that do not meet the strict definition of model-
ing. For example, polygonal estimation should not be regarded
as a modeling process. The three major modeling processes are
the gridded model, block model, and cross-sectional model. Each
of these models is used for specific conditions and specific mining
operations. The gridded model is normally used for bedded de-
posits such coal, phosphate, sulfur, limestone, oil shale, and tar
sand. The block model is usually used for disseminated deposits
such as porphyry copper, uranium, gold, and other nonstra-
tabound deposits. The cross-sectional model is commonly used
for complex folded and faulted or steeply dipping deposits. Block
modeling techniques have been applied to steeply dipping depos-
its; however, by using the block model, one loses control over
the structural position of the units in a block. If it is important
to maintain the structural integrity of the unit, then the cross-
sectional modeling technique should be used.

Fig. 8.4.8. Conventional block model with fixed blocks.
8.4.5.2 Gridded Model
The gridded model is a set of two-dimensional matrices, each
representing a surface or a value. These surfaces or values are
each the result of interpolation from a set of irregularly spaced
data to a fixed grid or matrix (Fig. 8.4.7). The major advantage
of using a matrix or a grid is ease of use and manipulation of the
data. Structures, thicknesses, and other values stacked on top of
each other can be easily added, subtracted, multiplied, divided,
or logically compared to arrive at other sets of data. For example,
the bottom structure of a seam can be subtracted from its top
structure to obtain the seam thickness, or the top structure of
the first seam can be subtracted from the topography grid to
obtain an overburden thickness. Another advantage of the grid-
ded model is a reduction of required space (by two-thirds) by
eliminating the need for X and Y coordinates. Given a matrix
and the coordinates of its starting position along with the X and
Y increments, the location of any other point on the matrix can
be easily calculated. This is a very significant reduction of disk
space, especially when numerous seams are involved, and each
seam may have as many as 20 or more other attributes associated
with it.
In a gridded model, only the units of interest are modeled,
which means that the model need not necessarily be contiguous.
This is the major difference between the gridded model and the
block model.
8.4.5.3 Block Model
A block model is the collection of a series of blocks of given
X, Y, and Z dimensions stacked on top of one another, which
represent a model of a property to a given depth (Fig. 8.4.8).
605
Fig. 8.4.7. Gridded model.
Equal Divisions
Fig. 8.4.9. Modified block model with variable thickness blocks.
Each block is identified by the X, Y, and Z coordinate at the
center of the block and contains the percentage values for each
item of interest. For example, in a porphyry copper deposit, a
block may contain, in addition to the percentage copper, the
percentage of zinc, lead, waste, and air, totaling 100%.
There are two other variations to the conventional block-
modeling technique called variable block model (VBM) and vari-
able zone model (VZM). In a variable block-model, the X and
Y dimensions are fixed and the Z dimension is variable to better
approximate the geologic variability of the deposit (Banfield
and Wolff, 1979). However, even though the Z dimension may
change from block to block, they form rectangular blocks of
different size (Fig. 8.4.9). In the variable zone model the Z
dimension may vary for each side of the block, resulting in blocks
of trapezohedron shapes (Fig. 8.4.10).
8.4.5.4 Cross-sectional Model
A cross-sectional model is a collection of parallel or nonparal-
lel sections, dissecting the property of interest. These sections
contain the geologic structures of the deposit along the section
lines. A model is built basically by connecting sections to one
another, by linear interpolation and assuming a gradual change
from one section to the next; or by extending each section half-
way to the next, reflecting an abrupt change in the deposit. The
grade or quality data may be assigned to polygons formed by
the top and bottom structures of each seam and the lines halfway
between the two adjacent drillholes on the section (Fig. 8.4.11).
Another way of assigning grades to these sections is to generate
606 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Unequal Divisions
Fig. 8.4.10. Variable zone model with variable thickness subzone
blocks.
Fig. 8.4.11. Grade assignment using structure and drillhole area of
influence.
Fig. 8.4.12. Grade assignment using gridded assays.
a gridded model of the grade or other quality data, and then to
use the values that fall within the area of influence of each
drillhole to calculate the desired grade or quality (Fig. 8.4.12).
Fig. 8.4.13. Division of triangle sides into contour intervals.
8.4.5.5 Estimation Process
The estimation process is common to all models discussed
previously. It involves the application of a series of mathematical
algorithms to interpolate and extrapolate from a set of irregularly
spaced data to a grid node or the center of a block. Estimation
techniques vary from a simple triangulation, to polygonal ap-
proximation— where an area of influence is assigned to each
drillhole—to a much more complex algorithms such as trend-
surface analysis, Fourier series, and geostatistics.
The estimation process is nothing new to geologists and
engineers. They have been using manual methods, starting at a
corner of the property and connecting the three closest holes
with straight lines to form a triangle. Then they linearly divide
the length of each side into equal units between the values of the
two vertices to arrive at desired increments. This process is then
repeated over and over again for the next closest hole that forms
a triangle with one of the sides of the existing triangle, until all
the holes are used and a triangulation network is established.
The computer industry started initially by mimicking the manual
methods and has built on the same concepts by adding an array
of mathematical techniques, which more closely approximate
the actual reserve.
Given a set of irregularly spaced data, the user has to develop
the model of the deposit in order to be able to calculate the
reserve. As mentioned earlier, when performed manually, one
uses only three holes at a time. However, using computers, more
than three holes at a time can be used to arrive at an estimate
for a node. The method used routinely by many companies is to
use a circular search radius and as many as 24 holes for estima-
tion. Let us look at few estimation techniques and see the differ-
ence in approach by evaluating the pros and cons of each method.
8.4.5.6 Triangulation
One of the earliest methods of estimation was triangulation.
It is based on generation of a network of triangles connecting
all the control points together. The assumption in this type of
estimation is that every three points form a plane from which
given any X, Y point falling on that plane, a Z value can be
estimated, by using the equation of the plane. Triangulation has
been used for many applications, but mainly it has been used in
finite element calculations and in geodetic surveys. More recently
they are being popularized by some companies for quick model-
ing and contouring. As shown in Fig. 8.4.13, following comple-
tion of the network, each side of the triangle is divided into a fixed
 COMPUTER METHODS 607

Fig. 8.4.14. Contour generation by triangulation.

number of specified elevations, which then can be connected and

elevation contours generated (Fig. 8.4.14). It is obvious that
in the absence of a standard technique, various triangulation
networks can be generated from the same set of control points, Fig. 8.4.15. Improper data selection (modified after Jones, 1986).
resulting in totally different-looking contour maps. Early at-
tempts at solving this problem were not successful, and trial and
error attempts were too costly, resulting in complete abandon-
ment of the algorithm (Davis, 1986). Recent development of
algorithms (Gold et al., 1977; McCullagh and Ross, 1980; Wat-
son 1981; Bowyer 1981), that ensure almost optimum triangles
(referred to as Delaunay triangles) with as equiangular triangles
as possible, has revived interest in the triangulation method
again.
Davis (1986) provides a good description of the methodology
of generating Delaunay triangle networks. Advocates of triangu-
lation techniques refer to the ease of generation of contour maps
without gridding, the fact that it will fit a surface more tightly
than a square grid, and other inherent mathematical properties of
triangulation as the main advantages of this technique. However,
along with any advantage, there is a disadvantage. Triangulation
suffers from lack of surface manipulation capability, especially
where deviated holes are present (Jones et al., 1986).

8.4.5.7 Grid Generation

Initial problems with triangulation and the lack of consist-
ency in contour generation by this method resulted in develop-
ment of gridding techniques. Using the gridding process, genera-
tion of contour maps became a much more consistent process,
because instead of using the original values, one could use a set
of regularly spaced estimated data for each node. To arrive at
the estimated value for each node, two steps are necessary: first,
selection of data surrounding a grid node and, second, the estima-
tion process itself.
Fig. 8.4.16. Proper data selection using octants (after Jones, 1986).

8.4.5.8 Selection of Control Points

To estimate the value of data for a given grid node, one may
use the closest data points to the node. However, this approach
may result in selection of data from only one set of drillholes or
samples, especially if seismic line information is being used (Fig.
8.4.15) (Jones et al., 1986). To reduce the bias, many programs
now require selection of data from within a specified search
radius and limit the number of data to one to three points from
each quadrant, sextant, or octant (Fig. 8.4.16). The search radius
limits the number of data points to be selected for evaluation,
therefore minimizing the computer search time. In addition, the
reduced number of drillholes reduces the node calculation time.
The more recent programs automatically adjust the search radius
to further eliminate unnecessary processing time. The initial
radius is set to a small window, and if the desired number of
control points are found, the estimation process will take place.
If in the first pass, the desired number of points are not found,
then a pre-set increment is added to the original radius and
search continues. This concept is specifically useful where there
is an uneven distribution of data, for example, a cluster of data

Fig. 8.4.17. Shadow effect concept.
in the active mining area and dispersed information in the rest
of the area.
In selecting the points for estimation, it is important to
ensure proper representation of data from all directions. By
selecting data from all octants, the estimated value more appro-
priately represents the actual condition. Some programs use the
concept of shadow effect, to further reduce biased contribution
from one direction (Fig. 8.4.17). The shadow effect is specified
as a cone around each point, so that any other point falling
within the specified cone will not be used in estimation. This is
based on the concept that any point falling in the shadow of the
previous point should not contribute much to the estimated
value.
8.4.5.9 Grid Estimation
Grid estimation is accomplished in one of two ways: (1) by
individual node calculation or (2) by fitting a function to the
data and then estimating the grid node from the function.
The individual node estimation consists of calculating the
average contribution from all the samples to the node by some
weight function. The concept is that the data points farther away
from the node have lesser effect on the node than the closer ones,
resulting in inverse distance functions. The only question, then, is
how should the distance be weighted. The linear inverse distance
assumes a one to one relationship, in other words, a point 50
units away has 10 times less effect than the one 5 units away. In
many situations, it is more appropriate to diminish the effect of
the control points at a faster rate. As a result, weight functions
of higher degrees are used. For example, an inverse squared
distance will reduce the contribution of the control points by
the square of the distance. Some software companies provide
deterministic, as well as statistical, weight functions. Statistical
weight functions are more applicable in situations where an
individual sample’s contribution to the estimation is not signifi-
cant by itself. An example is the sulfur distribution in a coal
seam, where a high sample value should not be weighted heavily
because it may be the result of a nugget in the sample. Under
such circumstances, the general trend of the data is more mean-
ingful than an individual sample value.
The functional estimation process fits planes, polynomials of
various degrees, or other functions to the data first, and then
uses this calculated function to estimate the value of interest at
the grid node. The main advantage of fitting a function to the
data is generation of a grid that preserves the trend of the data.
Grid nodes form continuous and smooth transition from node
to node but may have values that are higher or lower than the
actual data points. The same advantages may be looked upon as
major disadvantages of surface fitting, that is, they normally
obscure the sharp variations in the data, and oftentimes they
project beyond the limits of the data, to much higher or lower
values than the actual data permits, especially at the edges of
the property.
Trend surface analysis has been used in geologic modeling
for many years (Whitten, 1963; Krumbein and Graybill, 1965;
Harbaugh and Merriam, 1968; Whitten, 1970; Agterberg, 1974;
Davis, 1973, 1986). As Davis points out, the trend analysis is a
mathematical method of separating map data into two compo-
nents, (1) that of a regional nature and (2) local fluctuations.
The regional and local trend separation concept has been used
by geologists, geophysicists, and petrologists for many years on
a manual basis. They have, for example, considered the regional
dip of a formation vs. the local structural variations. For a
detailed review of usage and application of trend surface analysis,
refer to Krumbein and Graybill (1965) or a more recent explana-
tion by Davis (1986).
In trend surface analysis, linear, quadratic, or higher-order
polynomials are used with the intent to minimize the squared
deviation from the trend. The lower the degree of the polynomial,
the lesser the degree of variations from the straight line. For
example, the linear model only will display straight-line fitting
through the data, whereas the quadratic fit will display the har-
monics (Fig. 8.4.18), and cubic fit will even display smaller
variations in the trend. The residual data, if gridded, represent
the local trends in the data.
The main disadvantage of polynomial fitting is the so-called
edge effect at the property boundary, where data are scarce and
limited to one side only. Under these conditions the estimated
grids display a high degree of deviation from actual.
8.4.5.10 Kriging
Under previous topics, we reviewed the application of trend-
ing or deterministic functions (polynomials) to the estimation
process. In this segment, we evaluate the concept of Matheronian
geostatistics, which is the study of regionalized variables. Re-
gionalized variables are variables which their magnitude is a
function of their neighboring values and their position in the
three-dimensional space. The previous methods use classical sta-
tistics, which are based on random variables and the probability
of independent events (Barnes, 1980b). To have an unbiased
evaluation means that samples should have been collected in a
totally random fashion. Unfortunately, many drilling activities
are controlled by physical and practical considerations, which
violates the random sample assumption.
Matheronian geostatistics, or simply geostatistics, is the sci-
ence of regionalized variables as defined by Matheron (1963).
The key assumption in geostatistics is that the data display a
stationary behavior. Stationarity means that the distribution of
the difference for a given parameter, between two sample points,
is the same over the entire deposit, and it depends only on the
distance and direction of the sample points. In other words, there
is no trend in the data.
 COMPUTER METHODS
Fig. 8.4.18. First and second degree surface trends (modified after
Davis, Wiley, (c) 1986).
It is an intuitive concept that the closer the samples, the less
variation in the data, except for a totally randomly distributed
deposit. If samples are fully random in their distribution, then
we are better off using the standard statistical techniques. How-
ever, if there is a correlation between the samples and their
spatial position, then geostatistics not only can provide the esti-
mated value for the block, but it can provide us with an estimate
of how good our block estimation is. For a discussion of elements
of kriging and geostatistics, see David (1977), Royle (1980),
Clark (1980), Journel (1978), Agterberg (1974), Barnes (1980a),
and Davis (1986). Geostatistics provides a formalized and math-
609
ematical approach to geologists’ long-used methodology for cal-
culating the direction of rapid change. For a more detailed dis-
cussion of geostatistics, refer to Chapter 5.6 of the Handbook.
8.4.5.11 Grid Modification
To develop a complete model of a deposit, grid or block
generation the process is repeated for all units and their associ-
ated grade or chemical analysis. Normally, for a single unit with
thickness and structures, as many as 15 other kinds of chemical
or grade information may be modeled. Depending on the com-
plexity of the deposit, the generated structure grids may cross-
over each other. The crossover normally occurs because all
drillholes do not contain information for all units. Lack of infor-
mation may be caused by missing data, pinching units, nondepo-
sitional, and shallow drillholes where they do not penetrate all
units. To eliminate the crossover problem or to incorporate some
of the geologist’s knowledge of the deposit into the model, a series
of tools are made available to modify the generated surfaces
and grids. These include arithmetic, logical, and comparative
operations. For example, Fig. 8.4.19 shows drillhole 5 penetrat-
ing an erosional channel (paleo-erosion). To model such a unit,
it is better to allow the straight interpolation across the channel
and then to modify or blank the generated grid within the chan-
nel area. Grid modification programs are also used to obtain
other grids from existing ones. For example, an isopach map can
be generated by subtracting the bottom structure from the top
structure, or a ratio map can be generated by summing up all
the waste units and dividing it by the sum of all the ore units.
8.4.5.12 Block or Grid Size Selection
Selection of appropriate block size or grid spacing is crucial
in generation of representative models. It is a balancing act
between generating grids that are not too far apart so that they
mask variations in the data, or too small a spacing that requires
extensive computer time and resources, or too many blocks or
grids that exceed the program limits. The grid-spacing selection
is more an art than a science; however, a few comments may
assist the novice user in a better selection process. As a rule of
thumb, the best results are generated when each grid cell contains
only one drillhole. This is more easily said than done, because
the data are not usually distributed evenly. As a matter of fact,
one usually faces the extreme variation of the cluster of closely
drilled data in one end of the property and highly scattered data
at the other.
The second rule of thumb is to adjust the grid spacing to the
type of usage. For example, for a cursory evaluation, a large grid
spacing will be acceptable, whereas a detailed mine plan requires
a dense grid spacing. A dense grid spacing does not necessarily
have to be generated from the original data. If there is not
sufficient data to warrant generation of a tight grid from original
data, a useful approach would be to generate the initial grid from
control points at a larger grid spacing and then regrid it to a
smaller spacing at a fraction of the central processing unit (CPU)
resources necessary to do so otherwise.
8.4.6 MAPPING AND RESERVE CALCULATION
8.4.6.1 Mapping
Initial contouring programs followed the manual method by
using triangulation and then dividing each side of these triangles
into desired multiples of the contour interval based on the values
610 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
at each vertex. Connection of equal values throughout the area
would then generate a contour map. Problems with generation of
appropriate triangles resulted in discontinuation of triangulation
approach and precipitated gridding techniques. More than three
adjacent drillholes are usually used for grid generation. Gener-
ated grids are then used for contouring. To generate smooth
contours that are appealing to the eye, most contouring programs
process the data a second time, where the initial grids and the
original control points are used together to calculate newly
weighted values at each node. One approach uses values from
one or two rows and columns surrounding a node of interest and
recalculates a new weighted average value for the node. The
process is repeated for all subsequent nodes. Smoothed contours
generated by these programs, while more pleasing, may in actual-
ity be less accurate than the initially generated contours.
Once a map is generated and plotted, it must be checked
thoroughly for possible problems resulting from modeling or
mapping. The maps should be checked for accuracy, to ensure
that the correct search radius and grid spacing was selected to
generate contours that match the data. In addition, the extrapo-
lated areas need to be evaluated for validity of extrapolation.
The undesirable contours may have resulted from incorrect data
input, inappropriate grid spacing, improper search radius, un-
suitable algorithm, or a combination of the above.
Extrapolation may be contained by providing the cropline
or other natural and ownership limits. The newer programs
provide on-line editing and modifying capabilities. The geologist
can correct or enhance the contour map based on his/her knowl-
edge of the depositional environment, which is not quantifiable.
For example, the geologist’s knowledge of a sand bar channel
can be used to elongate the contours parallel to a paleoshoreline.
At the present time, unquantifiable data cannot be provided to
the mapping program, but incorporation of expert systems in
the future may make this possible.
Lack of data may result in blank regions; these areas need
to be evaluated. If the blank areas are out of the region of interest,
no action is necessary. However, if they are within the areas of
interest, either the search radius should be increased or a new
drilling program should be scheduled to fill in the gap in the
Fig. 8.4.19. Modeling erosional or nondepo-
sitional units.
data. If neither of these are possible or desirable, then the areas
can be updated by one of the following actions:
1. Use of outcrop or other information that may not have
been incorporated in the database.
2. Use of on-line interactive graphics update capabilities and
geologist’s interpretative ability.
3. Use of grid extension capabilities by slope or gradient
modification.
The final map should include all localized geologic features
and physical information such as paleo-channels, fault lines,
burn areas, limits of lenticular units, weathered zones, and prop-
erty, section, or mined-out areas. Almost all mapping packages
include a capability for plotting property boundaries along with
control point locations, names, and the associated Z values over
the contour map. Most of these packages also allow for plotting
of various drillhole symbols representing core holes, open holes,
oil wells, gas wells, environmental holes, hydrological wells or
others.
8.4.6.2 Reserve Calculation
The reserve calculation is the simplest and yet the most
elusive part of any mining computer program. It is the simplest
because it is a multiplication and summation process. It is elusive
because to calculate an accurate reserve, there are many intricate
points that need to be considered. Reserves can be calculated by
various techniques, that is, by a simple polygonal method where
the area of influence around each drillhole is multiplied by the
thickness of the unit or the percentage grade. This method of
volume calculation is not very accurate, and it is only used when
an order-of-magnitude calculation is intended or when very
dense drilling is available. Another method of reserve calculation
is double-end area calculation from cross sections. This is the
same process as the manual method; only a digitizer is used to
expedite the calculation. An automatic cross-sectional calcula-
tion approach is used for steeply dipping deposits, which is basi-
cally the most accurate volumetric method for such deposits.
The third method is again a duplication of the manual process
where a planimeter is replaced by a digitizer tablet. Here the
 COMPUTER METHODS
Fig. 8.4.20. Effect of irregular boundary on volumetric calculations.
isopach maps of the ore and waste are placed on a digitizer, and
each contour level is traced separately to determine the area of
influence under the contour. The volumetric program uses the
contour thickness value and the area traced by the digitizer to
calculate the volume. If tonnage calculations are required, then
a density factor is used to convert the volumes to tons. This type
of calculation is equivalent to the manual approach at a much
faster speed, however, the computerized version automatically
accumulates the results for each unit thickness and provides a
final report.
Introduction of grids opened a whole new approach to volu-
metrics. Using grids, the volumetric program adds the values of
all the nodes falling within the digitized area and calculates an
average value which, when multiplied by the area, will result in
desired volume. This process is fine for flat-lying or uniform
deposits and boundaries that are smooth. In situations where
the digitized boundary is an irregular shape, the result of the
volumetric calculation varies as a function of irregularity. The
higher the degree of irregularity the less accurate the result,
because many nodes close to the boundary, but not falling within
it, will be excluded from the average calculation (Fig. 8.4.20). It
should be noted that the volume inaccuracy is also dependent
on the grid spacing. As a result, volumetric programs should
611
Fig. 8.4.21. Increase of volumetric calculation accuracy using
smaller grid size.
provide automatic regridding of the data to smaller grids, at
user’s option, during the volumetric calculation (Fig. 8.4.21).
The smaller the grid spacing, the better the precision of calcula-
tion, provided the original data warrants the smaller spacing.
The more advanced version of reserve calculation programs
assign an area of influence, that is, a small rectangle equal to the
grid spacing to each grid node and then will intersect each one
of these rectangles with the property boundary (Fig. 8.4.22). The
resulting area is multiplied by the value of the grid and summed
up to provide the volumetric result:
(8.4.1)
where i is the individual grid node, A is the intersection of the
digitized boundary and the area of each rectangular grid, and T
is thickness at each grid node.
This is the most accurate approach to in situ volumetric
calculations; however, it requires much more CPU and it takes
longer to calculate. This approach is fine if a thickness grid
is used, but if the program is to calculate the thickness from
subtraction of two structure grids, then the problem is somewhat
more complex. Fig. 8.4.23 shows a cross section of a deposit
with topography and top and bottom structures of two seams.
Vertical lines represent the location of the grid nodes. Sub-
tracting the top structure of the first seam from the topography
at each grid node will result in a waste grid above the first seam
as shown in Fig. 8.4.23. Direct subtraction of one node from the
other will result in a series of nodes with positive and negative
values. Since the negative thicknesses are not valid, the remaining
positive grids result in an overburden thickness grid that is not
representative of the pinching portion of the unit. There are two
ways to resolve this problem. First, the volumetric program may
be set up such that it will automatically extend the area of
influence of each grid at the edge of the pinch out by half the
grid spacing (Fig. 8.4.24). The second approach is to replace all
the negative values with zeros. In essence, this will have the same
effect as the previous method. The only disadvantage of these
two approaches is that grid spacing will play an important role
in the final result, that is, the larger the grid spacing the lower
the accuracy of calculation. In other words, these approaches
assume that the pinching always occurs halfway between the
positive and zero or negative grid nodes.
612 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 8.4.22. Volumetric calculations using actual area of influence.
Fig. 8.4.23. Representation of computer generated waste above
first seam.
To alleviate the foregoing problem and to improve the accu-
racy, volumetric programs are designed to request the degree of
accuracy desired from the user. If the volumetric is for bulk
Fig. 8.4.24. Result of grid extension on volumetric calculation.
estimate, then the lower accuracy level is used with a much faster
response. However, if higher degrees of accuracies are desired,
then the program automatically divides the grid spacing into
smaller units, depending on the level of accuracy requested.
In essence, the higher the degree of accuracy, the smaller the
integration steps. It should be noted that the higher the level of
accuracy, the longer it will take to obtain the result.
Computerized volumetric calculations are superior to man-
ual methods in many respects. For one, the calculation speed is
much greater, even when the highest degree of accuracy is used,
which will result in high levels of CPU usage. In addition, com-
puterized volumetrics provide different accuracy levels and
speed, as well as minimizing the calculation error compared to
the manual method. Using the geologic model of the deposit,
one can calculate and generate a cumulative report for the entire
property by merely digitizing the areas of interest. The programs
can additionally accommodate dilution, reduction, or minimum
thickness considerations in a coal mining operation, or recovery
and processing factors in other types of mining. Concurrent
with volumetrics, one can also generate individual as well as
cumulative seam ratios.
8.4.7 MINE PLANNING
At the end of the modeling process, depending on the num-
ber of units or depth of mining considered, tremendous amounts
of information and files may have been generated. To simplify
access to the latest data available for the property of interest, all
the information is combined in a three-dimensional model of the
deposit. This model includes the topography, topsoil, structures,
thicknesses, grade or analytic data, property, and crop bound-
aries, fault zones, and other pertinent data all in one place. By
collecting all the data in one area and assigning a code to the
project or property, the subsequent users will be relieved from
bookkeeping chores and can concentrate on the analysis and
usage of the data. Data for reclamation, processing, and other
factors for each unit may also be added to the list. The volumetric
factors may include items such as the unit densities, swell and
compaction factors, angle of repose, and abrasion factor.
Mine planning is a complex and involved process. Each
mining process is to some degree unique and dependent on the
mine location, mine management’s experience, economic condi-
tions, and local, state, and federal government regulations. In
effect, the uniqueness of a plan is based more on the specific
sequence of mining and the equipment used. The entire process
can, however, be summarized in a simple statement, that is, the
best and the most economical method possible to extract the ore.
 COMPUTER METHODS 613
In other words, it is the optimum mining process that can result
in maximum profit. Given this assignment, the task becomes
clear. In order to maximize the profit, one needs to minimize
the cost, increase the ore recovery, or a combination of the two.
To minimize the cost or maximize the ore recovery, one must
be able to evaluate multiple alternatives in a short period of time
and have the ability to modify the assumptions used, based on
new sets of information. Computer mine planning is the best
way to accomplish both objectives, that is, to allow evaluation
of multiple alternatives in a short period of time and to be able
to change the assumptions quickly.
Computer applications to mining can be categorized under
two broad headings. The first includes programs that provide
basic analysis of the data and allow a design generation analo-
gous to the manual method. The second consists of programs
that provide simulation and optimization capabilities beyond the
reach of the manual approach. These two are not always distinct
and separate processes; rather they may be integrated in the
same program with options to use them or not. Because of the
complexity and variation of approach, it is difficult to describe
a general system. Instead, major concepts will be provided from
EAGLES, and wherever possible there will be discussions of
other variations. For discussion of other methods and mining
operations, see Pana and Davey (1973), Manula et al. (1977),
Mooney et al. (1979), Banfield and Wolff (1979), McMorran
(1982), McBride (1988), and Badiozamani (1988b).
Mine planning in EAGLES follows the conventional path for
both surface and underground operations. Surface mine planning
starts with the definition of the pit boundary and proceeds with
the pit slope specifications to the location of safety benches,
haulage routes, bench heights, and continues with cut or block
generation, mining scenarios, as-mined volumetric calculations,
equipment selection and specification, working schedules, pro-
duction scheduling, plus haulage and other equipment simula-
tions. Underground mine planning starts with building a library
of room and pillar or longwall panels (if coal), or stoping designs
(if noncoal). These panels will form the basic building blocks
from which the entire mine layout is built. Following the layout
design, the events follow the path of sequencing, equipment Fig. 8.4.25. Final pit configuration after pit slope specification. Con-
and crew assignment, simulation, and volumetric calculation version factor: 1 ft = 0.3048 m.
(Badiozamani et al., 1988c)

criteria as the process proceeds. In a matter of minutes, a series

8.4.7.1 Surface Mine Planning
For general coverage of the topic, refer to Chapters 13.1 and
13.2.
Pit Limit Specification: The pit limit can be either generated
manually or by computer, given specific criteria. In the manual
method, the engineer uses the digitizer or interactive graphic
programs to define the pit limits. The pit limit may be a combina-
tion of crop boundaries, property line, and the plan-view limit
of the ore body. The computer generated limits may be based on
volumetric or economics ratio, or limits defined by floating cone
algorithm. Using this boundary as the ultimate limit of the pit,
one then proceeds to define the pit angles for each lift. The pit
angles around the ultimate pit boundary may vary based on
geotechnical considerations and the competency of the rocks.
Fig. 8.4.25 shows the final result of an interactive graphics screen
where the user defines the angles around the pit boundary by
specifying the starting and the ending points for each segment.
The program then requests the desired angle in degrees or rise
to run. The process is continued until the pit angles for all the
segments around the pit are defined. The same angles can be
applied to all the subsequent benches, or a different set of angles
can be defined for any or all benches. The interactive graphic
capability allows the engineer to examine and refine the design
of options can be evaluated. By the end of this process, the final
configuration of a pit—complete with sloped walls, benches,
and haul roads to the bottom of the pit—is generated. This
configuration contains the total material, ore and waste, that is
to be removed from the pit.
Cut Generation: Results of overall pit configuration are
passed to the next program where the actual mining cuts and
blocks are defined. Cut definition is based on the type of mining
and the type of equipment to be used. In open-cast mining, a
dragline, truck-shovel, dozer-shovel, or combination of these are
used. Consequently, the width of cuts to be removed in successive
advances of the mine is a function of the size of the equipment.
The direction of mining and the size of the cuts have considerable
influence on the amount of material to be removed at a given
time and therefore on the economics of the mine. An interactive
graphic program, again, simplifies the generation of multiple
alternatives in a short period of time. Fig. 8.4.26 demonstrates
the cut generation capability of EAGLES. Other systems may
provide different approaches than the one being described here.
Simply by specifying two end points of a line, a direction, and
cut width, the program generates the entire cut pattern in less
than a minute. The cuts can be set up to follow the starting
pattern or to be straightened up as they proceed from one end
614
Fig. 8.4.26. Automatic straightening cut generation.
to the other (Fig. 8.4.26). In addition, using a minimum or
maximum cut-width specification, cuts can be fanned (Fig.
8.4.27). Changes to the cut pattern or direction of advance is
easily accomplished by using the edit function. A range of cuts
specifies the limits of modification and eliminates those cuts
from the screen (Fig. 8.4.28). New cuts are then designed as
before with all the previous functions being available for new cut
generation (Fig. 8.4.29).
Upon completion of the cut design, the cuts are projected
from one unit to the next, using the specified angles and the
benching configuration defined in the previous stage. Each cut
is divided into a number of blocks (Fig. 8.4.30), which will form
the smallest units to be assigned a volume and grade. Blocks are
three-dimensional units defined by cut width, block length, and
bench height or stratigraphic units (Fig. 8.4.31). In computerized
mining, the block generation is necessary to reduce computation
time and space requirements. Otherwise, angle projections, wall
intersections, and all calculations have to be repeated each time.
Block definition and block generation reduce this process to one
time only, and thereafter, it will be mostly straight arithmetic
operations.
Mining Scenarios: The preceding steps prepare a three-di-
mensional model of the deposit with all the associated grades,
Fig. 8.4.27. Computer-generated fan cuts.
quality, and analytical information interpolated to each block.
These blocks then form the basis for all subsequent volumetric
calculation, scheduling, and production sequencing. It should be
noted that, unlike the block modeling process, the volumetric or
grade calculation in EAGLES is not only based on summation
of blocks, but the block values are interpolated to the segments
being mined, regardless of their geometric configuration. In
other words, the intersection of the pit plane, the bench, the cuts,
and the blocks will determine the geometric configuration to be
used in volumetric and grade calculations (Fig. 8.4.32).
Mining scenarios are alternate plans to evaluate the most
desirable mine plan. These alternatives will consider the effects
of different rates of mining from each bench, the trade-offs be-
tween a truck-shovel and, for example, a dragline operation.
Effects of combining smaller waste zones into the ore zone or
thinner ore zones into waste are considered and their merits
evaluated. In coal operations, conditional mining scenarios based
on variations in the quality parameters can be considered as well.
For instance, conditions can be specified, where, if the sulfur
content is greater than 1% and the caloric value is less than 4000
Btu (6200 kJ), then that block will be designated as low-grade
coal or waste. Or if seam A is less than 2 ft (0.6 m), and seam
B is greater than 6 ft (1.8 m), and the thickness of the waste
material between the two is less than 2 ft (0.6 m), then A, B, and
the waste in between will be considered as ore and will be mined
 COMPUTER METHODS
Fig. 8.4.28. Specification of range of cuts for editing.
as one unit. However, if the waste thickness in between is greater
than 2 ft (0.6 m), the A seam will be considered as waste along
with the waste in between the two seams. These changes in
conditional simulations provide a quick answer to different sce-
narios that an engineer can evaluate readily.
At this point, a bench can be considered as a unit, or it can
be divided into smaller units or lifts. A minimum and maximum
bench height specification guarantees the division of each bench
into the appropriate number of lifts. To generate a new lift, the
remaining portion should be equal to or greater than the mini-
mum lift height specified; otherwise, a new lift is not created,
and the extra height is kept with the previous lift. The minimum
height specification is based on the assumption that stripping
equipment cannot operate efficiently on lifts smaller than the
minimum height.
Bench specification for advance stripping (benching across
the cuts), for operation within a cut (benching within a cut), and
for evaluation of different bench heights is also provided. The
bench-height specification at this stage has a different purpose
than the one specified during pit limit designation. During pit
limit specification, the bench-height designation establishes the
individual volumetric and reporting units; that is, the volumetric
615
Fig. 8.4.29. Final cut plan after modification.
for benches specified at that stage will be always reported as a
unit, even though m any of them may be combined to form a
single bench during mining scenario evaluations. On the other
hand, during mining scenario specification, the benches are com-
bined to form a single unit for a specific operation such as
dragline bench. When reporting the volume and quality for this
bench, each original bench is reported separately along with the
total for the combined benches. Prestripping bench configuration
is specified by the maximum separation desired for each bench.
These separations are defined in multiple of cut widths for the
across the cut option and in multiple of block lengths for within
a cut. This configuration is used during scheduling to ensure
appropriate spacing between the working benches for proper
operation (Fig. 8.4.33).
Working Schedule: Operation of a mine depends on the
scheduled operating shifts, the number of hours per shift, the
equipment fleet, the assignment of each piece of equipment to a
given bench, scheduled downtime, holidays, and many other
items. These items and data are provided to the mining programs
prior to production scheduling. Initially, the number of shifts
per day that a mine is planning to operate, the hours that each
shift will be operating, the number of days in a year that the
616
671560

670000

668000

Fig. 8.4.32. Volumetric block definition.

666000

mine will be in production, and the scheduled vacations and

holidays will be defined. The schedule can be assigned to any
given bench or a series of benches. In addition, the number of
Saturdays and Sundays that the mine will be in operation is
664000
defined for any given bench desired. These data form the op-
erating calendar for the mine. Following the scheduled days and
shifts, the individual equipment units are assigned to a given
bench or benches. Also the scheduled downtimes are incorpo-
rated in the plan. This information is then used by a production
scheduling program to calculate the rate of mining, the tonnage
662000
and yardage removed during each shift and throughout the year,
and the status of each bench at the end of any given period.
If any overtime is scheduled, the shift differential pay for the
overtime and Saturdays and Sundays needs to be specified. The
shift differential pay is used to calculate overtime payment
schedule.
Production Scheduling: Production targets in a mine may
be based on tonnage of coal or ore produced, yardage of waste
Fig. 8.4.30. Final block generation. removed, production capacity of a specific piece of equipment,
and the quality or recovery of a product. In each one of these
cases the production calculations will be dictated by that specific
item. For example, if the production target is based on tonnage
of ore produced on a monthly basis, then the program will
proceed based on the scheduled shifts per day and number of
hours per shift during a given month and will report the tonnage,
the yardage, and the stripping ratio for each bench, plus the
cumulative values. The calculation is performed by summing the
tonnage and yardage for each block along each cut according to
the direction of mining specified by the engineer. When the
desired target is reached, the total tonnage, yardage, ratio, and
weighted quality will be reported for that period and the process
repeats for the next period until the entire mine area is covered.
In addition, the location of the mined-out area is recorded for
each bench so it can be plotted on a plan-view map.
The program uses the mining and benching scenarios estab-
lished during mine block specification. The calculation at this
stage is only a summation and reporting process, according to
the factors specified. If the production schedule is based on a
specific equipment, then the program uses that equipment’s min-
ing rate and scheduled hours to establish the removal process.
The operation schedule for this equipment determines the sched-
ule for the rest of the fleet. This is especially applicable to the
use of a dragline. Because of the large amount of capital associ-
ated with a dragline, mine managers will try to maximize its
operation, thus making the remaining equipment subservient to
Fig. 8.4.31. Block definition in 3D. it.

In some deposits, such as lignites, the tonnage or the yardage
mined is not as important as the millions of Btu (kilocalories)
delivered to the plant. As a result, the production target is based
on the millions of Btu required. Consequently, the type and
number of equipment items selected is tied to the tonnage of
lignite that can produce the desired Btu (Badiozamani and Price,
1983).
Production schedules can be defined for long- or short-term
operations. Even though the process is similar on the surface,
there are many differences in detail. In long-range planning, the
main objective is to meet the overall production targets and
maximize the life of the mine. In short-range scheduling, the
engineer is concerned with the day-to-day operation; and his
main goal is to meet specified production targets, maximize the
equipment usage, and minimize the cost. The two objectives are
not necessarily contradictory, but their emphasis is different.
The latter is concerned with using available equipment, moving
available equipment to the most critical location to eliminate
bottle necks, balancing mining from various pits to meet the
grade or quality balance, and minimizing the effect of equipment
downtime. The former is concerned with the type of equipment
that best suits the long-range planning based on the geological
and geotechnical conditions, location and distribution of ore, the
balancing and minimizing the rehandled material, location of
spoil piles to minimize the cost of reclamation, and so on.
Many procedures and programs have been written to opti-
mize mining operations and sequencing (Lerchs and Grossman,
1965; Lipkewich and Borgman, 1969; Johnson and Mickle, 1970;
Reibell, 1971; Manula and Venkatarman, 1973; Davis et al.,
1973; Rogado, 1974; Lemieux, 1979). These optimization pro-
grams have had more success in hard-rock mining than any
other type of mining. The major lack of success may be attributed
to three factors. First, many of these programs are limited or
restricted in capability so that an engineer does not have the full
range of options or flexibility to direct the outcome. Second, the
more sophisticated programs are too complex for an engineer
without adequate knowledge of operations research and comput-
ing to be able to use them. Finally, up to now, the programs did
not provide proper interactive graphic tools to help the engineer
visualize the sequence of operation and see the effect of a decision
on an ongoing basis. With the introduction of PCs and graphics
workstations, many of the visualization problems are being re-
solved. An example of this type of program is provided by Gers-
hon (1988) where he uses a heuristic approach and the concept
of a ranked positional weight to arrive at the optimum mining
sequence.
As mentioned at the beginning of this segment, computerized
optimization, specially for soft-rock mining, may not be ideal or
practical. As a result many operations prefer engineer-assisted
“optimization” programs where an engineer can evaluate multi-
ple alternatives in a short period of time to arrive at the desired
617
Fig. 8.4.33. Bench specification both within
and across the cuts.
outcome. An example is EAGLES’ short-range production se-
quencing program where an engineer uses an interactive graphic
terminal to arrive at the desired sequence. This system is espe-
cially useful when one desires to blend various grades of product
to obtain a given product. The interactive nature of operation
allows the user to select individual blocks, cuts, or benches to be
mined. The program marks each unit specified and automatically
displays the tonnage, yardage, and quality or grade at the bottom
of screen. As the process continues, the results are reported
cumulatively. If any of the items exceed the desired target value,
the engineer can “un-mine” any sequence and reenter a new
sequence. This approach is very useful in an actual mining opera-
tion where a quick decision is required to change the mining
operation to alleviate a short-term problem in the pit.
Run-of-Mine Volumetric: At this stage, a run-of-mine volu-
metric is based on the blocks generated by the combination of
cuts, benches, block cuts, pit slope, and any other specified haul
roads or safety benches. The volumetric programs then use the
information for each block and the sequence specified by the
engineer, or from simulation, to arrive at the total volumes and
tonnages. The program reports in situ as well as run-of-mine
data. The data are reported for each seam, each bench, and each
cut within the area of interest. Also, if there were any thin-coal
units that were considered waste, coal tonnages that did not meet
high-grade coal specifications, or burden that was included as
ore; they will be reported separately as such for each seam. In
addition, quality information for each seam as well as cumulative
ratio and product recovery through the processing plant or wash
plant is reported. The detailed data are then summed up and
reported in the cumulative section at the end of each cut (Table
8.4.2). The cut information is repeated for each weekly, monthly,
or yearly period.
8.4.7.2 Underground Mine Planning
General coverage of the topic is contained in Chapters 17.1
and 17.3.
To initiate an underground mine plan, it is desirable to have
a computer program that allows freedom of choice to a designer,
that is, to start a plan from ground zero or to build upon pre-
viously developed panels or layouts. A selection menu provides
option for designing a panel, copying panels, or developing a
layout. The system then directs the designer’s actions according
to his selection. For example, if the plan is to start from scratch,
then one is asked for general mine-wide information such as
property boundaries, location of shafts, markers, etc. In the case
of panel design, the system moves to the panel design screen and
continues from there.
Design of the Mine Plan: The design phase of the mine
planning effort usually has two phases. In the first phase, the
panels to be used are designed or copied from an existing plan,
618
Table 8.4.2. Run-of-Mine Volumetric Report
SURVEY VOLUMETRIC CALCULATION R E P O R T
ACCURACY LEVEL: 1
AREA MINING METHOD
SUMMARY REPORT BY HORIZON
TOTAL AREA IS 97.80 ACRES
and in the second phase a layout is generated. The concept of
the panel as an object means that each panel can be constructed,
saved, copied, and modified as many times as required. These
objects inherit properties of the parent objects; that is, they main-
tain the original characteristics of the panel such as heading,
crosscut, and pillar configurations, unless modified by the user.
The collection of panels for a project is called the panel library.
Each panel can be placed on the layout or mine plan as many
times as required.
Panel Design: Polygons for room and pillar mining using
conventional equipment may be designed in three ways. Each
method utilizes pillar configuration parameters such as heading
and crosscut widths and pillar dimensions to calculate placement
within the polygon. Room and pillar mining is chosen as an
example because it is the most popular underground method and
because it lends itself readily to computer design.
The first method involves a combination of keyboard output
and graphical design, using information on overall panel length,
width, heading and crosscut widths, and rectangular pillar di-
mensions to generate a default rectangular panel. The generated
panel may be sized to the exact length and width indicated,
fitting as many full pillars into the panel as possible, or may be
automatically adjusted to fit the proper number of headings and
crosscuts into the panel.
The second method involves building a panel using only the
graphics cursor, in a free-form manner. This is particularly useful
when irregular shaped polygons must be constructed to meet
special circumstances. The panels will be generated to fit as many
pillars into the panel as possible.
The third method requires the user to input exact dimensions
for the panel. This method is very useful for situations where a
prespecific panel configuration is established for certain regions
of the country, for example coal mines in the Illinois No. 6
seams.
Note that although individual polygons each have their own
dimensions and pillar configurations, these polygons may be
joined at any angle to form the collection of polygons called a
MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 8.4.34. Generation of room and pillar or longwall panels.
panel (Figure 8.4.34). The panel object can then itself be copied
and modified as needed.
Panels in longwall mining, another popular underground
method, typically consist of many separate polygons, each with
its own characteristics. Graphically designing each polygon
would be quite tedious, as would entering coordinates into the
system. A simple interactive menu requires only that the user
supply the dimensions of the longwall block, pillar configura-
tions for the gateroads and back, and the dimensions of the
barrier pillar. From these dimensions, the system generates the
configuration of the longwall panel (Fig. 8.4.34). The panel itself
may then be modified using interactive graphics. It should be
noted that this automatic capability includes options for angling
the longwall block entry to allow more room for start-up opera-
tions, and designating areas for start-up and finishing. These
areas will have lower production rates than main longwalling
operations.
In each case, the pillars are generated as rectangles according
to the input pillar configuration information. The user may mod-
ify individual pillars by deleting, cutting, extending, or moving
them. In addition, any pillar may be moved to any location
within the panel polygon. This allows the user to compensate
for local conditions by interactively changing the pillars in that
area.
Such localized operations would be quite time-consuming
when building chevron or herringbone pillar configurations. To
meet these requirements, the program provides the ability to use
the first row of pillars in a polygon as a template. All options for
modifying pillars (e.g., cutting, shifting, moving) can be applied
during the design of the pillar template. Once the first row
has been designed, the same configuration will be replicated
throughout the rest of the polygon (Fig. 8.4.35). Users can al-
ways then modify individual pillars as required. Note that some
of the pillars have been modified for local mining conditions.
When panel design has been completed, the results are placed
in the panel library. This library is available to the design of the
current project and can also be used, through a utility program,
in other projects concurrently. Panels may be added to or deleted
from the library at any time. The library of panel objects can
save considerable amounts of design time and can ensure a high
degree of uniformity among various mine design projects.
 COMPUTER METHODS
Fig. 8.4.35. Generation of chevron pattern or modified pillars.
Layout Design: The layout is usually entered by combining
the digitizing of an existing mine plan with interactive graphics
design. The graphics design capabilities indicated in the panel
design is largely transferred to the layout design phase as well.
Any submain can be designed in default rectangular form,
as a freeform polygon, or can be entered using map coordinates.
The same pillar generation and modification capabilities of the
panel design phase are present in the layout design phase as well.
The basic steps in layout design follow an intuitive pattern.
Initially, basic mains and submains are designed; then panels
from the panel library are snapped or placed on the layout so
they are connected to the submains. Once a panel is selected
from the library, it can be placed on the layout as many times
as desired, at any orientation to the other polygons on the layout.
Additional submains can be added and the process repeated. It
should be noted that submains themselves can be copied to other
locations on the layout, so that the mine design can be quickly
created, cloned, or modified (Fig. 8.4.36).
The layout design phase also contains significant additional
capabilities. Any submain can be extended automatically to a
specified distance of a boundary feature such as a river, railroad,
or inhabited area. This feature allows the designer to be sure that
his layout meets required safety criteria.
Once designed, submains can be lengthened or shortened as
required. An important feature is that longwall panels can be
adjusted in either length or width by adjusting the size of the
longwall block. This allows a generalized longwall panel to be
used in many different areas of the layout. Once the longwall
panel is placed, its dimensions can be adjusted to meet local
layout conditions.
Existing Operations: Frequently, alternative mine plans are
to be developed for operations already in progress. To accom-
plish this, the initial step is to digitize the relevant portions of the
current mine plan, using specialized digitizing routines. These
routines require only that the outside boundaries of each polygon
be digitized. Pillar configuration information is entered using
an interactive menu system, and the pillars are automatically
619
generated. If desired, individual pillars can also be digitized to
reflect specialized conditions.
Another important capability is the use of surveyed informa-
tion to mark progress on the mine plan. The survey information
input can be direct from a total station or by using a forms-driven
survey system. The survey data then available for generation of
month-end reports or can be plotted on the layout maps.
Sequencing: Sequencing combines the who—what mining
systems and crews will be working—the what—what areas of
the mine plan are to be mined and in what order—the when—
at what times will these crews be working—and the how fast—
at what rates of advance will the mining systems be moving.
In order to develop the sequence, the system must have the
following:
1. The mining systems and crews that will be working.
2. The calendar showing the working schedule for each sys-
tem. The calendar system contains all information on shift
lengths and schedules, scheduled holidays, time off, partial shifts,
etc. As such, it reflects the actual work patterns for each crew.
3. The advance rates for each mining system. Advance rates
are given in tons recovered or distance traveled each shift. These
advance rates may be used interchangeably anywhere in the
sequence for any crew.
4. The “relative sequence” showing what polygons will be
mined and in what order. The relative sequence would be the
actual sequence if only one crew were used. When multiple crews
are introduced, the relative sequence provides information on
the general order in which areas may be mined.
5. Mining options, such as minimum and maximum mining
thickness, and leaving coal roofs and floors. These affect both
the rates of mining and the recovered tonnage and quality.
6. Production delays that are required by the nature of the
mining systems used. For example, a longwall crew may be
required to spend a considerable amount of time setting up before
longwalling can begin. These delays must be accounted for by
the sequencing system.
To facilitate the entry of this information, a combination of
forms-driven screens and graphic inputs are used. The objective
is to provide the maximum flexibility of input while minimizing
the amount of typing and work on the part of the engineer. Even
a complicated sequence can be entered in a short period of time.
An expert system is used to ensure that no area of the mine can
start production until all required development to reach that
area has been completed. Data from the geologic model concern-
ing ore body thicknesses, quality parameters, etc., is automati-
cally included in the calculations. Once the sequence has been
completely generated, the engineer can now review the results
via an animated sequencing and determine if the sequence meets
his requirements.
Feed Back: One key feedback mechanism found in the sys-
tem is the animated sequence feature. This shows the advance
by calendar month for all crews and can be generated for any
time period in the sequence. The animation demonstrates which
crews are working at what particular times and easily identifies
delays that may be able removed by revising the sequence, the
production rates, or crew schedules. This type of visual feedback
is very important because it utilizes the pattern recognition skills
of an experienced engineer to determine the occurrence and
nature of problems that would be very difficult to determine by
simple reports or static plots. For example, delays in finishing
longwall development activities can easily be located because the
longwall crews will be idle after they have finished their sched-
uled activities.
Other feedback mechanisms include hard-copy plots of the
sequence, showing the areas mined by each crew in a time period,
and a production report giving the raw and recovered tonnages
and quality parameters for selected time periods (month, quarter,
year, etc.). In addition, a crew utilization report provides a Gantt
chart of crew activities, showing periods of inactivity that may
be modified if necessary. With these tools, the engineer can now
modify the sequence to more closely meet his requirements. For
example, the quality produced in a time period may not meet
contractual requirements. This may require higher production
from an area of higher quality. One or more crews may be having
long periods of inactivity, suggesting that they be shifted to other
areas or furloughed.
Finally, the engineer can use current production information
to update the sequence and develop projections from this date
forward. All production plans are affected by outside events,
such as production that occurs too rapidly or too slowly, equip-
ment breakdowns, changes in marketing requirements, etc. The
ability to play what if games with a sequence, based on currently
available knowledge, is a major requisite of any mine planning
system.
8.4.8 MINE OPERATIONS
Mine operation programs provide the capability for main-
taining records of actual mining operations. These programs can
form a set of sophisticated tools for day-to-day monitoring of
operations, personnel, equipment, production, and maintenance.
In this segment, emphasis will be on the EAGLES’ operation
system and its application to surface mining, mainly for produc-
tion, equipment, surveying, and personnel. There will be no
discussion of items such as maintenance and inventory.
The system is organized around three databases, that is, daily
production, equipment operation, and volumetric (Fig. 8.4.37).
It allows daily monitoring of the mine and enables the exchange
of data between the planning department and operations. By use
of this system, deviations from a plan can be quickly identified
and necessary action taken to bring the operation in-line with
the plan or to change the plan to reflect the actual operational
conditions.
Another function of this system is to allow the resident
engineer at the mine to update the plan and the topographic
maps to reflect the latest mining advance, the position of equip-
ment, and the location of the pit. Prestripping and reclamation
progress is also monitored and mapped. The result of all these
activities can be reported on daily, weekly, and monthly reports
and maps.
8.4.8.1 Surveying
Surveying systems in recent years have improved to the point
where survey data can be captured in the field and transmitted
 COMPUTER METHODS
Fig. 8.4.37. Schematic of mine operations monitoring system.
electronically to the computer (Chapter 8.2). The total station
has eliminated many tedious surveying tasks. Despite the intro-
duction of total stations, many mines still are using the more
traditional surveying methods of stadia and chaining. To facili-
tate and provide for all diverse situations, an interactive screen-
driven menu assists the users at the mine site to capture informa-
tion from any source and incorporate it into the database (Fig.
8.4.38). Following data entry, the coordinates of each survey
point are calculated using the information provided for gun site,
back site, and each shot point. The program also provides for
loop closure and automatic adjustments. Input errors occur espe-
cially during the manual input so the program provides for
graceful error recovery procedure; and to ensure data input accu-
racy, it generates a plot of the survey points.
Four types of data are tagged specifically for later volumetric
calculations: toe, crest, highwall, and floor. These data are also
used to combine the location of the crest of a bench in previous
period with the present one to delineate the area mined during
this period. One may graphically join these to form a boundary
for volumetrics.
Stockpile surveys are captured in the same manner; however,
these data are identified separately to allow special interpolation
routines for volumetrics. The special interpolation routines are
SURVEY POINT DATA BASE - EDIT DATA
621
necessary to capture abrupt changes in the stockpile or account
for the central pipe. Stockpile volumetrics require special han-
dling because the survey information from the previous period
is used to generate a grid of the stockpile surface. The same
process is used for the survey data from the latest period. The
resulting surfaces are subtracted from one another to determine
the relative change during the period. A positive change will
indicate an addition to the stockpile, and a negative volume is
indicative of extraction. If the total volume of stockpile is re-
quired rather than the relative change, then the original ground
survey must be available, and therefore the system always retains
a copy of the original surface. The same process is followed for
maintaining a dump inventory.
8.4.8.2 Mine Production
To keep track of a mining operation, four activities have to
be monitored separately: (1) waste production, (2) ore produc-
tion, (3) reclamation activities, and (4) monthly mapping up-
dates. Waste production is based on the truck counts from the
pit, and the volume is calculated from survey data. Ore produc-
tion is also monitored by truck count, but the weights from the
weighing station are also entered into the database to compare
with tonnage calculated from the plan. As a general rule, ton-
nages calculated through multiplication of the mined-out area,
times the thickness of the ore, times the density of the ore,
never match the tonnage reported by weighing. The sources of
discrepancies are numerous. For one, in normal mining opera-
tions, the equipment removing the ore is not capable of removing
it to the exact interface of the ore and waste. As a result, in
certain areas a portion of the ore is left behind, and in other
areas a portion of the waste is added to the ore. This mixing of
ore and waste, usually referred to as reduction and dilution,
contributes to discrepancy between the two measurements. The
second source of discrepancy is from the inaccuracy introduced
by using only one density value for the entire unit. Experience
has shown that coal density varies from sample to sample, and
even though an average density is fine for approximating the
overall tonnage throughout the mine, it will not compare favor-
ably against localized direct measurements by each truck. The
third possible source is from the lack of ability to account accu-
rately for the fractures and gaps in the ore deposit while using
the areal extent.
Information gathered from various activities is recorded in
a database and is used to update the topographic map from
the pit, reclamation, or dump-site survey data. This process
eliminates the need for end-of-the-month aerial surveys of the
pit except for once or twice a year.
Equipment operating hours, scheduled and unscheduled
downtimes, delays, maintenance hours, and other data are re-
Fig. 8.4.38. Survey data input screen.
622 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
corded for each piece of equipment and stored in the equipment
database. This information can be used by the operation manager
to evaluate the merits of one type of equipment vs. the others,
or to check the production variations for different shifts and
even for various seasons. The information, once generated, will
be useful in developing production rates for the coming year’s
planning.
Drilling and blasting information is collected for the drilling
pattern, the amount of explosives used, the number of holes
drilled, and the depth of holes drilled. The summary report
provides information with respect to the amount of explosives
used for a given period and the drilling footage. Also, drilling
data from the blastholes and the ore-waste interface can be
passed to the geologic database for incorporation into the model-
ing. These data are used later as an added control point for
interpolation during revisions to the geologic model.
Personnel records contain information with regards to hiring
dates, absenteeism, seniority, and other necessary records. These
data are available to the foreman to use for assigning appropriate
jobs to the crew quickly and effectively. The result of all such
information can be reported on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis.
8.4.9 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE SELECTION
8.4.9.1 Selection Steps
Proper selection of hardware and software play an essential
role in acceptance, usage, and satisfaction of computerized sys-
tems by the users. Unfortunately, many software packages are
impressive and user-friendly on the surface, but on a more thor-
ough evaluation fall short of expectations. To avoid pitfalls and
assist the reader in the selection criteria, the following procedure
is provided. It should be noted, however, that the computer
industry is the fastest growing industry, and some of the general-
izations presented may not stand the test of time.
Software and not hardware should be the primary focus
of selecting a computerized system. Hardware costs have been
dropping steadily, and if the present trend continues, future
hardware will be even less expensive. Many companies overlook
the long-term and hidden costs associated with new software.
For example, for software to get widespread acceptance among
users, the computing department has to spend a long time as-
sisting the users and providing free demonstrations and training
before expecting user support for their effort. The user’s accept-
ance and willingness to use the system is essential for successful
implementation of any system. The computing department
should concentrate on the ease-of-use and applicability of soft-
ware to the user’s need. Also those in charge should select the
most suitable computer that can accomplish the task, rather than
trying to fit software to existing hardware. By trying to retrofit
the software to existing hardware, one may spend more than the
cost of new hardware while attempting to make the new software
work on the existing hardware.
The following approach is recommended to hardware and
software selection:
1. Define project scope specifications.
2. Establish a user committee.
3. Define objectives.
4. Define the system.
5. Write a request for proposal (RFP) for the system.
6. Select a short list of candidates.
7. Arrange for demonstration and testing.
8. Score and make final selection.
9. Select hardware.
10. Negotiate a contract.
11. Install hardware and software.
12. Train operating personnel.
13. Implement cooperative projects.
14. Evaluate and provide advance training.
8.4.9.2 Define Project Scope Specifications
The first step in system acquisition is project scope specifica-
tion. This task involves defining the scope of the project as far
as the type of system to be acquired, the overall company needs,
and the extent of computerization. If this is the first large system
the company is acquiring, questions such as centralized system
vs. a distributed computing environment should be decided on.
Also it is advantageous to determine which department and the
person in that department who will be responsible for main-
taining support for the rest of the company. If multiple mines
are involved, the method of access by the users in those mines
should be decided on at this time.
In essence, project scope should answer who the users are,
where the machine will be located, what the system will be used
for, how it will serve the users, and who will be responsible for
supporting it throughout the company.
8.4.9.3 Establish a User Committee
The next step is to assemble a representative user committee
from all the interested departments. This kind of representation
ensures participation from all interested parties and at the same
time can define their needs by direct participation. A major
advantage of early participation by user departments is their
involvement in the project, which will make them party to the
new development. This will help in breaking the barrier to entry
and acceptance instead of being perceived as another concept
that is being pushed on them by management. Care should be
taken to draft interested and enthusiastic participants rather
than the skeptical and ill-informed.
The initial task of this committee is to select a group of three
to five individuals who will be responsible for assembling all the
input from other users and will draft the final RFP. This group
will also participate in demonstration and testing of the products
by the short-listed companies. At least one senior geologist, a
senior mining engineer, a computer specialist, and a representa-
tive from management is recommended.
8.4.9.4 Define Objectives
The committee has to develop a precise and definitive mis-
sion objective. This objective must state the reason for computer-
ization and what exactly the system has to be able to provide.
For example, the objective may state, “To obtain an interactive,
graphic oriented, geologic, and mine planning system to simplify
operation, enhance productivity, and improve accuracy. The
system should handle shallow as well as steeply dipping seams.
The software should have been in use for more than five years
and should have at least five installed bases similar to the planned
operation.”
8.4.9.5 Define the System
System definition provides a detailed description of all the
required functions as well as desirable ones. In this study, every
area of interest is defined and detailed. For each section, perform-
ance criteria have to be defined. For example, for a geologic
database, the details may include having the capability of enter-
ing borehole names with up to 10 alphanumeric fields, X and Y
coordinates with up to 12 numeric fields, surface elevation, lati-
 COMPUTER METHODS
Table 8.4.3. System Selection Weight Factor Example
Weight
Factor
Geologic Model’s General Requirements
On-line help capability 6 will be eliminated from further consideration. The short list
Menu-driven screens 8 participants should be notified of the final selection and specific
Relational database 10
Screen, card, tape input 7
Auto validation process 5
Optional requirements
Ability to custom design reports 3
Ability to handle English and metric 4 8.4.9.8 Arrange for Demonstration and Testing
Total 350
Other modules of the system are given similar weight factors and
the overall system may be summarized as follows:
Digital terrain modeling 150
Geologic modeling 350
Mapping and contouring 230
Grid manipulation 160
Volumetric calculation 210
Mine planning 400
Total system 1500
tude and longitude, geophysical logs, and hole-deviation infor-
mation in azimuth and degree. In addition, there should be
ability to input data either directly from screen or via card or
tape punch. Log date, logger’s name, date drilled, and date
capped may be defined as desirable items. Other general informa-
tion may be included for systems operation such as computa-
tional speed, input screens, relational database, and range check-
ing requirements.
8.4.9.6 Write a Request for Proposal for the
System
Following compilation of the entire set of detailed-functional
requirements and system definition, an RFP is prepared and
copies distributed to all possible candidates for bidding. This
document should contain the objective definition, the detailed
system definition, along with a schedule of events and deadlines
for RFP submittal plus decision dates. The RFP should also
include a short description of the company’s primary functions,
the overall objective, and location of each mining operation.
8.4.9.7 Select a Short List of Candidates
To compile a short list of the companies that meet specified
software requirements, an unbiased weighing system should be
developed. The weighing system can be a range of numbers from
one to ten for each item, one being the lowest, and ten the
highest. The required functions have a much higher weight than
the desirable ones. Each function shall be divided into small
components and its usefulness to the overall system ranked ac-
cordingly. Table 8.4.3 provides an example of weight factors for
a geologic and surface mine planning system.
Functional requirements and associated weight factors
should be listed and distributed to all members of the selection
committee. Copies of received RFPs are also given to each panel-
ist to evaluate and rate each proposal according to the functional
requirements and the established weight functions. The result of
the committee’s evaluation is then summarized and the top three
to five respondents selected for further evaluation. It is a good
623
idea to establish the minimum number of points required for a
software vendor to make the short list ahead of time. If too many
companies make the short list in the first pass, then only the top-
ranking companies will be selected, and the lower-ranked ones
dates set up for actual testing and demonstration. All the other
respondents should be thanked for their participation and noti-
fied of not making the short list.
Arrangements should be made for each company on the
short list to demonstrate their software. It is recommended prac-
tice to visit all the companies on the short list and to participate
in a live demonstration. The reason for this is to allow the
selection committee to meet with each vendor, and while evaluat-
ing their product to evaluate their staff as well. The number of
people available for support, the stability of the company, the
length of time that the main support and programming staff
have been with the company, and their mode of operation are of
primary importance. These items will provide valuable insight
to the suitability of the company and its capability to provide
training, future support, and the speed by which they will be
able to correct software problems.
Companies that look good on paper may not be as impressive
in a live demonstration. It is advisable to have a representative
set of data which can be given to each company a few days in
advance of the visit. This is to eliminate the time necessary to
load and convert the data to the vendor’s computer system.
However, the test data should not be given to contenders too
much in advance because they may use it to acquaint themselves
with the data, thus obscuring the actual time required to model
a property.
The main idea in the collection of test data should not be to
discredit the software under investigation, but rather to find out
how many of the operations can be automated with each specific
software. It is impossible to find on-the-shelf systems that will
satisfy 100% of a company’s needs. A software satisfying 70 to
90% of a company’s requirements is more than satisfactory. The
remaining requirements have to be contracted out. As a result,
software houses that are willing to modify their software or
provide companion programs to satisfy the remaining needs
should be sought.
During the visit and demonstration, a similar weighing docu-
ment will help to rate the companies on their performance. The
testing process should include additional items such as compe-
tency of the demonstration staff, the ability of the company to
respond to questions, the documentation availability and com-
pleteness, the length of time to complete the test, and other items
of importance to each company.
8.4.9.9 Score and Make Final Selection
Upon completion of the testing process, the result of the
evaluation is tabulated and the highest-rated company normally
should be selected as the finalist. However, as it is the case with
any scoring system, it is usually very difficult to look at the
scores alone. There are other factors that cannot be quantified,
and care should be taken to somehow consider such factors.
For example, the working relation with the vendor’s staff may
become an issue of concern. The scoring system is fine to quantify
the overall performance of the system, but the committee’s judg-
ment should also be taken into consideration.
The final vendor should be notified of the decision and the
others should be thanked for their participation, and if necessary
624 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
a debriefing session should be set up to explain why they were not
selected. The strengths and weaknesses of their system should be
explained in a short meeting.
8.4.9.10 Select Hardware
Hardware selection has become both easier and harder at
the same time. It is easier because mining software is available
on most major hardware platforms. It is harder because of the
availability of too many options. The choices are no longer lim-
ited to mainframe and minis but to mainframe, minis, personal
computers (PCs), micros, and workstations. At the same time,
the number of vendors of hardware has increased extensively.
The user not only has to consider the machine type but has to
look at the viability of a vendor 10 and 20 years down the road.
One has to consider longevity of a vendor and availability of
the equipment, consistent with rapidly changing hardware and
software technology from the same vendor in the future. The
selection of hardware based on equipment capability is also be-
coming more difficult. Micros have the advantage of cost, ease
of use, and user acceptance; however, they do not have the
processing power of workstations or larger machines. Worksta-
tions provide the power necessary for large computations and
interactive graphics, but they have not been in the market long.
As a result, not enough software is available for them yet. This
problem will most probably be eliminated within a few years.
Software consumes a major portion of a system’s cost; there-
fore, during hardware selection, in addition to capability, the
number of users and aggregate cost of software plays a major
role in the final decision. If the number of users is small, or if
the majority of the users are not in a central location, then PCs
or workstations may be more appropriate. However, if there are
more than five to ten users in one location, then it is more cost
effective to have a central mini or mainframe system.
If possible, the final hardware selection should be based on
the recommendation of the vendor. It is important to select
hardware that best suits the capability of the software. Some
vendors may provide software on many different platforms, but
even these vendors have a preferred hardware platform. This
reference is based either on the machine that the original software
was developed on or the one that they are presently concentrating
their development efforts.
With reduction in the cost of workstations, if possible, it is
recommended to have a smaller central unit with a number
of distributed workstations. Such an arrangement serves two
purposes. First, provides a central repository for the entire com-
pany, and second, it permits distribution of the processing load.
The distributed processing will aid in increased productivity and
better utilization of the resources; it will eliminates bottlenecks
and transfers the load to the users’ sites.
8.4.9.11 Negotiate a Contract
Contract negotiation is as important as the selection process.
Among items to be included in the negotiations are training,
warranty period, maintenance support, frequency of mainte-
nance release, the unscheduled release in case of emergency,
and the availability of source code. The contract should clearly
specify the conditions under which the source code will become
available to the company in case the vendor decides to stop
maintenance or they become insolvent. Some companies prefer
having the source code in an escrow account. This arrangement
is satisfactory as long as there is a mechanism to ensure that the
escrow account always has the latest workable version of the
software, a task not easily accomplished. The reason for uncer-
tainty lies in the fact that, as a rule, a bank where the software
is kept does not have either the facility or the technical knowl-
edge to test and ensure the workability of the software provided
them.
8.4.9.12 Install Hardware and Software
Coordination among the hardware vendor, the software ven-
dor, and the company is the main concern during installation.
There are great numbers of items that need to be considered
before installation. The location of the hardware has to be identi-
fied, and proper wiring for electrical outlets, appropriate electric-
ity such as three-phase 220-V lines, air conditioning, raised floor,
patch panel for user terminals, and so on, have to be clearly
established and installed before the equipment’s arrival. Shipping
date for the hardware sets the date for installation. It is advisable
to have a member of the software vendor on hand to assist in
testing and acceptance of the hardware. Also the software vendor
should schedule installation of software concurrent or immedi-
ately after hardware installation.
8.4.9.13 Train Operating Personnel
As a general rule, companies do not spend as much time on
training as necessary. To have a successful installation, a great
amount of time should be devoted to staff training. The payoffs
of well-planned training is enormous, and assignment of a certain
number of users to the initial training is essential. It is advanta-
geous to have a preliminary training course so that the users will
become acquainted with the overall system in a short time. Then
they should be given a project to complete using the new system.
One of two approaches may be taken at this stage. The first is,
after initial training, to let users struggle with the new system
on their own, which is usually not very productive, especially if
they have to meet a project deadline. A second approach and a
much more appropriate one, is to have the users work on a project
while a representative of the software vendor is present. The
vendor’s staff should not perform the tasks; rather he/she should
assist in using the correct application programs and keeping the
users from taking a wrong turn. Even though the second method
is costlier at the start, it will pay for itself in increased productiv-
ity and user acceptance in the long run. User acceptance of
the system cannot be overemphasized. It makes the difference
between a system that will be used extensively and a system that
will be forgotten in few years.
8.4.9.14 Implement Cooperative Projects
The best strategy for successful implementation of a new
hardware and software system of the magnitude discussed pre-
viously is a three-step process. The first step is to have initial
training for a limited number of users. These users may be re-
ferred to as super-users, for lack of a better term. After the initial
training, the software company should be asked to complete a
project in the client’s office, where the super-users will partici-
pate as assistants. During this process, the super-users gain first-
hand knowledge of the usage of the system and the speed with
which a project can be completed using the software. At the
same time, they will gain valuable lessons in using the total
package at once rather than at a later date when they have
forgotten the lessons from the training. In the third stage, the
roles are reversed—that is, the super-users perform a project
while a member of the software company monitors their usage
of the software and interjects guidance when necessary.
At the completion of cooperative project implementation,
the super-users are ready to train other members of the company
by conducting similar training and cooperative projects through-
 COMPUTER METHODS
out the company. The payoff of such a plan is very high, because
it can contribute right from the beginning to the correct usage
of the software. In addition, the super-users are available at any
time to assist new users and to distribute the new technology to
the rest of the staff. This approach will reduce the need for
continuous dependence on the software vendor as well.
8.4.9.15 Evaluate and Provide Advance Training
To complete the process, a review and advance training
session should be set up for the super-users and others, three to
six months following the system usage. After six months of
usage, the users are more confident of their ability and can
question the software vendor on specifics of their applications.
The software vendor should be ready to respond to the users’
questions. At the same time, they may provide advanced training
plus shortcuts to accomplish the more difficult tasks. As men-
tioned before, on-the-shelf software cannot usually satisfy all the
requirements of a company. Additional requirements that the
existing software cannot provide may be discussed, and new
development can be initiated during the advanced training ses-
sion. It is a much better approach to wait for at least six months
of usage before modifications and additional capabilities are re-
quested. There is a tendency to overreact to functions provided
by a software that are different from the standard procedures in
a company. Users usually want to maintain familiar routines and
resist any changes in approach. However, if they are given the
opportunity to use the system as is for a period of time and make
their recommendations for change after usage, then they will
have a more objective viewpoint. This procedure will eliminate
unnecessary modifications and additional cost to the company.
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