Sequence stratigraphy tools

Outcrop and well data

Seismic data
Recognition of surfaces, facies
Importance of the different types of data
Outcrop and well data in sequence stratigraphy

Well and outcrop data allow the definition of bedding detail

that seismic does not, and hence permit a more detailed
sequence stratigraphic detail.

In the case of well logs, we are limited to one dimension, and

core data is limited to sections of the borehole, limiting our
direct contact with the rocks for detailed information such as
depositional environments, age, etc..

Outcrop data is used as analogue examples of the

subsurface, and eventhough a lot of information can be
extracted in 1D, 2D and 3D, ideal outcrops are limited, and
are just an approximated window of observation of what may
be occurring in the subsurface
Definition of parasequences, parasequence sets and system tracts from outcrop
and core data

Parasequences can be identified with confidence in shallow marine and shoreline

successions, and more difficult on deeper water environments

-Recognition of diagnostic minerals is possible such as glauconite, phosphate and

marine carbonate
-Lags which may record the transgression or regression of the shoreface, but they may
be thin
- Flooding surfaces and correlative surfaces (e.g. amalgmated sandstones) may be
traceable
- Depending on the density of the outcrop or core data, parasequence boundaries can
be correlated

Parasequence stacking patterns and system tracts:

-In both outcrop and core data is easily to recognized based on patterns of
progradation, aggradation and retrogradation

Key surfaces:
- Care needs to be taken when interpreting the surfaces and their regional context.
Limitation is the horizontal scale of observation, e..g, the fact that flooding surfaces and
sharp-based channels are observed, does not mean that they are maximum flooidng
surfaces and major sequence boundaries
Seismic scale outcrop example: last Chance Canyon, west Texas

Basin direction

~ 2 km
Outcrop examples
Progradational Parasequence set: Shallowing upward succession of strata

Shallow water facies

Deeper water facies

www.uga.edu/~strata/sequence/tracts.html
Aggradational Parasequence set: Relatively constant and cyclic
succession of strata and parasequences

Shallow water facies

Deeper water facies
Shallow water facies
Deeper water facies

www.uga.edu/~strata/sequence/tracts.html
Retrogradational Parasequence set: Deepening upward
succession of strata
www.uga.edu/~strata/sequence/tracts.html

Deeper water facies

Shallow water facies

Sequence stratigraphic framework from Eocene deposits in Svalbard
Storvola, Svalbard (seismic scale example)

Plink-Bjorklund, 2005
Storvola, Svalbard (seismic scale example)

Plink-Bjorklund, 2005
Storvola, Svalbard (seismic scale example)

Plink-Bjorklund, 2005
Well logs

The only accurate subsurface representation of the lateral

distribution of facies, and hence reservoir continuity, is a
chronostratigraphic framework. Extreme care must be
taken to correlate lithologic units within cyclic sedimentary
rock packages. Subsurface correlation based upon a
lithostratigraphic datum may misinterpret the lateral
distribution of facies. Most well log interpretation are based
on the Gamma-Ray tool, as it is particularly sensitive to the
presence of argillaceous (shale-mud) material.

Other possible tools to correlate logs are the density, sonic

and neutron, but one must keep in mind that these are
porosity tools, and the depositional fabric and porosity of
the rocks may have been altered by post-depositional
processes (diagenesis)
Example of a Gamma-ray

The most used well logs for correlations

are SP and GR.

Gamma-Ray: Measures the natural

radioactivity of rocks penetrated by the
borehole. In sedimentary rocks, most
gamma radiation is emitted by uranium,
potassium and thorium present in
minerals and organic matter. In most
sections, the gamma ray log reflects clay
content. Because clay minerals form part
of the rock matrix, their identification can
be useful on evaluating the depositional
environment.
GR RES SONIC NEUTRON
 GR log patterns

1. Cleaning-up (Coarsening upward) trend (funnel

shape); a gradual upward decrease in gamma response.
In shallow marine settings, this trend reflects a change
from shale-rich into sand-rich lithology and upward
increase in depositional energy with shallowing-
upward and coarsening. In deep marine settings, this
trend reflects an increase in the sand contents of turbidite
bodies. This trend also may indicate gradual change from
clastic to carbonate deposition.

Dirtying-up (fining upward) trend (bell shape); a gradual upward

increase in gamma response: This trend may reflect upward fining
(eg: a lithology change from sand to shale) or upward fining of
sand beds in a thinly interbedded sand-shale unit. This trend
usually implies a decrease in depositional energy. In a non-
marine setting, fining upward is predominant within meandering or
tidal channel deposits with an upward decrease in fluid velocity
within a channel (coarser sediments at base of channel). In a
shallow-marine setting, this trend usually reflects an upward
deepening and a decrease in depositional energy (shoreline
retreat). In deep-marine settings, this trend reflects waning of
submarine fans (reducing of sand contents).
sands. Evaporites also can have a cylindrical gamma trend.
Boxcar trend (cylindrical
or block shape) with low
gamma and sharp
boundaries and no
internal change: this
trend is predominant in
fluvial channel sands,
turbidites (typically with Irregular trend with
greater range of lack of character: this
thickness), and aeolian trend represents
sands. Evaporites also aggradation of shales
can have a cylindrical or silts and can occur
gamma trend. in other settings.
Additionally two in-
between trends can be
recognized:

Bow trend (symmetrical or barrel)

with gradual decrease then gradual
increase in gamma response: this is
usually the result of progradation
and retrogration of clastic
sediments.
Summary of well log
response of a variety of
different clastic
depositional systems
assembled by Malcolm
Rider (1996)
Recognition of depositional systems and facies: deep water turbidites

From Galloway and Hobday (1996)

Recognizing key surfaces:
Interpetation of unconformity-sequence boundary and a maximum flooding surface
(Mitchum et al., 1993)
 KRA-1X
KF-1X

S2

Megasequence 1
S2a

S1b Example of stacking

pattern using well logs

MFS
Retrograding

SB
Prograding

MFS
2D Well log interpretation of a Canyon axis
Biostratigraphy
Best type of data for paleo-environment and age determination

Emery and Myers, 1996

Chronostratigraphic
range of useful
microfossil for
determining paleo-
environment

Emery and Myers, 1996

Determining paleoenvironment

Emery and Myers, 1996

Bathymetric classification and environments
 What about in non marine or transitional area: Fossils? or pollen!

Problem onland and in transitional environments is the lack of fossils (marine)

Seismic reflection data: Is the data that changed our
understanding of the stratigraphy and gave birth to
sequence stratigraphic concepts
2D seismic: A single vertical section of seismic data consisting of numerous
adjacent traces acquired sequentially.

TWT (sec)
100 km

3D seismic: A set of numerous closely-spaced seismic lines that provide a high

spatially sampled measure of the subsurface. The resultant data set can be
"cut" in any direction but still display a well sampled seismic section. This type
of data provides more accurate subsurface maps than can be constructed on
the basis of more widely spaced 2D seismic lines
0

4D seismic: Three-dimensional (3D) seismic data acquired at different times

over the same area to assess changes in a producing hydrocarbon reservoir
with time. Changes may be observed in fluid location and saturation, pressure
and temperature.
What makes a seismic reflector? Differences in Acoustic impedance
What is acoustic impedance? Velocity (v) x density (ρ)

How much energy will be reflected from an

interface between two beds depends on the
difference in physical properties between them .
In particular, it is the change in acoustic
impedance (the product of the velocity - v -
From Hart, 2000 times the density - ρ) that determines the
reflection coefficient .
 Geologic significance of seismic reflections

Except for fluid contacts, diagentic zones and other secondary effects
which may cut across strata, primary seismic reflections are in
response to significance impedance (density/velocity) changes
along 1) stratal surfaces or 2) unconformities. Stratal surfaces are
bedding contacts which represent relict depositional surfaces rather than
arbitrarly defined lithostratigraphic boundaries (see Mitchum et al.,
1977). Unconformities are surfaces of erosion or non-deposition which
represent gaps in the geologic record.
Configuration of reflections is principally geologic in origin,
controlled by bedding patterns that are, in turn, related to
depositional or flooding processes, original depositional
topography or bathymetry, erosion, or later developed fluid
contacts. The continuity of reflections depend on the continuity of
the density-velocity contrast along the stratal surface; continuity
of the bedding is directly related to depositional processes and
environments.

- Amplitude: controlled by the degree of velocity-density contrast

along stratal surfaces

- Frequency: Induced by the seismic energy source

- Interval velocity: Provides information on lithology, porosity, and

fluid composition

- External geometry: provides exceedingly important insight on

lithofacies. Changes in reflections may be used to infer facies
changes.
There is a tendency in geosciences that seismic reflections will transgress time
lines. However, there is a general concensus on that seismic reflections
generated by stratal surfaces are isochronous (time constrained) and may
cross lithofacies boundaries. Consequently, the seismic reflection (excluding
unconformities) may pass laterally through a variety of time- transgressive
lithofacies

Example of a seismic line showing progradational facies downlapping basinward

Resolution Resolution

Seismic well
Vertical: Low Vertical: high
Horizontal: High Horizontal: low
The seismic stratigraphic approach permits the explorationist to infer
subjective stratigraphic relationships, to interpret depositional processes,
and to invoke lithofacies/depositional models, in addition to conventional
structural mapping. The approach permits interpretation of lithofacies,
unconformities, paleobathymetry, isochronous correlations, subsidence and
tilting history, facies changes, and general depositional history, among others.
Reflection terminations
Lapout, onlap and downlap: Describe stratal (reflection)
terminations at the base of sequences or system tracts
produced by depositional , i.e., aggradation, progradation and
retrogradation.

Toplap: describes a non-depositional hiatus resulting most

commonly from fluvial by-pass across a deltaic/coastal. Toplap
is evidence of sediment supply greater than the
accommodation space.

Boundaries of depositional sequences

•Erosional
•Lapout (hiatus)
•Concordant (hiatus)
•Conformable (beyond hiatus)
Reflection terminations
Principal types of seismic reflection configurations and external geometry

•Parallel/divergent
•Progradational
•Mounded/draped
•Onlap/fills
Parallel/divergent configurations

Reflecting their extensive,

relatively uniform lateral extent in
most basins. These facies were
deposited 1) on wide, shallow,
relatively stable shelves and
platforms; 2) by prograding and
aggrading shallow marine and
subaerial delta platform facies; or 3)
on broad basin plains

External geometry of shelf/platform,

delta platform, and basin- plain
facies is normally tabular, sheet, or
wedge-shaped.
Progradational configurations

It is the easiest to recognize on seismic

facies. In dip section, reflections are
inclined relative to underlying and
overlying reflections, and have been called
offlap or clinoform. This seismic facies
are generated in response to lithofacies
deposited within prodelta and/or slope
environments during basinward shifting of
shelf/platform or delta systems
(progradation).

•Oblique: Suggest high energy deposition

(e.g. sediment supply rates > relative sea
level rise)
•Sigmoidal: Suggest low energy
deposition (e.g. sediment supply rates <
relative sea level rise)
•Shingled
•Complex/composites
Example of clinoforms in a prograding platform
Mounded and draped configurations

Shelf carbonates/mounds/drapes: Mounded

reflection configurations on shelves or platforms are
generally in response to biogenic carbonate
buildups such as shelf edge, reef, or bank. E.g. Shelf
edge carbonate buildups are commonly reflector free
or chaotic and they grade into shelf/platform
reflections and basinward into progradational
clinoforms. Superposed strata may drape over
mounds.

Turbidite mounds (deep water) and hemipelagic

drapes: In clastics, mounded facies are constructed
by slumping and turbidity flow off the shelf edge,
commonly deposited during lowstand systems.
Typically chaotic mounded slope and basin floor
facies are also deposited by slumping in front of
prograding highstand systems, along starving shelf
edges.

Draped relection configurations result from long

periods of hemipelagic (suspended)
sedimentation which blankets the basinal plain and
bathymetric relief
Example of a deep marine fan, showing internal
and external geometries that can be used to
defined the different facies
What can you tell about the evolution of the basin and the different depositional systems?
Onlap-Fill configurations

They may occur on a shelf as coastal onlap

within incise valleys, deposited in response
to sea level rise. A variety of seismic facies
display some degree of offlap fill,
characterized by reflection terminations
against the sides of basin-floor depressions,
walls of eroded canyons and troughs, and
landward against eroded slope clinoforms.

Coastal: incised valley onlap fill

Marine:
Continental rise/slope front
Submarine canyon
Chaotic, mounded, prograded, divergent
onlap fills
 Other examples of seismic reflection
configurations that provide information on the
depositional environment
 Seismic interpretation

Example of an incised valley system

Well log correlation

Time slice interpretation

Posamentier, 2001
Building the stratigraphic framework for an incised valley systems

Posamentier, 2001
Example of a
Stratigraphic framework
for the deposition of shelf
sand deposits (submarine
dunes)

Posamentier, 2002
3D surface of a mapped present day sea floor showing geometries along a
shelf edge to basin section

Cartwright, 2005
Example of prograding seismic sequences showing different
stages of basin fill, seismic geometries and configurations
3D seismic example of mass transport
complexes and levee channels off the slope of
Trinidad

Moscardelli, 2007
Interpretation of seismic facies

Moscardelli, 2007
Interpreting seismic facies and
understanding depositional processes
(case of mass transport complexes)
Example of 3D seismic
characterization fo seismic
facies in a slope canyon
setting

Posamentier and Kolla, 2003

The Bahamas platform
Example of a drowned carbonate bank and platform
Suggested methodology for seismic stratigraphic analysis
Summary