Flow Past Immersed Bodies

Chapter-7

Dr. Ajoy D
Fellow, Institution of Engineers
The development of the velocity boundary layer in a pipe.

The developed average velocity profile is parabolic in laminar flow, as

shown, but somewhat flatter in turbulent flow.
Reynolds Number and Geometry Effects
Comparison of flow past a
sharp flat plate at low and high
Reynolds numbers: (a)
laminar, low-Re flow; (b) high-
Re flow.
Reynolds number = UL/γ
Where γ is Kinematic viscosity
= μ/ρ
U = Uniform stream velocity
L = Characteristics length
Boundary Layer Thickness
We define the boundary layer thickness δ as the locus of points where
the velocity u parallel to the plate reaches 99 percent of the external
velocity U. The accepted formulas for flat-plate flow, and their
approximate ranges, are

Where Rex = Ux/γ is called the local Reynolds number of the flow along
the plate surface. The turbulent flow formula applies for Rex greater
than approximately 106 .
Concept of Boundary Layer Thickness
(a) standard boundary layer thickness
(b) boundary layer displacement thickness.
Control volume analysis of drag force on a flat plate due to
boundary shear.
This result was first derived by Theodore von Kármán. It relates the
friction drag on one side of a flat plate to the integral of the momentum
ρu(U0 - u) across the trailing cross section of the flow past the plate.
Since (U0 – u) vanishes as y increases, the integral has a finite value.
Equation below is an example of momentum integral theory for
boundary layers.
 Kármán’s Analysis of the Flat Plate
The boundary layer momentum thickness is defined in terms of
momentum flux.
Another boundary layer thickness definition, the boundary layer
momentum thickness, θ, is often used when determining the drag on an
object.

Momentum thickness is thus a measure of total plate drag. Kármán

then noted that the drag also equals the integrated wall shear stress
along the plate:
Momentum Integral Relation
Kármán derived the momentum integral relation for flat-plate boundary
layer flow which is valid for either laminar or turbulent flat-plate flow.
The Boundary Layer Equations
Derivation for Two-Dimensional Flow: The complete equations of
motion consist of continuity and the x- and y-momentum relations:

Prandtl correctly deduced that a shear layer must be very thin if the
Reynolds number is large, so that the following approximations apply:
Prandtl’s two Boundary Layer Equations
The net result is that the three full equations of motion are reduced to
Prandtl’s two boundary layer equations for two-dimensional
incompressible flow:
The Flat-Plate Boundary Layer: Laminar Flow
For laminar flow past the plate, the boundary layer equations can be
solved exactly for u and v, assuming that the free-stream velocity U is
constant ( dU/dx = 0).
Since u/U approaches 1.0 only as y ∞, it is customary to select the
boundary layer thickness δ as that point where u/U = 0.99. From the
table, this occurs at η ≈ 5.0
The Blasius Velocity Profile
Table
With the profile known, Blasius, of course, could also compute the wall
shear and displacement thickness:

The drag increases only as the square root of the plate length. The
non-dimensional drag coefficient is defined as

Thus, for laminar plate flow, CD equals twice the value of the skin
friction coefficient at the trailing edge.
 …..contd. Laminar Flow…..

Computation of θ from the profile u/U or from CD gives

Turbulent Flow
There is no exact theory for turbulent flat-plate flow, although there are
many elegant computer solutions of the boundary layer equations using
various empirical models for the turbulent eddy viscosity.

A curve fitting equation for skin friction and drag in the fully rough
regime:
Drag coefficient of
laminar and turbulent
boundary layers on
smooth and rough flat
plates
For Transition region, Schlichting suggests the following curve fitting for
transition drag curves, depending on the Reynolds number Retrans
Problem 7.3
A sharp flat plate with L = 50 cm and b = 3 m is parallel to a stream of
velocity 2.5 m/s. Find the drag on one side of the plate, and the
boundary thickness ? at the trailing edge, for (a) air and (b) water at
20°C and 1 atm.
Problem-2
Engine oil at 40°C flows over a 5-m-long flat plate with a free-stream
velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the drag force acting on the plate per unit
width.
In fluid dynamics, an adverse pressure gradient occurs when the static
pressure increases in the direction of the flow. Mathematically this is
expressed as: dP / dx > 0 for a flow in the positive x-direction.
This is important for boundary layers, increasing the fluid pressure is
akin to increasing the potential energy of the fluid, leading to a reduced
kinetic energy and a deceleration of the fluid.
 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient
• It has been observed that the flow is reversed at the vicinity of the
wall under certain conditions.
• The phenomenon is termed as separation of boundary layer.
• Separation takes place due to excessive momentum loss near the
wall in a boundary layer trying to move downstream against
increasing
• pressure, i.e. dP/dx > 0 , which is called adverse pressure gradient.
 Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer profiles

The adverse pressure gradient makes the velocity gradient at the wall
less steep and, unless the fluid is extremely viscous, eventually will
cause flow reversal
Boundary layer growth and separation in a nozzle–diffuser configuration
 Experimental External Flows
Boundary layer theory gives us a great qualitative grasp of viscous flow
behaviour; but, because of flow separation, the theory does not
generally allow a quantitative computation of the complete flow field.
Therefore experimentation is the key to treating external flows.
Literally thousands of papers in the literature report experimental data
on specific external viscous flows. This section gives a brief description
of the following external flow problems:
1. Drag of two- and three-dimensional bodies:
• Blunt bodies.
• Streamlined shapes.
2. Performance of lifting bodies:
• Aerofoils and aircraft.
• Projectiles and finned bodies
• Birds & insects
 Drag and Lift
It is a common experience that a body
meets some resistance when it is forced to
move through a fluid, especially a liquid.
A fluid may exert forces and moments on
a body in and about various directions.
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body
in the flow direction is called drag.
The components of the pressure and wall
shear forces in the direction normal to the
flow tend to move the body in that
direction, and their sum is called lift.
 Drag of Immersed Bodies
Any object of any shape when immersed in a fluid stream will
experience forces and moments from the flow. If the body has arbitrary
shape and orientation, the flow will exert forces and moments about all
three coordinate axes.
 Characteristic Area
Drag coefficients are defined by using a characteristic area A, which
may differ depending on the body shape:

The area A is usually one of three types:

1. Frontal area, the body as seen from the stream; suitable for thick,
stubby bodies, such as spheres, cylinders, cars, trucks, missiles,
projectiles, and torpedoes.
2. Planform area, the body area as seen from above; suitable for
wide, flat bodies such as wings and hydrofoils.
3. Wetted area, customary for surface ships and barges.
 Friction Drag and Pressure Drag
The difference between the high pressure in the front stagnation region
and the low pressure in the rear separated region causes a large drag
contribution called pressure drag.
This is added to the integrated shear stress or friction drag of the body,

The relative contribution of friction and pressure drag depends upon the
body’s shape, especially its thickness.
 Delaying Boundary Layer Separation
Separation occurs when flow reversal occurs. We can increase the rate
of momentum diffusion by increasing the viscosity to delay the
separation:
 Effect of Drag Coefficient
The importance of streamlining in reducing drag of a body (CD based
on frontal area)
 Creeping Flow
If the Reynolds number is very small, Re << 1, the acceleration terms in
the Navier-Stokes equations are negligible. The flow is termed
creeping flow.
If the geometry is simple (for example, a sphere or disk) closed-form
solutions can be found and the body drag can be computed.
 Force on Lifting Bodies
Lifting bodies (aerofoils, hydrofoils, or vanes) are intended to provide a
large force normal to the free stream and as little drag as possible.
The planform area Ap = bc
 Drag and Lift Coefficient
The drag and lift forces depend on the density ρ of the fluid, the
upstream velocity V, and the size, shape, and orientation of the body. It
is not practical to list these forces for a variety of situations. Instead, it is
found convenient to work with appropriate dimensionless numbers that
represent the drag and lift characteristics of the body. These numbers
are the drag coefficient CD and the lift coefficient CL , and they are
defined as
Transient stages in the
development of lift:
(a) start-up: rear stagnation
point on the upper surface: no
lift;
(b) sharp trailing edge induces
separation, and a starting vortex
forms: slight lift;
(c) starting vortex is shed, and
streamlines flow smoothly from
trailing edge: lift is now 80
percent developed;
(d) starting vortex now shed far
behind, trailing edge now very
smooth: lift fully developed.
 Stalling of Aerofoil
As the angle of attack is increased, the upper-surface adverse gradient
becomes stronger, and generally a separation bubble begins to creep
forward on the upper surface. At a certain angle α = 15 to 20°, the flow
is separated completely from the upper surface, as in figure. The
aerofoil is said to be stalled: Lift drops off markedly, drag increases
markedly, and the foil is no longer flyable.
Coefficient of lift is defined as

Where h/c is the maximum camber expressed as a fraction of the chord.

The finite-span lift becomes

The stall speed, for an aircraft whose lift supports its weight:
Reduction in Lift Leakages