Time reversal (reversal of motion) The fact that the operator K does not change the base

The Newton equations of motion are invariant under the states can be justified like:
transformation t −→ −t: if x(t) is a solution of the The state |a0 i represented in the base {|a0 i} maps to the
equation column vector  
mẍ = −∇V (x) 0
 0 
then also x(−t) is a solution.  .. 
 
At the moment t = 0 let there be a particle at the point  . 
 
x(t = 0) with the momentum p(t = 0). Then a particle at 0
 0 
|a i 7→ 
 1 ,

the same point but with the momentum −p(t = 0)  
follows the trajectory x(−t).  0 
 
In the quantum mechanical Schrödinger equation  . 
 .. 
∂ψ

h̄2 2
 0
ih̄ = − ∇ + V ψ, which is unaffected by the complex conjugation.
∂t 2m
Note The effect of the operator K depends thus on the
due to the first derivative with respect to the time, choice of the basis states.
ψ(x, −t) is not a solution eventhough ψ(x, t) were, but If U is a unitary operator then the operator θ = U K is
ψ ∗ (x, −t) is. In quantum mechanics the time reversal has antiunitary.
obviously something to do with the complex conjugation. Proof: Firstly
Let us consider the symmetry operation
θ(c1 |αi + c2 |βi) = U K(c1 |αi + c2 |βi)
|αi −→ |α̃i, |βi −→ |β̃i. = (c∗1 U K|αi + c∗2 U K|βi)
We require that the absolute value of the scalar product = (c∗1 θ|αi + c∗2 θ|βi),
is invariant under that operation:
so θ is antiliniear. Secondly, expanding the states |αi and
|hβ̃|α̃i| = |hβ|αi|. |βi in a complete basis {|a0 i} we get
θ
X
There are two possibilities to satisfy this condition: |αi −→ |α̃i = ha0 |αi∗ U K|a0 i
a0
1. hβ̃|α̃i = hβ|αi, so the corresponding symmetry X
operator is unitary, that is = ha |αi∗ U |a0 i
0

a0
†
X
hβ|αi −→ hβ|U U |αi = hβ|αi. = hα|a0 iU |a0 i
a0
The symmetries treated earlier have obeyed this
condition. and
X X
2. hβ̃|α̃i = hβ|αi∗ = hα|βi, so the symmetry operator |β̃i = ha0 |βi∗ U |a0 i ↔ hβ̃| = ha0 |βiha0 |U † .
cannot be unitary. a0 a0

We define the antiunitary operator θ so that Thus the scalar product is

XX
hβ̃|α̃i = hα|βi∗ hβ̃|α̃i = ha00 |βiha00 |U † U |a0 ihα|a0 i
a00 a0
θ(c1 |αi + c2 |βi) = c∗1 θ|αi + c∗2 θ|βi, X
= hα|a0 iha0 |βi = hα|βi
where a0
= hβ|αi∗ .
|αi −→ |α̃i = θ|αi, |βi −→ |β̃i = θ|βi
The operator θ is thus indeed antiunitary.
If the operator satisfies only the last condition it is called Let Θ be the time reversal operator. We consider the
antilinear. transformation
We define the complex conjugation operator K so that |αi −→ Θ|αi,
Kc|αi = c∗ K|αi. where Θ|αi is the time reversed (motion reversed) state.
If |αi is the momentum eigenstate |p0 i, we should have
We present the state |αi in the base {|a0 i}. The effect of
the operator K is then Θ|p0 i = eiϕ | − p0 i.
X K
X Let the system be at the moment t = 0 in the state |αi.
|αi = |a0 iha0 |αi −→ |α̃i = ha0 |αi∗ K|a0 i
At a slightly later moment t = δt it is in the state
a0 a0
 
iH
X
0 ∗ 0
= ha |αi |a i. |α, t0 = 0; t = δti = 1 − δt |αi.
a0 h̄
We apply now, at the moment t = 0, the time reversal and
operator Θ and let the system evolve under the
Hamiltonian H. Then at the moment δt the system is in hβ| ⊗ |αi = hγ|αi = hα̃|γ̃i
the state   = hα̃|Θ ⊗† |βi = hα̃|Θ ⊗† Θ−1 Θ|βi
iH
1− δt Θ|αi. = hα̃|Θ ⊗† Θ−1 |β̃i.
h̄
If the motion of the system is invariant under time In partcular, for a Hermitean observable A we have
reversal this state should be the same as
hβ|A|αi = hα̃|ΘAΘ−1 |β̃i.
Θ|α, t0 = 0; −δti,
We say that the observable A is even or odd under time
i.e. we first look at the state at the earlier moment −δt reversal depending on wheter in the equation
and then reverse the direction of the momentum p.
ΘAΘ−1 = ±A
Mathematically this condition can be expressed as
    the upper or the lower sign holds. This together with the
iH iH
1− δt Θ|αi = Θ 1 − (−δt) |αi. equation
h̄ h̄ hβ|A|αi = hα̃|ΘAΘ−1 |β̃i
Thus we must have imposes certain conditions on the phases of the matrix
elements of the operator A between the time reversed
−iHΘ|i = ΘiH|i, states. Namely, they has to satisfy
where |i stands for an arbitrary state vector. hβ|A|αi = ±hβ̃|A|α̃i∗ .
If Θ were linear we would obtain the anticommutator
relation In particular, the expectation value satisfies the condition
HΘ = −ΘH.
hα|A|αi = ±hα̃|A|α̃i.
If now |ni is an energy eigenstate corresponding to the
eigenvalue En then, according to the anticommutation Example The expectation value of the momentum
rule operator p.
HΘ|ni = −ΘH|ni = (−En )Θ|ni, We require that
and the state Θ|ni is an energy eigenstate corresponding hα|p|αi = −hα̃|p|α̃i,
to the eigenvalue −En . Thus most systems (those, whose
energy spectrum is not bounded) would not have any so p is odd, or
ground state. ΘpΘ−1 = −p.
Thus the operator Θ must be antilinear, and, in order to
The momentum eigenstates satisfy
be a symmetry operator, it must be antiunitary. Using
the antilinearity for the right hand side of the condition pΘ|p0 i = −ΘpΘ−1 Θ|p0 i
−iHΘ|i = ΘiH|i = (−p0 )Θ|p0 i,

i.e. Θ|p0 i is the momentum eigenstates correponding to

we can write it as
the eigenvalue −p0 :
ΘiH|i = −iΘH|i.
Θ|p0 i = eiϕ | − p0 i.
So, we see that the operators commute:
Similarly we can derive for the position operator x the
ΘH = HΘ. expressions

ΘxΘ−1 = x
Note We have not defined the Hermitean conjugate of
the antiunitary operator θ nor have we defined the Θ|x0 i = |x0 i
meaning of the expression hβ|θ. That being, we let the
when we impose the physically sensible condition
time reversal operator Θ to operate always on the right
and with the matrix element hβ|Θ|αi we mean the hα|x|αi = hα̃|x|α̃i.
expression (hβ|) · (Θ|αi).
Let ⊗ be an arbitrary linear operator. We define We consider the basic commutation relations

|γi ≡ ⊗† |βi, [xi , pj ]|i = ih̄δij |i.

so that Now
hβ|⊗ = hγ| Θ[xi , pj ]Θ−1 Θ|i = Θih̄δij |i,
from which, using the antilinearity and the time reversal
properties of the operators x and p we get
[xi , (−pj )]Θ|i = −ih̄δij Θ|i.
We see thus that the commutation rule
[xi , pj ]|i = ih̄δij |i
remains invariant under the time reversal.
Correspondingly, the requirement of the invariance of the
commutation rule
HΘ|ni = ΘH|ni = En Θ|ni,
so the states |ni and Θ|ni have the same energy. Because
the state |ni was supposed to be nondegenerate they
must represent the same state. The wave function of the
state |ni is hx0 |ni and the one of the state Θ|ni
correspondingly hx0 |ni∗ . These must be same (or more
accurately, they can differ only by a phase factor which
does not depend on the coordinate x0 ), i.e.
hx0 |ni = hx0 |ni∗

[Ji , Jj ] = ih̄ijk Jk For example the wave function of a nondegenerate

groundstate is always real.
leads to the condition For a spinles particle in the state |αi we get

ΘJ Θ−1 = −J .
Z
Θ|αi = Θ dx0 hx0 |αi|x0 i
This agrees with transformation properties of the orbital Z
angular momentum x × p. = dx0 hx0 |αi∗ |x0 i = K|αi,

Wave functions i.e. the time reversal is equivalent to the complex

We expand the state |αi with the help of position conjugation.
eigenstates: Z On the other hand, in the momentum space we have
|αi = d3 x0 |x0 ihx0 |αi. Z
Θ|αi = d3 p0 | − p0 ihp0 |αi∗
Now Z
Z
Θ|αi = d3 x0 Θ|x0 ihx0 |αi∗ = d3 p0 |p0 ih−p0 |αi∗ ,
Z
= d3 x0 |x0 ihx0 |αi∗ , because
Θ|p0 i = | − p0 i.
so under the time reversal the wave function The momentum space wave function transform thus
under time reversal like
ψ(x0 ) = hx0 |αi
φ(p0 ) −→ φ∗ (−p0 ).
transforms like
ψ(x0 ) −→ ψ ∗ (x0 ). We consider a spin 21 particle the spin of which is oriented
If in particular we have along n̂. The corresponding state is obtained by rotating
the state |Sz ; ↑i:
ψ(x0 ) = R(r)Ylm (θ, φ),
|n; ↑i = e−iSz α/h̄ e−iSy β/h̄ |Sz ; ↑i,
we see that
where α and β are the direction angles of the vector n̂.
Ylm (θ, φ) −→ Ylm ∗ (θ, φ) = (−1)m Yl−m (θ, φ). Because
Because Ylm is the wave function belonging to the state ΘJ Θ−1 = −J .
|lmi we must have we see that
m
Θ|lmi = (−1) |l, −mi. Θ|n; ↑i = e−iSz α/h̄ e−iSy β/h̄ Θ|Sz ; ↑i.
The probability current corresponding to the wave
Furthermore, due to the oddity of the angular
function R(r)Ylm seems to turn clockwise when looked at
momentum, it follows that
from the direction of the positive z-axis and m > 0. The
probability current of the corresponding time reversed h̄
state on the other hand turns counterclockwise because m Jz Θ|Sz ; ↑i = − Θ|Sz ; ↑i,
2
changes its sign under the operation.
The spinles particles obey so we must have
Theorem 1 If the Hamiltonian H is invariant under the Θ|Sz ; ↑i = η|Sz ; ↓i,
time reversal and the energy eigenstate |ni nondegenerate
then the corresponding energy eigenfunction is real (or where η is an arbitrary phase factor. So we get
more generally a real function times a phase factor
independent on the coordinate x0 ). Θ|n; ↑i = η|n; ↓i.
On the other hand we have Thus we must have

|n; ↓i = e−iαSz /h̄ e−i(π+β)Sy /h̄ |Sz ; ↑i, Θ2 = (−1)2j .

so Often one chooses

−iSz α/h̄ −iSy β/h̄
η|n; ↓i = Θ|n; ↑i = e e Θ|Sz ; ↑i Θ|jmi = i2m |j, −mi.
−iαSz /h̄ −i(π+β)Sy /h̄
= ηe e |Sz ; ↑i.

Writing Spherical tensors

Θ = U K, U unitary Let us suppose that the operator A is either even or odd,
and recalling that the complex conjugation K has no i.e.
effect on the base states we see that ΘAΘ(−1) = ±A.
 
2Sy We saw that then we have
Θ = ηe−iπSy /h̄ K = −iη K.
h̄
hα|A|αi = ±hα̃|A|α̃i.
Now
In an eigenstate of the angular momentum we have thus
e−iπSy /h̄ |Sz ; ↑i = +|Sz ; ↓i
e−iπSy /h̄ |Sz ; ↓i = −|Sz ; ↑i, hα, jm|A|α, jmi = ±hα, j, −m|A|α, j, −mi.
1 Let now A be a component of a Hermitian spherical
so the effect of the time reversal on a general spin 2 state
is tensor:
A = Tq(k) .
Θ(c↑ |Sz ; ↑i + c↓ |Sz ; ↓i) = +ηc∗↑ |Sz ; ↓i − ηc∗↓ |Sz ; ↑i.
According to the Wigner-Eckart theorem it is sufficient to
Applying the operator Θ once again we get consider only the component q = 0.
We define T (k) to be even/odd under the time reversal if
Θ2 (c↑ |Sz ; ↑i + c↓ |Sz ; ↓i)
(k) (k)
= −|η|2 c↑ |Sz ; ↑i − |η|2 c↓ |Sz ; ↓i ΘTq=0 Θ−1 = ±Tq=0 .
= −(c↑ |Sz ; ↑i + c↓ |Sz ; ↓i),
Then we have
i.e. for an arbitrary spin orientation we have (k) (k)
hα, jm|T0 |α, jmi = ±hα, j, −m|T0 |α, j, −mi.
2
Θ = −1.
The state |α, j, −mi is obtained by rotating the state
From the relation |α, jmi:
D(0, π, 0)|α, jmi = eiϕ |α, j, −mi.
Θ|lmi = (−1)m |l, −mi
On the other hand, due to the definition of the spherical
we see that for spinles particles we have tensor
Θ2 = 1. k
(k)∗ (k)
X
†
D (R)Tq(k) D(R) = Dqq0 (R)Tq0 ,
In general, one can show that q 0 =−k

Θ2 |j half integeri = −|j half integeri we get

Θ2 |j integeri = +|j integeri. (k)
X (k)
D† (0, π, 0)T0 D(0, π, 0) = D0q (0, π, 0)Tq(k) .
Generally we can write q

Θ = ηe−iπJy /h̄ K. Now

(k)
D00 (0, π, 0) = Pk (cos π) = (−1)k ,
Now
e−2iπJy /h̄ |jmi = (−1)2j |jmi, so we have
so (k)
D† (0, π, 0)T0 D(0, π, 0)
  (k)
Θ2 |jmi = Θ ηe−iπJy /h̄ |jmi = (−1)k T0 + (q 6= 0 components).

= |η|2 e−2iπJy /h̄ |jmi Furthermore

(k)
= (−1)2j |jmi. hα, jm|Tq6=0 |α, jmi = 0,
since the m selection rule would require m = m + q. So the Hamiltonian of an electron contains such terms as
we get
S · B, p · A + A · p.
(k)
hα, jm|T0 |α, jmi
(k)
The magnetic field B is external, independent on the
= ±hα, jm|D† (0, π, 0)T0 D(0, π, 0)|α, jmi system, so
(k)
= ±(−1)k hα, jm|T0 |α, jmi. [Θ, B] = 0 ja [Θ, A] = 0.
On the other hand, S and p are odd, or
Note Unlike under other symmetries the invariance of
the Hamiltonian under the time reversal ΘSΘ−1 = −S ja ΘpΘ−1 = −p,
[Θ, H] = 0, so
[Θ, H] 6= 0.
does not lead to any conservation laws. This is due to the
fact that the time evolution operator is not invariant: We say that magnetic field breaks the time reversal
symmetry and lifts the Kramers degeneracy.
ΘU (t, t0 ) 6= U (t, t0 )Θ.

Time reversal and degeneracy

Let us suppose that

[Θ, H] = 0.

Then the energy eigenstates obey

H|ni = En |ni
HΘ|ni = En Θ|ni.

If we now had
Θ|ni = eiδ |ni,
then, reapplying the time reversal we would obtain

Θ2 |ni = e−iδ Θ|ni = |ni,

or
Θ2 = 1.
This is, however, impossible if the system j is half integer,
because then Θ2 = −1. In systems of this kind |ni and
Θ|ni are degenerate.
Example Electon in electromagnetic field
If a particle is influenced by an external static electric
field
V (x) = eφ(x),
then clearly the Hamiltonian

p2
H= + V (x)
2m
is invariant under the time reversal:

[Θ, H] = 0.

If now there are odd number of electrons in the system

the total j is half integer. Thus, in a system of this kind
there is at least twofold degeneracy, so called Kramers’
degeneracy.
In the magnetic field

B =∇×A