POWER MACHINES N5

POWER MACHINES N5
WH Spies

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TROUPANT
/ Publishers
Copyright © 1985 by the author

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior written permission by the publisher.

ISBN: 978 1 919780 382; eISBN: 978 1 430802 723

 



 





Published by:
Troupant Publishers
P.O. Box 4532
Northcliff
2115

Previously published by
Southern Book Publishers
First edition 1985

Cover design by Alix Gracie

Set in 9 on 11pt Times New Roman
Typesetting by Unifoto (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town
Printed and bound by Ultra Litho (Pty) Limited
Contents

1. Thermodynamics of gases 9. Steam condensers

1.1 General introduction I 9.1 Purpose of a condenser 62
1.2 Specific heat 3 9.2 Types of condenser 63
1.3 Two laws of thermodynamics 3 9.3 The surface condenser 64
9.4 The jet condenser 65
2. Heating of gases 9.5 Dalton's law of partial pressures 65
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 The polytropic process and agas 7 10. Condensing water required
2.3 The isothermal process 9 10.1 Introduction 66
2.4 The adiabatic process 10 10.2 Measuring the vacuum in a
2.5 Summary of compression and expansion condenser 67
laws of gases II
11. Air pumps
3. Entropy 11.1 Introduction 73
3.1 The change of entropy for agas III 11.2 Air ejectors 74
3.2 The entropy chan for agas I1I 11.3 Condenser and vacuum efficiency 75
11.4 Effect of air leakage into
4. Steam generation condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
4.1 Main types of boilers 24 11.5 Cooling surface required 77
4.2 Methods of firing 27
4.3 Properties of steam 30 12. Combustion of fuels by mass
12.1 Combustion of solid, liquid and
5. Enthalpy and the formation of steam gaseous fuels 80
5.1 Enthalpy tables 32 12.2 Basic chemistry 80
5.2 Temperature-enthalpy diagram 37 12.3 Combustion equations 81
12.4 Stoichiometric or chemically correct
6. Volume of steam air-fuel ratio 83
6.1 Introduction 39 12.5 Exhaust and tlue gas analysis 84
6.2 The internal energy of steam 41
6.3 Use of enthalpy-entropy diagram 41 13. Calculation of air-fuel ratio
13.1 Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels ... 86
7. Throttling of steam
7.1 Introduction 49 14. Combustion of fuels by volume
7.2 The separating calorimeter 5I 14.\ Introduction 90
7.3 The throttling calorimeter 52
7.4 The combined separating and 15. The calorific value of a fuel
throttling calorimeter 53 15.1 Practical determination of calorific
va lues 96
8. Boiler etficiency 15.2 The gas calorimeter 99
8.1 Introduction 57
8.2 .Equivalent evaporation from and at 16. Calorific value by chemical analysis
100°C 57 16.1 Introduction 102
 16.2 Orsat apparatus 104 19.2 The combination of inlet and outlet
triangles 124
17. Compressors
17.1 Function of a compressor 108 20. Governors
17.2 Reciprocating compressor 109 20.1 The function of a governor . . . . . . . . .. 131
17.3 Work done by a single-stage 20.2 Dead-mass governors 131
compressor 110 20.3 Spring-controlled governors 132
17A Reciprocating compressors including 20A Definitions and descriptions of certain
c1earance I 1I actions of governors , 133

18. Gas turbines 21. The Hartnell governor and calculations

18.1 lntroduction to gas turbines . . . . . . . .. 117 21.1 Introduction 139
18.2 The simple turbine 117
Properties of water and steam 146
18.3 Typesofturbine 118
18A Blade velocity 119 Superheated steam , 152
18.5 Blade angles and power developed in the
blades of the impulse turbine 120 Appendices
18.6 Reaction blade velocity . . . . . . . . . . . .. 122 Appendix A: Syllabus 155
Appendix B: Principal symbols used in
19. Velocity diagrams power machines 156
19.1 The reaction turbine 124 Appendix C: Answers to Exercises 157
1. Thermodynamics of gases
1.1 General introduction
Applied thermodynamics is the science of the rela-
tionship between heat, work and the properties of
systems. It is concerned with the means necessary
to convert heat energy from available sources such
.as chemical fuels into mechanical work. Many
sources of energy exist and many are known, but
when an energy source exists means must first be
found to transform the energy into a useful form.
The potential energy of large masses of water is
converted into electrical energy as it passes through
water turbines. The energy from combustion of
coal, petroleum fuels and other chemical fuels is
used to produce steam or drive a crankshaft in an
internal-combustion engine.
Apower machine is the name given to a system
which, by operating in a cyclical manner produces
net work from a supply of steam, heat or other
form of energy. In the study of power machines,
engineering thermodynamics is fundamental to a
large section of the work. In order to deal tho-
roughly with the topic of engineering thermodyna-
mics, it is necessary to define the concepts and
symbols used.
1.1.1 Process
When a substance is changed by means of an opera-
tion, the substance is said to have undergone a
process. Typical processes are the expansion and
compression of agas or the conversion of water
into steam.
1.1.2 Cycle
If a process is carried out by means of a repeated
sequence of events it is called a cycle.
1.1.3 Energy
Energy can be defined as that capacity a substance
or body possesses which can result in the perform-
ance of work. Work is observed to be energy in
transition and is never contained in a body or
possessed by a body.
Energy can be present in many forms and its pre-
sence can only be observed by its effects.
Law 0/ conservation 0/ energy: Energy can be
changed into many forms but never destroyed. For
every change of state, therefore,
Heat supplied = work done + internal energy.
1.1.4 Heating and expansion 01 gases
The wide use made of gases in the field of power
machines makes it necessary to investigate their
behaviour when they are heated, cooled, expanded
or compressed. This behaviour of gases is governed
by gas laws. The laws of perfect gases are applicable
to all gases and to highly superheated steam, but
they do not apply to vapours. Steam under or near
the saturation line is a vapour.
Royle S law: This law is also sometimes referred to
as the isothermal law or hyperbolic law and states
that at constant temperature the pressure and
volume of a certain mass of gas are inversely pro-
portional.
PI V2
P2 VI
where PI original pressure
P2 final pressure
VI original volume
V2 final volume
PI VI P2 V2
Char/es 's law: This law states that during the
change of state of any gas in which the mass and
pressure remain constant, the volume varies in pro-
portion with the absolute temperature.
VI V2
TI T2
 where V, original volurne . PI VI P2 V2
(3)
V2 final volurne T, T2
T, original temperature
From equation (3) it follows that for any fixed mass
T2 final temperature
of gas, changes of state are connected by the equa-
In order to use this equation the temperatures T,
tion.
and T 2 must be absolute temperatures (K).
Absolute temperature (K) = °C + 273. PV
= a constant
T
The characteristic equation oj'a perj'ect gas: In the When considering a specific mass of gas used during
last two laws it was stated that one of the three any panicular process. this constant is written R
conditions of state, pressure, volume and tempera- and is called the characteristic gas constant.
ture, remained constant. A look must now be taken for I kg of gas
at the more general change of state of a gas in PV = R
which neither pressure, volume nor temperature T
remains constant. This is a combination of the two When m kg of gas are considered then
conditions that existed under Boyle's law and PV
mR
Charles's law and can be shown as follows on a T
pressure-volume diagram. PV mRT
This is known as the characteristic equation of a
perfect gas.

P
P, -- - - - - 1 1.1.5 Units 01 heat

Heat can be measured in either qualitative terms,

Boyle's law
i.e. temperature measurement, or quantitative terms,
i.e. energy measurement. The joule is the unit of
heat and IJ = INm.

Charles's law
Qualitative measuremel1l: This is the measurement
of the quality or temperature of the heat. The use-
I fulness of the heat is mainly determined by the heat
P2 - - - - - ~ - 2'/----'.......--------''''" a drop or increase, which is dependent panlyon the
I I :
difference between the temperatures of the heat on
I I I
being taken in and rejected. Methods of measure-
v, Va V
ment of temperature include thermometers, pyro-
meters etc. Thermometers are usually calibrated at
FIG.1.1 the freezing and boiling points of water, and the
fixed distance between these points is then divided.
According to Boyle's law (const!lnt temperature) Absolute temperature is the temperature at which a
P, V, P2 V(J gas occupies no volume (provided that it has not
P,V, liquefied or solidified before reaching this tempera-
(I)
P2 ture).

According to Charles's law (constant pressure) Qual1litative measuremel1l: The quantity of heat
V2 depends on three factors:
T2 (0) The mass of the substance heated or cooled;
V2 (b) the range through which the substance is heated
T2 or cooled;
V2 T, (c) the specific heat.
(2)
The mass of a substance does not change by heating
T2
or cooling. The range through wh ich the substance
Equating (I) and (2) we obtain is heated or cooled can be expressed in °C or K.
Not all substances require the same amount of heat
to raise their temperature by 1°. The ratio of heat
required by a substance to increase its temperature

2
 piston
heat transferred from
external sou rce ,....-----------,--.,...,r----r'-----
1- --- --
Q
I

extemal work done = Wd

I I
unit mass of gas
in the system

FIG.1.2

by 10 to the amount of heat required to increase the 1.2.2 The specific heat capacity at constant
same mass of water by 10 is called the specific heat pressure (Cp)
capacity of the substance. Since water is easily avail-
This is the amount of heat transfer to or from unit
able, it is taken as the standard substance from
mass of gas while the temperature changes by I
which the unit of heat quantity is determined.
degree and the pressure remains constant.
The ratio between these two specific heats is con-
1.2 Specific heat
stant for any one gas. It is a very important ratio in
The specific heat capacity of agas may be defined thermodynamics.
as the amount of heat transfer (energy) required to Cp
gamma (y) =
raise unit mass of the gas by a 10 rise in tempera- Cv
ture. This statement may seem to be applicable to
Average values commonly assumed for air are:
all gases but let's study the following experiment.
Fig. 1.2 shows a piston.and cylinder containing unit Cp = 1,005 kJjkg.K and Cv = 0,717 kJjkg.K
mass of gas (the system). This gas could be heated Cp
from an outside source so that the temperature of Cv
the gas is raised by 10 • The amount of heat transfer 1,005
to accomplish this 10 temperature rise will depend 0,717
upon the movement of the piston. If the piston is 1,4
fixed, in which case the gas would be heated at and R Cp - Cv
constant volume (no external work done), a certain 1,005 - 0,717
quantity of heat would bring about the 10 rise in 0,288 kJ j kg. K
temperature. The gas in the cylinder could be
allowed to expand and move the piston and hence 1.3 Two laws of thermodynamics
external work would be done. The amount of heat
transfer will thus depend upon the piston move- The first law of thermodynamics (Joule's law) states
ment. From this it can be seen that there are an that mechanical energy and heat energy are mutual-
infinite number of specific heat capacities for agas. Iy convertible. They are both expressed in joules.
If the specific heat capacity of agas is quoted it The second law of thermodynamics, also known as
would thus be necessary to define the conditions Clausius's statement, states that heat can flow from
under which the specific heat capacity was a hot substance to a cold substance unaided, but
measured. that it is impossible for heat to flow from a cold
substance to a hot substance without the aid of
1.2.1 The specific heat capacity at constant external work.
volume (Cv)
Example 1.1
This is the amount of heat transfer to or from unit
mass of gas while the temperature changes by 1 Find the mass of 2m 3 of air at 400 kPa and 130°C.
degree and the volume remains constant. Take the value of Ras 0,287 kJ / kg. K

3
Solution T2 0+273
PV mRT T 130 + 273 273 K
PV 403 K Tl 90 + 273
m
RT
363 K
400 X 2
0,287 X 403
6,917 kg.
(b) PI VI mRTI
Derivation of units in example. PI V,
m
kPa X m3 kN 3
kg.K 1 RT,
kJjkg.K X K = m2 X m X kN.m X K = kg. I 000 X 0,003 534
0,287 X 363
Example1.2 0,0339 kg
Find the pressure of 0,05 m of gas with a mass of
0,08 kg and a temperature of 60 0 C.
R = 0,297 kJjkg.K Example1.4
The pressure of the gas supplied from an engine is
Solution measured as 102 kPa. Determine the volume of
1 kg of the gas at this pressure and at a temperature
PV = mRT of 85 °C if R for the gas is 287 J j kg.K.
mRT
P
V
= 0,08 X 0,297 X 333 ( kg X kNm X K) Solution
0,05 kgK X M3
Finding volume of gas (V): T 85 + 273
= 158,24 kPa (kN = kPa) 358 K
m2
PV mRT
mRT
Example1.3 V
P
A small air compressor has a cylinder diameter of I X 0,287 X 358
150 mm and length of stroke 200 mm, and is used 102
to compress air to I 000 kPa and a temperature of
1,0073 m 3
90 0 C. Calculate:
(a) The volume the air would occupy at standard
Example1.5
temperature and pressure (0 0 C and 101,325
kPa); Agas at a temperature of 17 0 C and apressure of
(b) the mass of the air if R for air is 0,287 kJ j kg. K. 125 kPa occupies a volume of 2,46 m3 • If the gas is
compressed to a volume of I m 3 and apressure of
Solution 700 kPa, what would the final temperature be?

P 2 V2
T2 Solution
P,V,T2
= P2 T,
Finding final temperature (T2):
T2 17 + 273
I 000 X 0,003 534 X 273
P2 V2
290K
101,325 X 363
0,0262 m 3 T2
P2 V2 T,
Volume of cylinder
P,V,
rrD2 700 X I X 290
4 X L 125 X 2,46
rr (0,15)2 X 0,2 660,2 K
4 660,2 - 273
0,003534 m 3 387,2°C

4
Exercise 1
I. Define the following:
(0) Absolute temperature;
(b) the two specific heats of agas;
(e) law of conservation of energy;
(d) the internal energy of agas;
(e) Charles's law;
(j) Boyle's law.
2. Find the mass of 1,5 m J of air at 375 k'pa and
120 0 e. Assume that the characteristic constant
R for air is 0,288 kJjkg.K.
3. Agas at a temperature of 20 °C and apressure
ort 20 k Pa occupies a volume of 2,5 m 3 If the
gas is now compressed to a volume of I, I m J
and apressure of 660 kPa, what would be the
final temperature of the gas?
4. A balloon of capacity 125 m J is filled with hydro
5
gen at a temperature of 15 0 C and apressure of
300 kPa. Taking R for hydrogen = 4150 Jjkg.K,
calculate the mass of hydrogen used in kilo-
grams.
5. The pressure, volume and temperature of a quan-
tity of gas are respectively 690 kPa; 0,085 mJ
and 150 0 e. A change of state results in the
following: volume 0,25 m J ; temperature 10 oe.
What is the pressure?
6. 1,5 kg of gas at a temperature of 80 ° C occupies
a volume of 99820 cm J . The gas constant is
0,288 kJ j kg. K. Calculate the pressure.
7. The volume of 0, 18 kg of gas at a temperature of
15°C and apressure of 103 kPa occupies a
volume of 0,15 m J . If Cv for the gas is 722 J / kg. K
and Cp for the gas is I 020 J j kg. K, calculate:
(0) The gas constant:
(b) the ratio of the specific heats.
2 Heating of gases

2.1 Introduction Work done and the pressure-volume (P- V) dia-

gram
It was once believed that a body or gas could
contain heat. This is no longer considered correct, Fig. 2. I shows a cylinder in which agas at pressure
and the internal store of energy is now referred to P is trapped by means of a piston with cross-
as internal energy, which is a property. sectional area A. Therefore
During an energy transfer process, which results Force on piston = PA (I)
from the temperature diJference between one gas Now let the piston move back a. distance L along
and another, the energy transferred is called heat. the cylinder while keeping the pressure constant.
The heat, having been transferred, will then disperse The force on the piston will have remained constant.
into other forms of energy such as work or internal
energy. If there is no temperature difference, then Work done force X distance moved
there is no heat transfer. Since the term heat is used PA X L
to descri be a transfer process, heat energy ceases to
but A X L swept volume
exist when the process ceases and therefore he at is V2 - VI
not a property. Heat energy is given the symbol Q :. Work done P(A X L)
and is measured in joules. P( V2 - VI) (2)

Fig. 2.2 shows a graph of the movement of the

2.1.1 Work done by a gas in expanding
The amount of work done by a gas in expanding
depends on the method by which expansion is per-
formed. There are eight different ways in which
expansion can be performed, each of which may do
a different amount of work for the same range of
expansion. It is now necessary to work out expres-
sions for the work done by five of these methods;
the other three are done as complete cycles in a
higher grade.
piston with the axes of pressure and volume. Such
a graph is called a P- V (pressure-volume) diagram.
The graph appears as a horizontal straight line bc
whose height is at pressure P and whose length is
from original volume VI to final volume V2 .
The area under this graph is P (V2 - V,), This is
the same as the work done equation (2). It therefore
follows that the area Ullder a P- V graph gives the
work done. By analysing the units of pressure, vol-
urne, area and length, this statement can be shown
to be true.

cross-sectional
areaA

pressure
p
'
Cl j
,,0',:·,·,············0
i:i~
distance L
~":"";.
~
i!!~
.....;,.;...:..;......;.....;.
:.J).l

_
FIG.2.1

6
If the pressure is in newtons/ metre 2 (N / m2), the Consider then the non-flow energy equation applied
volume is in cubic metres (m 3), the area is in square to constant pressure heating:
metres (m 2 ) and the length is in metres (m), then by
equation (2) the work done is given by the product of
Q = !::.V + W (2)

pressure and change in volume. In this case external work is done by the gas.
:.Workdone N/m 2 X m 3 Fig. 2.3 shows that there is adefinite area beneath
N.m. the constant pressure line, which gives work done
joules = P (V2 - VI)' where P = the constant pressure.
In this case then, equation (2) becomes:
p
(V2 - VI) + P(V2 - VI) (3)
p (V2 + PV2) - (VI + PVI )
H 2 - Hf (4)
it is
Heat transferred at constant pressure = change of
enthalpy
From equation (2):

V2 - Vj = m Cp (T2 - TI) - P (V2 - Vj)

v =mCp (T2 - TI) - mR (T2 - TI) (5)

This equation, though in another form, is the same

as the equation that was determined during the
FlG.2.2 constant volume process for the change in internal
energy
The constant vo/ume process
V 2 -VI = m (T TI) (Cp -
2 - R)
This process is also sometimes referred to as an =m (T2 - TI) Cv
isometric or isochoric process. As there IS no = mCv(T2 - TI) (6)
change in volume there is no work done
:·W= 0
p
However, there could be a change in internal energy
V = m X Cv(T2 - TI)
and hence a change in total heat from the conser-
vation of energy: p

Total heat Q W+V

o+ mCv(T2 TI)
mCv(T2 - TI)

The constant pressure process
This process is carried out in such a way that the
pressure remains constant throughout the process. Jt
is often called an isobaric or isopiestic process.
The work done during such a process is represented
by the shaded area in Fig. 2.3.
Let a mass of gas m be heated at constant pressure so
that its temperature rises from TI to T2 and its
volume increases from VI to V2• Then
Heat received by the gas = mass X specific heat
capacity X rise in
temperature
mCp(T2-TI ) (I)
v
FIG.2.3
2.2 The polytropic process and agas
Consider an experiment conducted on a mass of
working substance so that expansion takes place
and changes the state from state I to state 2. Let the
volume change from VI to V2 and the pressure from
PI to P2 • Record the volume and pressure as the
experiment proceeds. If the values obtained were to
be plotted on a P- V graph a smooth curve would
result, as shown in Fig. 2.4.

7
 The value of the constant C will change with each
change of condition, as will the value of n, which is
P, - - - - - -
called the index of expansion or compression or the
polytropic exponent.
I
I
pressure I 2.2.1 Wor1c: done and the polytropic process
I
I Work will be required to compress a substance
from a lower pressure to a higher pressure. Once
P2 - - - - - L_
the substance is at the high pressure it will have the
potential to expand and, in expanding, do some
V, V2 work. Work done is given by the area under a P- V
volume diagram of an expansion or compression and the
FIG.2.4 problem is now to determine the area under a curve
ofthe form PV n = C.
By inspection only it is not possible to tell whether Fig. 2.6 shows a P- V graph of an expansion ac-
n
there is a law connecting pressure and volume for cording to the law PV = C from state PI to P2,
the expansion that occurs. and from VI to V2. Consider a point on the curve at
However, if log Pis plotted against log V, a straight- which the pressure is P and the volume is V. Let the
line graph as shown in Fig. 2.5 will be obtained. gas expand from this point by a very small volume
n
l) Vaccording to the law PV = C. The work done
during this very small expansion is very nearly
equal to P X l) V. As l) V - 0, the area and there-
10gP
fore the work done = PdV.

:.Workdone = (V'PdV (I)

J VI
butPVn=C
log C or P =
CV-n (2)

Substituting equation (2) in equation (I):

Work done = C (V,V -ndV (3)

log V J VI
Integrating
FIG.2.5 Work done = -n c: I
[V -n+ ]V,
I
VI

This graph is of the form = C

-n + I
[v- n+ 1 _ v-n+l]
- n log V + C
2 I
log P (I)
where = [v2- n V2 - v,-n VI ]
C
- n = slope of the line -n I +
log C = intercept on the log P axis CV;n V2 - CV~nVI
-n + I
Equation (I) can be rewritten as
P2V2 - PI VI
log P + n log V = C
-n I +
Taking antilogs both sides = PI VI - P2V2
n
P X V C n - I (4)
n
PV = C (2)
Taking PI V, as the original condition and P2 V2 as
This equation may therefore be considered as the the final condition, it will be found that for an
law for the general case of expansion or compres- expansion the work done is positive, meaning that
sion of a substance. This general case of expansion work is done by the substance.
or compression of a substance according to the law During a compression process, however, again tak-
n
PV = Cis called a polytropic expansion or com- ing PI VI as the original condition and P2V2 as the
pression. final condition, it will be found that the work done

8
is negative, meaning that the work must be done on Substituting equation (4) in equation (2):
the substance. I
T2 P2 PI n
- - X(-)
TI PI P2
P P--'-
2 X (_2) n
Pl PI PI

i\
/1-)
P2 ,,-
(-)
PI (5)
P Pvn=c
Combining equation (3) and (5):

.~
T V n-I P n-J
pre ssure
_2 (_I) = (_2) -n-
TI V2 PI (6)
P2 2
In the beginning it is sometimes difficult to know
which expression to use for the solution of a parti-
cular problem, but it may be observed that in order
V, V2
to use the expression
V
b-
volume
PI VI
--
TI
P2 V2
- -
T2
five conditions of state must be known. If five
conditions are not known then it usually points to
FIG.2.6 the use of the other expressions, such as
P VI n T VI n-I P 2 "-=..!
2.2.2 Combining the polytropic law PV n = C - 2 = (-) or - 2 = (-) = (-) n
and the characteristic equation of a perfect gas PI V2 TI V2 PI

The law Pvn = C allows us to make calculations 2.3 The isothermal process
of the changes in pressure and volume which occur
during a polytropic process. Combining this with The isothermal (hyperbolic) process is a specific
the characteristic equation of a perfect gas will case in the polytropic process. It is defined as a
enable us to determine variations in temperature. process carried out in such a way that the tem-
Consider a polytropic process where the original perature remains constant throughout (Boyle's law).
conditions PI. VI and TI are changed to P2• V2 and The law for the isothermal process is
PV = C
T2•
This law plotted on a P- V diagram will appear as a
From the polytropic law: rectangular hyperbola. Thus, for a change of state
PI vln P2 Vt from I to 2,
P2 VI n PI VI = P2 V2
~ = (v;-) (I) and
TI = T 2 = constant temperature
From the characteristic equation:

P,r----""1l

(2)
Substituting equation (J) in equation (2):

P
~
::J
Vl
Vl
Q)

Ci P
21----+-----( I----~ 2
(3)
V,
V liV

FIG.2.7 volume
(4)

9
Consider Fig. 2.7. By analysis similar to that used polytropic process (Pvn = C) in which no heat is
for the polytropic process allowed to enter or leave during the process.
V
Consider an adiabatic expansion where the original
Workdone =
l '
V,
PdV (I) conditions PI' VI> TI are changed to the final condi-
tions P2, V2, T2. Then
but PV = C
:.P= ~ Change of internal energy = mCv (T2 - Td (I)
V
and
PI VI - P2 V2
Substituting this in equation (I): Workdone = ,,- I

Work done = C rv,

lv,
dV
V
where " (gamma) is the particular index that will
satisfy the case of an adiabatic process.
C [ln v]:~ Applying the non-flow energy equation
Q = t:..U + W (3)
C[tnV2 - tnVI ]
but by definition for an adiabatic process
V2
CIn
VI Q o
:·0 t:..U+ W
V2 -t:..u
PVtnT orW (4)
I (2)
Substituting equations (I) and (2) in equation (4):
Note In represents loge'
From the characteristic equation, mR(TI - T2)
= -mCv(T2 - TI)
PV = mRT (3)
,,-1
tjom which
Substituting equation (3) in (2): R
Cv
,,-1
Work done = mRT tn~ (4)
VI or
R
Applying the non-flow energy equation, Cv
,,-1
Q = t:..U + W or
and since for an isothermal process T = constant, R
-+1
there is no change of internal energy and the energy
equation becomes
" Cv
R + Cv
Cv (5)
Q W
but R = Cp - Cv and hence, substituting in
PV ln~ equation (5)
VI
Cp - Cv + Cv
From this, it can be seen that during an isothermal
expansion all the heat received is converted into
external work.
" Cp
Cv

Cv (6)
From this, then, the law for an adiabatic expansion
2.4 The adiabatic process
or compression of agas is
If a process is carried out in such a way that there is
no heat transferred into or out of the system Cp
PVY = Cwhere" = Cv'
(Q = 0), then the process is said to be adiabatic.
If a process is carried out sufficiently quickly there The average value of", the adiabatic index, for air
will be little time for heat transfer. Such a process is is 1,4.
not really possible in practice although it can be
c10sely approached. Note: n #- ~ although " is a special case of n
The adiabatic process is a particular part of the the polytropic index.

10
 Me,hod S\'mho/ Work done Head added or (,hanKes in imernal Otherfurmulae
rejeCled (Q) enerK\' (V)

I. Constant V, =V, o mX CvX (T,-T,) m XCvX(T,-T,ljoules PI VI = mRT,

volume R = Cp - Cv
2. Constant P.=P2 P,(V,-V,) mX CpX(T,-T,) mXCvX(T,-T,)joules V, V, P,V = mRT,
1

pressure T, =--:r;' R = Cp-Cv

3. Constant PV=C P,V,IOKe~ PIVj=PZVz

V,
temperature or PJVJ =mRT,
or isothermal R =(Cp-Cv)
mR7; 10Kei ,
4. Polylropic PVn=C (WD+ U) mXCvX(T,-T,) ~ _ P1 V2
joules TI - ----r; ;Pl VI = m RT.

or p,V,n = p,V,n; R=(Cp-Cv)

mR(T,- T,)
n-I

5. Adiabatic P,V,- P,V, mXCvX(T,-T,ljoules PzVz

(')'-1)
----r; ;P, V, = mRT,
or P,V,')'; R= (Cp- Cv)
mR(T, - T,)
)'-1 V y-l
')'-1 T, = (1'2) , ; T, _ (-')
T, P, T, - V,

Table 2.1 Summary of expansion and compression of gas laws

Cp
Note: 'Y =1= n and 'Y = Cv

.. n =1= Cp
Cv

2.5 Summary of compression and expansion laws of gases

constant pressure

adiabatic i.e. PV'!=C

polytropic i.e. PVn=C

~
::J
<f)
<f)
Q) Q)

Ci I ~
<f)
<f)
J Q)
I Ci
I
P2 ---- 1 -
I
P2 - _...J - __
P, constant pressure
P2 - - ~- : V2 v, ,:
I V,
volume volume

(a) Expansion (b) Compression

FIG. 2.8: Expansion and compression curves. The work done in each case is the area under the curve.

11
Example 2.1 Example2.3
Agas whose original pressure, volume and temp- 3 kg of gas, occupying a volume of 0,9 m3, had an
erature were 150 kPa, 0,12 m 3 and 30 ° e respect- original temperature of 20 ° e. It was then heated at
ively, is compressed so that its final pressure is constant volume until its temperature rose to
750 kPa and its final temperature is 60 ° e. Deter- 140 oe. How much heat was transferred to the gas
mine the final volume of the gas. and what was its final pressure?
Take Cv = 0,718 kJjkg.K and R = 0,289 kJjkg.K.
Solution
From the characteristic equation, Solution
P2 V2
Finding heat transferred:
T2
Q = ~U + W
P1 V,T2
but
P2 T J

150 X 0,12 X 333 W ° as no work is done at constant

volume
700 X 303
0,0283 m 3 .. Q ~U
mCv (T2 - TI)
Note that in this case no mention was made of the 3 X 0,718 (413 293)
type of compression but five state conditions were 258,48 kJ
known and therefore the characteristic equation
could be used. Finding original pressure:
PtVt mRTI
mRT,
Example2.2 VI
A quantity of gas has apressure of 400 kPa when 3 X 0,289 X 293
its volume is 0,05 m 3 and its temperature is 40 ° e. If 0,9
the value of R = 0,291 kJ j kg. K, determine the 282,26 kPa
mass of gas present. If the pressure of this gas is
now increased to I 100 kPa while the volume re- Finding final pressure:
mains constant, what will be the new temperature P2
ofthe gas? T2
P,T2
Solution TI
282,26 X 413
Finding the mass of gas: 293
PV mRT 397,86 kPa
PV
m
RT
400 X 0,05 Example2.4
0,291 X 313
0,2196 kg Agas whose pressure, volume and temperature are
270 kPa, 0,1 m 3 and 190 oe respectively, has its
Finding final temperature: state changed at constant pressure until its temp-
P2 erature drops to 20 oe. How much heat is trans-
T2 ferred from the gas and how much work is done on
P2 T I the gas during the process?
Take R = 0,288 kJjkg.K and Cp = 1,005 kJjkg.K
PI
I 100 X 313
Solution
400
860,75 K Finding mass of gas used:
Pt V, mRTI
final temperature = 860,75 - 273
m
PI VI
= 587,75 oe RT,

12
 270 X 0,1 Solution
0,288 X 463
Finding final temperature:
0,2025 kg
T2 VI n - )
- (-)
Finding heat transferred: TI V2
Q mCp (T2 - TI) V) n - )
= 0,202 5 X 1,005 (293 - 463) T2 = TI (-v;)
=- 34,594 kJ 563 (0,015) 1,35-)
The negative sign indicates that the heat has been 0,1
289,83 K
extracted from the gas.
Finding final volume: final temperature = 289,83 - 273
16,83 oe
VI V2
- -
TI T2 Finding mass of gas:
V I T2 PI VI mRTI
TI P)V)
m
0,1 X 293 RT(
463 250 X 0,015
0,063 m3 0,29 X 563
0,023 kg
Finding work done:
W = P(V2 - VI)
270 (0,063 - 0,1)
Example2.7
- 9,913 kJ
0,765 kg of gas at 1 350 kPa and 270 ° eis expanded
The negative sign indicates that it is work done on to three times the original volume according to the
the gas. law PV 1.29 = C. Determine:
(a) The original and final volume ofthe gas;
(b) the final pressure ofthe gas;
Example2.5 (e) the final temperature ofthe gas;
(d) the work done during expansion.
A gas whose original pressure and temperature were
350 kPa and 23 oe, respectively, is compressed ac- Take R = 0,289 kJjkg.K
cording to the law PV 1,4 = C until its temperature
rises to 170 oe. Determine the final pressure of the Solution
gas.
(a) (i) Finding original volume:
Solution
PI VI mRTI
Finding final pressure: mRT)
T2 p n-I PI
(_2)-n- 0,765 X 0,289 X 543
TI PI
T2 _n_ 1350
P2 PI (r;-) n-) 0,0889 m 3

443 ---.!.L (ii) Finding final volume:

350( 296) ),4-)
V2 3 X VI
1435,36 kPa = 3 X 0,0889
= 0,2667 m3

Example2.6 (b) Finding final pressure:

Agas whose original pressure, volume and tempera- P1vln P2 Vt
ture were 250 kPa, 0,015 m3 and 290 oe respectively, V) n
P2 PI (y)
is expanded according to the law PV 1,35 = C until 2
its volume is 0,1 m3 • Determine the final tempera- I 350( 0,088 9) 1,29
ture of the gas and the mass of gas used. 0,2667
Take R = 0,29 kJjkg.K. 327,23 kPa

13
(e) Finding final temperature: 150 X 0,175
PI VI P2 V2 0,3 X 0,286
1; T; 305,94 K
P2 V2 T I R Cp - Cv
PI VI 1,0045 - 0,7185
327,23 X 0,266 7 X 543 0,286 kJ j kg. K
I 350 X 0,088 9 Find T2
394,86 K T2 P2 n-'
-n-
- (-)
final temperature = 394,86 - 273 TI PI n-]

121,86°e P2 -n-
T2 TI (p)
I 1,26-1
VI n-I 30594 (I 350)-u6
(-) , 150
V2
VI n-I 481,44 K
TI (-v;) :. V2 - VI = 0,3 X 0,718 5 (481,44 - 305,94)
0,0889 1,29 - I = 37,83 kJ
543 ( 0,266 7 ) (b) Find work done
394,86 K W mR(TI - T2 )
final temperature = 394,86 - 273 n - 1
121,86 oe 0,3 X 0,286 (305,94 - 481,44)
1,26 -1
(d) Finding work done: -57,92 kJ
PI VI - P2 V2 This is negative and hence the work is done on
w n-I the air.
(e) Finding heat received or rejected
_ I 350 X 0,0889 - 327,23 X 0,266 7
- 1,29 - I Q ßV+ W
= 37,83 - 57,92
= 112,91 kJ
or = - 20,09 kJ
mR(TI - T2) This is negative and hence the heat is rejected
w n-I
by the air.
_ 0,765 X 0,289 (543 - 394,86) Example2.9
- 1,29 - 1
Agas expands adiabatically from apressure and
= 112,93 kJ volume of 750 kPa and 0,017 m3 respectively to a
pressure of 150 kPa. Determine the final volume,
Example2.8
the work done by the gas and the change of internal
energy in this case.
0,3 kg of air at apressure of 150 kPa occupies Take Cp = 1,015 kJjkg.K and
0,175 m 3 , and from this condition it is compressed Cv = 0,730 kJjkg.K.
to I 350 kPa according to the law PV 1,26 = C. Deter-
mine: Solution
(a) The change of internal energy of the air; Finding final volume:
(b) the work done on or by the air;
(e) the heat received or rejected by the air.
PI V,'Y = P2 V2'Y
Take Cp = 1,0045 kJjkg.K and Find)' (gamma)
Cv = 0,7185 kJjkg.K Cp
Cv
Solution 1,015
0,730
(a) Finding change of internal energy: 1,39
V2 VI = mCv(T2 TI) P ...l-
-
Find TI
-
VI <-f) Y
2 I
PI VI 0017(750:'\1,39
, 150}
0,0541 m3

14
Finding work done: (iii) Finding change of internal energy:
PI VI - P2 V2 Vz - VI mCv (Tz - TI)
w )I-I = 0,5 X 0,7838(514 - 294)
750 X 0,017 - 150 X 0,054 1 = 86,22 kJ
1,39 - 1 (iv) Finding external work done:
11,885 kJ
Q !1V + W
Finding change of internal energy: W Q - !1V
Q = !1V + W III - 86,2
24,78 kJ
but there is no change of heat
or
:.!1V - W
find V2 and VI
= - 11,885 kJ
mRTz
Pz
Example 2.10 0,5 X 0,2253 X 514
(a) A certain gas has a density of 1,6 kgj m 3 at 106
106 kPa and 21 ° C. Calculate the characteristic 0,5462 m3
gas constant R. m
(h) When 0,5 kg of this gas is heated from 21°C D
and 106 kPa to 241 ° C at constant pressure, the .~
heat required is 111 kJ. Calculate: 1,6
(i) The specific heat capacity of the gas at 0,3125 m3
constant pressure; :. W P(Vz - VI)
(ii) the specific heat capacity of the gas at con- 106 (0,5462 - 0,3125)
stant volume; 24,78 kJ
(iii) the change of internal energy;
(iv) the external work done during the heating
process. Exercise 2
l. 0,2 m 3 of agas has apressure of 140 kPa. It is
Solution compressed to pressure of 700 kPa according to
the law PV I ,4 = C. Determine the new volume
(a) Finding gas constant:
ofthe gas.
. mass
Denslty = -1--
vo urne
2. A certain gas, density 1,875 kgj m 3 at 100 kPa
and 15 ° C. Calculate:
PV mRT (a) The characteristic gas constant R;
PV (h) when 0,9 kg ofthis gas is heated from 15°C
R
mT to 250 ° C at constant pressure the heat re-
106 X 1 quired is 175 kJ; calculate:
1,6 X 294 (i) The specific heat capacities of the gas
0,225 3 kJ j kg. K (Cp and Cv);
(ii) the change in internal energy;
(h) (i) Finding specific heat capacity Cp: (iii) the work done during heating.
Q mCp(Tz - TI) 3. A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 0,3 m3 at
Q apressure of 101 kPa and a temperature of
Cp
19 ° C. The gas is compressed isothermally to a
pressure of 500 kPa and then expanded adia-
0,5 (514 - 294) batically to its initial volume. Assurne gamma
1,009 1 kJjkg.K ()I) = 1,4 and R = 0,288 kJ j kg. K. Determine:
(a) The heat received or rejected;
(ii) Finding specific heat capacity Cv:
(h) the change of internal energy;
R Cp - Cv (e) the mass of gas.
Cv Cp - R 4. (a) Discuss the following:
1,0091 - 0,2253 (i) The two specific heat capacities of a
0,7838 kJ jkg.K gas;

15
 (ii) the relationship between the two specific
heat capacities and the specific gas con-
stant.
(b) Three kilograms of air at apressure of
400 kPa and a temperature of 130°C ex- 6. (a) What is meant by:
pands polytropically until the pressure and
temperature are 100 kPa and 20°C respect-
ively. For air Cv = 0,712 kJ j kg. K and
Cp = 1,00 kJ j kg. K, calculate:
(i) The initial and final volumes of the gas;
(ii) the value of the polytropic index (n);
(iii) the work done by the gas during expan-
sion.
5. (a) Agas expands according to the law pvn =
constant, from a volume of 4,4 m3 and a
pressure of 480 kPa to a volume of 10,4 m3
and apressure of 156,88 kPa. Determine the
value of the index of expansion n.
(b) (i) Agas at apressure of 120 kPa and a
temperature of 20°C has a density of
1,68 kgj m3 • Calculate the value of the
characteristic gas constant R.
(ii) When 1,2 kg of this gas is heated from
15 ° C to 210 ° C at constant pressure
the heat required is 160 kJ. Determine:
16
(a) The specific heat capacity of the gas
at constant pressure;
(b) the specific heat capacity of the gas
at constant volume.
(i) Adiabatic expansion;
(ii) isothermal expansion?
(b) Draw pressure-volume curves on the same
axes to represent:
(i) Adiabatic expansion;
(ii) isothermal expansion.
(c) Determine the volume of IO kg of agas at a
pressure of 960 kPa and a temperature of
480°C given that the specific heat capacities
ofthe gas are Cv = 0,17 kJjkg.K and Cp =
0,207 kJ j kg. K.
(cl) A cylinder contains 0,22 m3 of air at a pres-
sure of 650 kPa and a temperature of 180 ° C.
The air is expanded according to the law
PV 1.34 = constant, to a final volume of
1,2m3 •
For air, Cp = 1,005 kJjkg.K. and Cv =
0,718 kJjkg.K. Determine:
(i) The mass of air;
(ii) the work done.