BERKLEY CENTER for RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS 

G E O R G E T O W N U N I V E R S I T Y

2010
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BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Faith-Inspired Organizations and
Global Development Policy
A Background Review “Mapping” Social
and Economic Development Work
in Southeast Asia

A project of the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace,

and World Affairs and the Edmund A. Walsh School
of Foreign Service at Georgetown University
Supported by the Henry R. Luce Initiative
on Religion and International Affairs
Luce/SFS Program on Religion
and International Affairs
The Luce/SFS Program on Religion and International
Affairs has been exploring the intersection of faith,
world politics and diplomacy since September 2006.
A collaboration between the Henry Luce Foundation
and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service
(SFS) and Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and
World Affairs at Georgetown University, the Luce/SFS
Program initially focused on two issue areas: Religion
and Global Development and Religion and US Foreign
Policy. A follow-on award from the Luce Foundation
in November 2008 has enabled the continued growth
of both program areas and the addition of two more:
Government Outreach and an online Religion and
International Affairs Network.
The Berkley Center
The Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World
Affairs at Georgetown University, created within the
Office of the President in March 2006, is dedicated to
the interdisciplinary study of religion and the promo-
tion of interreligious understanding. Through research,
teaching, and service, the Center examines religion as it
relates to global challenges of international diplomacy,
democracy and human rights, and economic and social
development. Two premises guide the Center’s work:
that deeper knowledge of religion’s global role is critical
to address these challenges, and that the open engage-
ment of religious traditions with one another and with
the wider society can promote peace. Thomas Banchoff,
associate professor in the Department of Government
and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, is
the Center’s founding director.
Copyright 2010, Georgetown University.
The Edmund A. Walsh School of
Foreign Service
Founded in 1919 to educate students and prepare them
for leadership roles in international affairs, the School
of Foreign Service conducts an undergraduate program
for over 1,300 students and graduate programs at the
Master’s level for more than 700 students. Under the
leadership of Dean Robert L. Gallucci, the School houses
more than a dozen regional and functional programs
that offer courses, conduct research, host events, and
contribute to the intellectual development of the field
of international affairs. In 2007, a survey of faculty pub-
lished in Foreign Policy ranked Georgetown University as
#1 in Master’s degree programs in international relations.
The World Faiths Development
Dialogue
The World Faiths Development Dialogue (WFDD)
bridges between the worlds of faith and secular devel-
opment. Established by James D. Wolfensohn, then
President of the World Bank, and Lord Carey of Clifton,
then Archbishop of Canterbury, WFDD responded to
the opportunities and concerns of many faith leaders
who saw untapped potential for partnerships. Based in
Washington, D.C., WFDD supports dialogue, fosters
communities of practice, and promotes understanding
on religion and development, with formal relationships
with the World Bank, Georgetown University, and
many faith-inspired institutions.
The Asia Faiths Development
Dialogue
The Asia Faiths Development Dialogue (AFDD),
launched in 2006, seeks to strengthen faith by mobilizing
support of the different faith groups in Cambodia and in
Southeast Asia and the broader Asia-Pacific region, to work
for peace, development and harmony in order to achieve
a peaceful coexistence of the people in Asia and beyond.
AFDD fosters constructive inter-faiths dialogue through
broad participation in order to promote trust-building and
reconciliation as well as societal development. By bridging
the gaps among the different faith groups at the national,
regional, and international levels, AFDD strives to amelio-
rate the lives of diverse people around the world.
About this Report

This report was prepared as part of the Berkley Center’s global “mapping” of the work of faith-inspired
organizations worldwide. The report specifically served as background for a consultation on faith-
inspired organizations and global development policy in Southeast Asia in Phnom Penh, Cambodia
in December 2009. A separate, companion report summarizes the meeting itself, including interviews
with participants; all are available on the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs and
World Faiths Development Dialogue (WFDD) websites.1 The draft report was reviewed by partici-
pants in the Phnom Penh consultation; we acknowledge their inputs with gratitude.

The Southeast Asia review is part of the comparative project on Religion and Global Development
supported by the Henry R. Luce Foundation. Through a series of meetings with stakeholders and

2010
background reports, the Berkley Center and WFDD have worked to ‘“map’” the role of faith-
inspired organizations around the world, highlighting best practices and policy issues that arise.
Prior events have included: a meeting in Washington, DC in April 2007 focused on the United

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States; a meeting in Doha, Qatar in December 2007 focused on the Muslim World; a meeting in

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

The Hague, The Netherlands in June 2008 focused on Europe and Africa; and a meeting in Antigua,
Guatemala in January 2009, focused on Latin America. A future meeting is planned for South Asia.

About the Authors

The report was prepared by a team of researchers at the Berkeley Center for Religion, Peace, and
World Affairs and the World Faiths Development Dialogue. The principal author is Michael
Bodakowski, working under the supervision of Katherine Marshall. Sarah Arkin and Walker
Grooms, graduate research fellows at the Berkley Center, contributed significantly, as did Michael
Scharff and Augustina Delaney from their on-going work in Cambodia. Thomas Bohnett provided
invaluable guidance and input throughout the process. Melody Fox Ahmed played a key role from
the beginning of the consultation process, without whose contributions this report would not have
been possible. Kory Kantenga and Amy Vander Vliet also made important contributions.

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 Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Part 1: Southeast Asia: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Religion in Southeast Asia: A Brief Overview—Actual, Historical, Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Buddhism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hinduism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Indigenous Beliefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y

Faith-Inspired Organizations with Transnational Mandates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Major Faith-Inspired Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Part 2: Sector Focus and Emerging Trends and Policy Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Peace and Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Human Trafficking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Environment and Natural Disasters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Governance and Transparency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Box 1: Filipino Catholic Church Fights for Good Governance and Against Corruption. . . . . . 21

Part 3: Country Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Religion and Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Development Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Government, Religious Institutions, and NGOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Nadlhatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
International Faith-Inspired Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Interfaith Cooperation and Conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Box 2: Women’s Rights and Faith-Inspired Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Philippines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Socio-Economic Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Religion in the Philippines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Box 3: Mindanao: Conflict and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Faith and Public Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Box 4: Civil Society, the Catholic Church, and Agrarian Reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
NGOs, Civil Society, Faith, and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Box 5: Environmental Call for Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Box 6: Habitat for Humanity—Peace Build Program in Mindanao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Box 7: The Catholic Church and Contraception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Emerging Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Box 8: Sister Adelia S. Oling and People’s Alternative Livelihood Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Cambodia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Cambodia’s Religious Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Development and Buddhist Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Box 9: The Association of Buddhists for the Environment (ABE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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 Development and Muslim organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Christian Development Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Emerging Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Thailand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
An Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Socio-Economic and Political Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Religion in Thailand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Socially Engaged Buddhism in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Interfaith Cooperation and Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Faith-Inspired Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
An Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Religion in Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Development Work in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Laos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Socio-Economic Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Religion in Laos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
NGOs, Politics, and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Faith-Inspired Development Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Burma (Myanmar). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2010
The Country in Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Socio-Economic Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Religion in Burma (Myanmar). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

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Role of Faith-Inspired Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

Part 4: Transnational Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Japanese Foreign Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Box 10: Soka Gakkai. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Faith-Inspired Organizations and Development in Japan and Abroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Box 11: Korean Missionaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Taiwan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Box 12: Tzu Chi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Malaysia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
An Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Islam, Ethnicity, and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
NGOs, Religious Organizations, and the Government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Box 13: The Hajj Fund and Islamic Banking in Malaysia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Singapore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
United States and Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Appendix 1: Annotated Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3
 Faith-Inspired Organizations and
Global Development Policy
A Background Review “Mapping” Social and
Economic Development Work in Southeast Asia
Introduction
R
eligion is a pervasive and influential force across
Southeast Asia. Religious beliefs are as diverse
as the region’s geography and peoples, and
religious practices and institutions both shape and are
changed by the social revolutions across all realms of
Southeast Asian society. Institutions and communities
with faith links engage in widely ranging activities,
some classically religious in nature (teaching scripture,
pastoral care), others covering a wide gamut of ser-
vices and community action, working from the many
thousands of temples, churches, mosques, and other
religious institutions across the region.
The report aims to identify and examine the practical,
development related roles of faith-inspired institutions
and the environments in which they work, both histori-
cally and present-day, focusing on Southeast Asia.2 Its
central aim is what we term a “mapping” of the land-
scape of faith-inspired organizations working in devel-
opment, in order to identify and highlight areas with
potential for increased collaboration, and their policy
implications. It also sets out to identify areas meriting
further investigation and discussion. Given the diversity
and size of Southeast Asia, some countries are not dis-
cussed in this report, though they do have vibrant faith-
inspired organizations engaged in development work
that deserve investigation. The report is based largely on
desk reviews of existing material and literature, enriched
by ongoing WFDD field work in Cambodia and inter-
views with specialists and practitioners.
The country context in which faith-inspired organiza-
tions work (social, political, cultural, and economic)
largely determines and influences their roles and activi-
ties. The report thus focuses on a country by country
overview that highlights the challenges and constraints
at a national level. A separate section explores the work
of transnational organizations, focusing primarily on
those with an Asian focus but also international faith-
inspired organizations including World Vision, Muslim
Relief, and the Council for the Parliament of the
World’s Religions. These organizations and the people
who work with them form a web of development prac-
titioners that, inter alia, transmits experience and ideas
across national and often faith boundaries.
2010
The review has proved challenging. The wide range of
religious beliefs that characterize the region give rise to
an extraordinary diversity of institutional forms and
|
activities. Their overall nature and form are not docu-
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
mented or analyzed in any systematic way, and they
vary by country and region. Faith-inspired institutions
can be found working in all sectors of society, ranging
from the spiritual realm, to those more commonly asso-
ciated with secular organizations. They work in educa-
tion, health, HIV/AIDS, environmental preservation,
humanitarian relief, conflict resolution, and emergency
relief, among many other sectors. They work inde-
pendently, in collaboration with other faith-inspired
groups, and in an extraordinary array of partnerships
with secular institutions, public and private. To a sig-
nificant extent, therefore, this review is exploratory, and
its findings are far from definitive.
The report makes no systematic effort to define religion
or faith, and thus has not constrained its analysis to
a tightly defined set of faith actors. Its approach is
wide-ranging and inclusive, and our use of the term
“faith-inspired” reflects an appreciation of the complex
links between inspiration and organization, belief and
action. Religion and faith are tied to moral and ethical
attributes that tend to emphasize human and spiritual
contributions to political and economic domains.
5
 Beliefs affect behaviors relevant to many endeavors
having clear social, economical, and political reach. The
primary focus of the present exploration, however, is
not on the ways in which faith and belief shape attitudes
towards development and related behaviors, but on a set
of more pragmatic questions linked to policy engage-
ment and service delivery.
The report focuses on the largest faith communi-
ties, which tend to have the most active institutions:
Buddhism, Muslim, and Christianity; but other reli-
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
tice, human rights abuses, and environmental degrada-
tion in concrete, practical ways.
The review is designed to inform and serve both faith
and development practitioners. Diverse faith-inspired
organizations form part of the development architec-
ture, presenting attendant challenges of coordination
and aligning with national and international strategic
objectives. Often the faith-inspired experience suggests
new insights and practical lessons, as well as special
challenges on issues ranging from governance to effec-

gions and indigenous belief systems also help to weave
the social, cultural, and religious fabric of Southeast
Asia. Shintoism, Confucianism, Hinduism, and Judaism
all have reach and influence, and indigenous religions
and beliefs are also significant. Belief systems are syn-
cretic in many situations, and each of the larger world
religions has a uniquely Southeast Asian character.
tive community mobilization. To date, faith-inspired
institutions, as such, have rarely figured on develop-
ment agendas, except as elements of what is broadly
defined as civil society. The report’s findings could serve
as a useful enrichment for development discussions.

The central threads running through much of the

analysis and discussions are the purposeful focus of
much faith-inspired work on poor communities and
grassroots endeavors, and wide-ranging efforts to
address conflicts and social tensions. The major faiths
|

present in Southeast Asia all profess a particular focus

BERKLEY CENTER

on those who are excluded and marginalized in society,

those who suffer, and those who are poor. Faith-inspired
organizations are particularly active, and often have
a significant value-added, at the grassroots level. In
communities, faith-inspired organizations can have a
nuanced understanding of the local context, significant
and well established networks, and established rela-
tionships and trust with local leaders and community
members. Recent natural disasters in Southeast Asia
highlight how effectively some faith-inspired actors can
respond and their extraordinary reach.

In Southeast Asia, national borders and ethnicities over-

lap, bringing faith communities into close proximity,
leading both to constructive cooperation, and in some
instances, interreligious conflict. Faith-inspired organi-
zations thus find themselves often at the epicenter of
local understanding and influence surrounding devel-
opment work and humanitarian aid. In places where
there are active conflicts, faith-inspired grassroots initia-
tives engage the poorest members of the community,
who are often particularly imbued with their religious
identity. A wide array of groups addresses social injus-

6
7
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2010
 Part I
Southeast Asia: An Overview
Religion in Southeast Asia:
A Brief Overview—Actual,
Historical, Trends
R
eligious institutions and faith-inspired organiza-
tions have a strong physical and spiritual pres-
ence across most Southeast Asian communities.
Even the most remote and inaccessible locations are
likely to have a vibrant religious center or centers that
often function as a social and economic hub, beside
more classic spiritual roles. Faith-inspired institutions
are involved in a range of social and public services at
the community level, including prominently but not
exclusively education and health.
Religious demography, relations between state and
faith, and predominant areas of activity of faith institu-
tions vary widely across the region, and each country
presents a quite different profile, sometimes mirrored
also in wide differences among regions of a single
country. This diversity gives rise to widely different
arrangements and focus in terms of types of develop-
ment programs and sector concentration. The capacity
of the state also shapes the approach to faith-inspired
organizations, as well as to civil society more broadly.
The respective roles of local versus regional and inter-
national organizations also differs markedly by coun-
try. Thus, the Philippines, for example, with a vibrant
and established democracy, has a large and dynamic
civil society with thousands of different organizations
working in virtually every imaginable sector, while in
Vietnam, a communist state, nongovernmental orga-
nizations, including those with a faith character, work
under significant restrictions.
The following section briefly introduces the region’s
major religious traditions.
Figure 1
Southeast Asia, Population
by Religious Affiliation (%)
Ethnoreligionist: 4.90% Agnostic: 2.69%
Christian: 21.23% Other: 6.98%
2010
|
Buddhist: 27.09% Muslim: 36.83%
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Source: The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA)
Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism, the oldest of the three main divi-
sions of Buddhism and most widespread practice in
Southeast Asia, historically spread from India and Sri
Lanka to present day Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia,
Thailand, Malaysia, and Laos. Buddhist kings and pow-
erful Buddhist empires reigned across the Mekong River
region for hundreds of years, through the 13th century,
installing Buddhism as permanent and influential fixture
across these Southeast Asian societies. Buddhism, in
addition to its obvious and influential spiritual realm, has
been used by political leaders to derive power and sup-
port, and as a force for national cohesion. In Thailand,
the Buddhist lineage of the King remains a symbol of
national cohesion during its on-going political crisis,3
while in Burma (Myanmar), Burma’s (Myanmar’s)
military regime has in many respects coopted the upper
echelons of the Buddhist sangha.4
9
 Buddhist monks, in varying ways and to varying
degrees, are actively engaged in social development
work at the local, national, and regional levels. The
Buddhist temple often serves as an important center of
social life in villages and towns, especially in Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos, and Burma (Myanmar). Alongside
traditional Buddhist structures, lay Buddhist move-
ments, both national and transnational, put to prac-
tice the tenets of socially engaged Buddhism.5 Sulak
Sivaraksa has been particularly influential in bringing
attention to the socially engaged Buddhist move-
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
ment, contributing a Buddhist voice to international
development discussions on topics ranging from social
justice and education to environmental protection and
sustainable development.6 Buddhist organizations from
the wealthier countries in Asia (particularly Japan and
Taiwan), predominantly lay movements, are active in
promoting socially engaged Buddhism on a regional
and international level. Soka Gakkai, a Japanese lay
Buddhist movement, for example, has active chapters in
most countries in Asia.
Islam
Islam is the most widely practiced religion in Southeast Asia
|
(an estimated 37 percent of the population), and Southeast
BERKLEY CENTER
Asia is home to 65 percent of the world’s Muslims. Most
Southeast Asian Muslims follow Sunni Islam. Indonesia is
the world’s most populous Muslim country.
Islam was introduced in Southeast Asia by way of Arab
merchants and sailors and is present today throughout
the region. The most populous Muslim countries
and regions are: Indonesia, Malaysia, Mindanao
(Philippines), and southern Thailand, with significant
minorities in most countries (particularly Burma
(Myanmar), Cambodia, and Vietnam). Traditionally
Southeast Asian Islam has lived harmoniously alongside
the region’s other large religions and indigenous belief
systems, in many cases together with local traditions
and customs. Recent tensions within specific com-
munities are seen to result largely from the influence of
strains of Islam from the Middle East. These contrast
with traditional practices and beliefs. The tensions
are not easily measured or mapped, but are discussed
within policy and operational circles.
In predominantly Muslim countries, Muslim organi-
zations are an integral component of the social and
10
political fabric. Islam influences governance, law, and
finance, among other aspects of daily life, in addition to
spiritual guidance. Daily functions of the state, includ-
ing education, legal, and finance policy, are influenced
by Muslim practice and thought, at times blurring the
line between the secular and religious realms.
Some countries or sub-regions are witnessing pres-
sures to follow stricter Islamic legal and political codes.
Prominent examples are Aceh, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
Some observers suggest that movements towards Sharia
law, for example, are driven by a small minority of reli-
gious hardliners and political elites.7 Islamic education
is influential, replaces public education systems in many
areas, notably in Indonesia and Malaysia, but also recog-
nized in majority Buddhist countries such as Thailand.
Christianity
Christianity is thought to have begun its journey into
Asia with the mission of the apostle Thomas in India.
Catholicism arrived in Southeast Asia on a large scale
with the Spanish in Manila in 1571, laying the founda-
tion for the predominantly Roman Catholic heritage in
the Philippines today. Protestant Christianity was first
introduced in the region by the Dutch in the early seven-
teenth century but did not spread extensively until mis-
sionaries arrived en mass early in the nineteenth century.
They remain a widespread presence in Southeast Asia.
Apart from the Philippines, Christianity has exerted
less influence than Buddhism, Islam, and, historically,
Hinduism. However, Christianity’s reach and influence
today is spreading. Christianity has experienced quite
rapid growth in Vietnam in the past decade, though
it faces various obstacles from the government, and in
Indonesia, approximately 9 percent of the population is
Christian. In Burma (Myanmar) and Thailand, Christians
are present primarily among minority ethnic groups,
though Christian missionaries and development workers
are widespread in Buddhist majority areas as well, often
offering education and other social services. In Cambodia,
many faith-inspired organizations are Christian and
involved in a wide range of activities including education
and health. Large Christian organizations include: World
Vision, Jesuit Relief Service, Adventist Development
and Relief Agency, Caritas, and Cordaid. South Korean
churches are particularly active in sending missionaries
(primarily Protestant) across Southeast Asia.
Hinduism
Millions of people throughout Southeast Asia practice
Hinduism, the highest concentration being in Bali,
Indonesia. Spreading from India in the first century,
Hinduism has left an indelible cultural and religious
heritage in Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, and
Burma (Myanmar). While many of the original religious
practices have faded as other religions were introduced,
Hindu art, architecture, and traditions are still impor-
tant today and permeate local culture in many aspects.8
Hinduism first spread to Indonesia through coloniza-
tion, trade, and intermarriage. Throughout the 1800s
Dutch colonial policy brought India and Bali under the
same rule and later aimed to protect Balinese Hinduism
by limiting Christian and Islamic proselytization. 9
Today, Hindus account for about 90 percent of the
total population in Bali, compared to about 9 percent
in Indonesia as a whole.
Cambodia is home to Angkor Wat, the world’s largest
Hindu temple, as the Angkor kings promoted Hindu
sects in the 8th century. Although less than one percent
of Cambodia’s population is Hindu today, the histori-
cally peaceful coexistence of Hinduism and Mahayana
Buddhism has ensured a lasting Hindu influence on
beliefs, rituals, and practices in the country. Bour
Kry, the Supreme Patriarch of the (Buddhist) Dharma
Yuttikanikaya Order observed in February 2009 that
“Buddhism is the national religion of Cambodia, but
Hinduism is the traditional culture of Cambodia.”10
Indigenous Beliefs
Indigenous beliefs are widely practiced throughout
Southeast Asia, often in conjunction with other faiths,
especially at the local level. They blend with larger reli-
gions, often creating a unique national religious charac-
ter reflecting each country’s distinct history and culture.
Indigenous belief systems tend to be more common
and “pure” in rural areas, particularly evident in local
ceremonies and traditions. Southeast Asian indigenous
beliefs are generally animist in nature, involving the
worship of spirits that inhabit many different living
organisms, places, and objects.
In the cosmologies of Southeast Asian animism,
there are often different strata of spirits that have
access to or inhabit different ethereal levels. In Burma
(Myanmar), for instance, a pantheon of nats, animist
spirits of people who died violent deaths, was formal-
ized in the middle of the eleventh century by King
Anawrahta of Bagan, after he unsuccessfully tried
to enforce a ban on nat worship. There is, however,
much variation in the degree to which animism and
other indigenous beliefs have or have not been insti-
tutionalized. Shamanism sometimes plays a role in
the indigenous religious practices of Southeast Asia,
for example the Malaysian bomohs, whose traditional
healing practices are to varying degrees integrated into
Islam. Animists living in Burma (Myanmar), Laos,
and Vietnam often face additional antagonism from
the state since they are more likely to belong to ethnic
minority groups that the government associates with
“subversive” political activity. In Indonesia, traditional
and animist beliefs are prohibited by law, and adher-
ents have reported discrimination.
Local beliefs and superstitions present in rural areas
influence communities’ views on modern develop-
2010
ment, at times presenting challenges for faith-inspired
organizations.
|
Faith-Inspired Organizations
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
with Transnational Mandates
Transnational development work by faith-inspired
organizations from all of the major religions is signifi-
cant across Southeast Asia. Many of these organizations
have strong ties in wealthier countries, especially those
in the region.
Japan, Australia, Korea, and Taiwan have active faith-
inspired development and relief organizations. From
Japan, several Buddhist organizations, notably Soka
Gakkai and Rissho Kosei-kai, have significant interna-
tional programs. Both organizations collaborate between
and across faiths and with the United Nations and other
international organizations with the explicit aim of pro-
moting a harmonious society. Taiwan’s many Buddhist
organizations do social development work with inter-
national mandates, some of the largest being Tzu-Chi,
Fo Guang Shan, Dharma Drum Mountain, and Chung
Tai Shan. Australia’s largest transnational faith-inspired
organization is World Vision Australia, the largest
Christian non-governmental organization operating in
the Asia Pacific region. Korea draws on its Buddhist and
11
 Christian roots in its overseas development work. Religion Organization
Christian Caritas Internationalis
Numerous other primarily Western based interna- Catholic Relief Services
tional faith-inspired organizations are active across Christian Aid
Southeast Asia. Large organizations include World Adventist Development and Relief
Vision (USA and Europe), Muslim Aid, Catholic Agency (ADRA)
Relief Services, Islamic Relief, American Jewish World World Vision
Service, and Jesuit Refugee Service. These organiza- Jesuit Refugee Services
tions commonly work through partnerships with World Council of Churches
local faith-inspired organizations and institutions, Lutheran World Relief
increasing transnational and national networks of Norwegian Church Aid
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y

development practitioners and building local capacity. Habitat for Humanity

The Asian tsunami of 2004, the largest humanitarian Salvation Army
emergency of our time (possibly alongside the January Buddhist Tzu Chi
2010 Haiti earthquake), saw the mobilization of Dharma Drum Mountain
organizations from around the world. Many interfaith Guang Shan
initiatives, for example the partnership between World
Chung Tai Shan
Vision and Muhammadiyah in Indonesia, grew out
Buddhist Peace Fellowship
of the tsunami response. The tsunami also brought
Buddhist AIDS Project
to light the difficulties of coordination among faith-
Sathirakoses-Nagapradeepa Founda-
inspired actors, raising the question as to how local tion
and transnational organizations should best collabo- Soka Gakkai
rate amid catastrophes. Is decentralization the ideal The Buddhist NGO Network of Japan
route, or should a central coordinating body manage (BNN)
|

and oversee development and relief efforts? Thai Rissho Friendship Foundation
BERKLEY CENTER

Rissho Kosei-kai
Transnational faith-inspired organizations often have Arigato Foundation
larger operating budgets than their national counter- Shanti Volunteer Association (SVA)
parts (though this is not always the case) and many International Network of Engaged
employees that form a worldwide network of offices. Buddhists (INEB)
They are instrumental in rapid response to complex Muslim Muslim Aid
humanitarian emergencies following natural disasters Islamic Relief
or conflict. Most of these organizations work with Baha’i Baha’i International Community
populations whose faith-beliefs differ from their own Interfaith Coordinating Group for Religion and
and strive to provide aid and assistance regardless of Society (CGRS)

religious orientation. Council for a Parliament of the

Major Faith-Inspired
Organizations
Major world faiths with a presence in Southeast Asia are
engaged in social development work on varying scales.
Faith-inspired organizations are based both in Asia itself
and abroad, many with headquarters in the USA and
Europe. These organizations are working nationally,
regionally, and independently, as well as collaborating
across faiths and with secular development agencies
and governments. The following chart, lists some of the
World’s Religions
World Conference of Religions for
Peace
Jewish
American Jewish World Service
American Jewish Joint Distribution
Committee
largest and most recognized organizations working in
the region. Organizations in the list were chosen based
on their range of activities in one or more countries
in Southeast Asia. More comprehensive country lists,
including local organizations, can be found on the
Berkley Center website.11

12
13
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2010
 Part 2
Sector Focus and Emerging Trends
and Policy Questions
Peace and Conflict Resolution
R
eligion plays a visible yet often ambiguous
role in the multiple and very different conflict
situations across Southeast Asia. These con-
flicts range from armed disputes and terrorist threats
to simmering social tensions and communities where
high crime rates and other factors produce insecurity.
Under virtually all circumstances, how religious beliefs
contribute to conflict situations is complex and con-
tentious. Some ascribe conflicts to intrinsic tensions
that give rise to inter- or intra-faith conflict, others see
incitement or encouragement by religious leaders, while
still others see religion as a proxy for tensions that have
other roots. Religion is almost always one among many
sources of tension, and perceptions of religion’s role
vary by actor and over time. As an example, religious
heritage linked to historical memories and the politics
of identity clearly can infuse or exacerbate conflicts
which also have political and economic dimensions.
Religion, culture, and ethnicity overlap in shaping atti-
tudes towards violence and the position of “the other.”
This complexity helps to explain the lack of consensus
on religion as a cause or fuel for conflicts worldwide,12
and, thus, for Southeast Asia.
That said, many ascribe religious elements, inter alia,
to several Southeast Asian conflicts, notably those
involving Mindanao (Philippines), Southern Thailand,
Aceh and Sulawesi (Indonesia), Malaysia, and Burma
(Myanmar). More specifically, the rise of more funda-
mentalist interpretations and tendencies within some
Muslim communities, including in Southeast Asia, has
raised societal tensions. Some well-known instances
of terrorist acts where the perpetrators say that their
motives are religious are a mounting concern with
global implications.
Beyond “traditional” conflicts, religion may also enter
into other, broader social and economic dynamics,
which contribute to social tension. Notable are the
potential and actual tensions linked to climate change
that introduce new forms of dislocation or social com-
petition (for example land and water disputes and cli-
mate driven refugees), competition over water resources
more broadly, and migration.
Looking beyond religion as a cause or fuel for tension,
2010
religious institutions, communities, and leaders can
and do play central, often critical, roles in conflict
resolution. The terms “peacemaking” and “peacebuild-
|
ing” apply to a wide range of work. Agreement on the
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
range of activities that these terms include vary, but
examples are religious leader participation in formal and
informal peace negotiations (as has been the case in the
Philippines), humanitarian aid during conflicts (espe-
cially work with refugees), support during resettlement,
support for trauma healing and victims, and serving as
a witness to both atrocities and heroic actions. These
activities form the backbone and often raison d’être of a
wide range of faith-inspired organizations.
Information about the roles of faith-inspired organiza-
tions in all these areas is partial and scattered. However,
faith-inspired actors are undeniably engaged in virtually
all contemporary conflict situations in the region in dif-
ferent capacities, at the international, national, regional,
and grassroots levels.
In the Southeast Asia review, faith-inspired contributions
at the grassroots level emerge as an area of particular inter-
est. The historical and almost universal presence of faith
institutions as centers of social and economic life in most
communities, especially in rural areas, often has earned
for them a level of trust that is typically not associated
15
 with government or secular agencies. Historically, faith-
inspired actors have been effective in mobilizing public
support for peace (for example in Cambodia with the
Buddhist-led peace marches and Soka Gakkai’s advocacy
for nuclear disarmament), facilitating dialogue across
warring sides, providing refugee assistance and trauma
care, and voicing opposition to oppression. The growing
set of activities under the heading of “peacebuilding”
focus particularly on peace education, reconciliation, and
trauma healing, as well as broad community develop-
ment, and are particularly marked in Cambodia, in the
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
wake of the Khmer Rouge genocide.
Most of the large international faith-inspired organiza-
tions work in the major conflict zones in Southeast Asia,
including: World Conference of Religions for Peace,
Parliament of the World’s Religions, United Religions
Initiative (all of which have regional bodies working to
promote interfaith dialogue), Catholic Relief Services,
World Vision, Muslim Aid, Islamic Relief, American
Jewish World Service, Caritas, Soka Gakkai, and Jesuit
Refugee Service. Their programs vary widely and
include humanitarian assistance, interfaith dialogue,
and long-term development assistance and capacity
|
building. More significant is the substantial overlap
BERKLEY CENTER
among different categories of work. Thus massive work
in Aceh in which many of these organizations par-
ticipated following the 2004 tsunami combined post-
conflict work, including reconciliation work with very
practical rebuilding of infrastructure destroyed by the
tsunami, and long-term development planning. These
transnational organizations often work in partnership
with local churches, mosques, temples, NGOs, and
other faith-inspired and secular organizations.
National and local level faith-inspired organizations
range in influence and activity, depending on the coun-
try context. Indonesia is a special case, with the large
and experienced Muslim organizations Muhammadiyah
and Nahdlatul Ulama carrying significant influence
with their combined 70 million members. Their con-
flict work is closely tied to other activities, like educa-
tion and community support. In Mindanao, where
conflict involves a predominantly Muslim minority in
a majority Catholic nation, interfaith dialogue spans
the government, religious leaders, local NGOs, and
civil society, and garners attention at the national level.
While actual outcomes are difficult to measure, the
16
initiatives appear to be making significant headway.
Religious extremism is in many respects a distinct topic,
but it is related to the development agenda because
of significant, albeit complex, links between develop-
ment and instability. More extreme segments of most
faith traditions draw on popular anger about perceived
social injustice and group exclusion. Change and crisis,
social and economic, often spark tensions. The reality
and perception of corruption is increasingly a platform
for political mobilization (witness Indonesia in 1998,
Philippines, Thailand). Poor governance and corruption,
combined with actions targeted at specific groups, may
blur the lines between tendencies that truly represent a
distortion of religious teachings towards an extreme and
more dubious labeling and marginalizing of a group as
extremist. A vicious cycle can result, with the so-labeled
group increasingly resentful of their treatment. Increased
transnational exchange and influence within faiths (an
example being educational exchange between the Arab
world and Southeast Asian Muslims—contributing to
what some term “Arabization” of Southeast Asian Islam)
has put pressure on the historical character of Southeast
Asian faiths, which have incorporated many elements
of different traditions and have prided themselves on
living side by side. The result is a perception of mount-
ing tensions both within and between faiths. The role
of inequalities has a complex interplay with violence,
undermining the stability and physical security which
are preconditions for successful social progress. Again,
faith institutions, communities, and leaders in ongoing
dialogue about development directions and issues can
play important roles.
The review highlights the widely held view that the
potential for working with and through on-the-ground
networks of faith-inspired organizations is only partially
developed, particularly in reaching rural areas. Their
contributions have particular importance in fragile
states and communities. There, they often provide the
little education and health care that is available and
have extraordinary knowledge of local circumstances,
fears, and aspirations.
Health
The lower income countries in Southeast Asia face a
significant array of health issues, and faith-inspired
organizations are involved in various ways. The gap
between the mounting demand for care and that read-
ily available to the most vulnerable and marginalized
groups is increasingly apparent. Major health challenges
include HIV/AIDS, polio, malaria, and tuberculosis, as
well as general care for common illnesses and maternal
and child health. While it is increasingly appreciated
within international health circles that faith-inspired
organizations provide significant health services, data for
Southeast Asia that would answer questions about how
much are not available. The missing knowledge about
quantity, quality, and reach of faith-run health services
makes it difficult to engage these actors in both policy
discussions and programming for priority interventions
for poorly served populations. What emerges from this
preliminary review is both a significant continuing
health agenda among the major faiths (for example the
Buddhist focus on meditation as a foundation for overall
spiritual, mental, and physical health) and a wide array
of specific health interventions that are part of the com-
munity and national programs of faith-inspired organi-
zations (for example numerous HIV/AIDS programs,
major facilities like the Sihanouk Hospital Center for
Hope in Cambodia,13 and specific interventions like the
neo-natal resuscitation and wheelchair programs run by
the Church of Latter Day Saints).
Health challenges differ significantly by country and
region across Southeast Asia, for example in the impact
of epidemic diseases. Region-wide health imperatives
also are significant—witness the SARS and H1N1 crises.
Human trafficking, the active sex industry, urbanization,
migration, natural disasters, and conflict all contribute
to health concerns. Coordination, cooperation, and
partnership arrangements among faith-inspired orga-
nizations and governments, NGOs, and international
organizations vary significantly by country.
Faith-inspired organizations have been most visible in
some public health campaigns and in the response to
HIV/AIDS. Their services are particularly important
in rural areas, where education and basic services are
limited (notable examples exist in Cambodia, Laos, and
Thailand), and in devout religious societies, where trust
of the government may be weak. In such situations,
faith-inspired leaders have collaborated with the gov-
ernment (as has been the case in Indonesia) to promote
health initiatives and clarify misunderstandings among
their faith-group adherents. Faith-inspired organiza-
tions have contributed to several of the region’s success-
ful family planning programs.
Pagoda-based care and monk engagement in health care
has historically been active throughout Buddhist societ-
ies in Asia, with examples found today in the Mekong
region, though limited mapping and coordination
makes it difficult to know the true scope, impact, and
role. Monks are working directly with international
organizations; an example is the UNICEF supported
Buddhist Leadership Initiative, engaging monks in the
Mekong region in HIV prevention.14 National Buddhist
NGOs have developed to engage monks in health
imperatives, inter alia, the Sangha Metta Project (active
in Thailand, Laos, Burma [Myanmar], Cambodia,
Southern China, Vietnam, Mongolia, and Bhutan) and
Buddhism for Development in Cambodia, which work
with monks and nuns, teaching about HIV/AIDS and
how to avoid high-risk behavior, working specifically at
the community level. Indigenous healers continue to
play a role as well, particularly at the rural community
2010
level, where indigenous faith beliefs remain prevalent
and are syncretic with the larger religious traditions.
|
Education
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Faith-inspired organizations play significant if hard to
measure roles in education across much of Southeast
Asia. All of the major faiths offer education through
different types of institutions and in very different
forms; the content of education varies from essentially
secular-style instruction following government man-
dated curriculum, to complete religious instruction,
with numerous points in between. While it is generally
appreciated at the international level that faith-inspired
organizations are significant actors in the education sec-
tor and should be more engaged at the policy level, data
on the range and scope of their involvement (as is the
case with most sectors where faith-inspired organiza-
tions work), is difficult to come by, as reliable coordina-
tion or mapping mechanisms are limited. Furthermore,
the education landscape and challenges differ substan-
tially by country, making blanket policy generalizations
about faith-inspired education rather perilous. Despite
these challenges, this preliminary review found numer-
ous examples where faith-inspired run education plays
important roles, especially in filling gaps where the
government is unable or has failed to provide adequate
education to its population.
17
 Faith-inspired organization run education is historically
perceived as reaching out to the poor and marginalized
in society, though recent discussions surrounding this
review highlight that many of these schools are increas-
ingly forced to charge fees. The range of educational
institutions varies, including boarding schools, uni-
versities, orphanages, trade schools, and primary and
secondary schools. In Buddhist societies pagoda-based
education was the historic center for education and
remains important today in many areas, particularly
in rural areas, though the content, quality, and scope
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
of education vary widely and is largely unmeasured
and not publicized. Buddhist universities are found in
several countries in Southeast Asia, perhaps the most
prolific in Thailand.
Islamic education, generally, tends to be better docu-
mented and more centralized than Buddhist education.
Islamic faith-inspired education is well established (par-
ticularly in Indonesia and Malaysia) and in many cases
is recognized by the government as a parallel system to
public education at the primary, secondary, and univer-
sity levels. It is, however, undergoing substantial change,
with both stricter forms of Islam (with influence from
|
the Arab world) affecting in some cases the character of
BERKLEY CENTER
education and the religious and political perspectives
of students, and increased government involvement
in faith-inspired education institutions (particularly in
Malaysia). The most extensive system of Islamic schools
is in Indonesia, where Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul
Ulama report that they reach over one million students
at all levels of education. In Thailand as well, the
Ministry of Education supports Islamic (and Buddhist)
education outside of the national government system,
reaching over a half million students. Islamic boarding
schools at the primary and secondary level (known as
pesantren [Indonesia], pondok [Malaysia and southern
Thailand], and madrasah) are found in most Muslim
majority regions and play a central role in education in
Muslim societies.
Christian schools in Southeast Asia are widespread
(though mapping is limited) and run by myriad
organizations, both national and from abroad. They
attract local students of different faiths, as they are
often perceived as providing a higher quality education
compared to the government system, and some operate
free of charge. Proselytization is, however, a nagging
18
concern and challenge surrounding Christian educa-
tion, where Christian schools operate in non-Christian
majority locations and enroll non-Christian students,
who are often educated in Christian ethics and moral
beliefs. Many children in orphanages are not techni-
cally orphans but are sent by their parents to receive an
education, raising similar questions.
An important phenomenon in Southeast Asia is trans-
national education and educational exchange. This
applies to secular and faith institutions, but there is
a special spotlight on Islamic education. Funds from
the Arab world support Islamic boarding schools,
some teaching a stricter version of Islam than has been
traditionally present. Some students travel to study in,
among others, Kuwait, Malaysia, and Saudi Arabia.
This trend has raised concerns about fundamentalist
education and its effect on traditional societies and
cultures that have lived in harmony for many centuries.
It is closely related to challenges and rising global social
tensions facing Islamic madrasahs and the content of
their education.
A challenge facing schools of all faith beliefs is a lack of
rigorous evaluation of the quality of instruction.
Human Trafficking
Southeast Asia is a region of special concern to the com-
munity fighting contemporary human trafficking. The
region is an origin, destination, and transit region for
trafficked persons. Trafficking takes many forms. Best
known is for sexual exploitation, but different forms of
bonded labor are also important. Most, though not all
those involved, are minors.15 The effects of human traf-
ficking are wide-ranging, both for society as a whole and
for the individual trafficked. A host of socio-economic
factors lead families to sell or traffic minors, or individu-
als to choose voluntarily a path that puts them at risk
of trafficking; these include poverty, natural disasters,
corruption, gender inequality, impunity, increased tour-
ism, migration, and social marginalization. Estimates of
the number of trafficked persons in Southeast Asia vary
significantly, but most agree only a small share of those
affected are currently reached by aid organizations.
A quite wide spectrum of organizations with faith
links have come to play significant roles in the global
effort to combat human trafficking. They are active
at local, national, and international levels and their
work takes many forms, including quiet compassion-
ate support of victims (including livelihood training,
economic opportunity, shelters, trauma counseling,
and shelter), efforts within “sending” communities
to combat the factors that lead women especially to
leave their homes, advocacy on human rights grounds
for governmental and intergovernmental action, and
work within legal frameworks to bring perpetrators to
justice and change legal systems. Those most actively
involved, many though not all with faith links,
describe their work as driven by compassion for the
victims, especially young girls involuntarily trafficked
and trapped in virtual slavery. It is also more broadly
driven by efforts to change the underlying systems at
work, in the interests of social justice. This work has
brought about surprising and often very constructive
alliances among institutions across quite distinct polit-
ical spectrums (described by Allen Hertzke in Freeing
God’s Children). It has also at times given rise to con-
troversies, because there are disagreements among dif-
ferent groups about the most appropriate and effective
ways to combat the problems of trafficking.
A 2010 report of the United Nations Global Initiative
to Fight Human Trafficking suggests that the enor-
mous potential role faith-inspired organizations
can play at the local, national, regional, and global
levels should be harnessed more effectively. Overall
data on levels of engagement, however, are hard to
come by. The United Nations Inter-Agency Project
on Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong sub-
region (UNIAP) has facilitated a consultative process
called COMMIT that works specifically on coopera-
tion across borders, between countries with at times
contentious relationships to strengthen a regional
response to trafficking.
Local cultural norms, informed by religious beliefs in
many cases, contribute to the societal response to vic-
tims of trafficking, particularly in cases of sexual exploi-
tation and abuse. The response often involves differing
levels of social stigmatization, prompting some victims
not to identify themselves to aid organizations, or creat-
ing increased hardship surrounding their assimilation
back into society. Gender roles also play a significant
role in victim response; faith-inspired organizations
can be instrumental in helping to shape constructive
opinions and norms. Each country and local context,
though similarities exist, is unique, with differing faith
beliefs and historical contexts shaping how and to what
extent religion and faith-inspired organizations engage
and shape views on human trafficking. In Cambodia for
example, the Khmer Rouge largely wiped out Buddhist
influence on society, undermining the role of the fam-
ily unit and respect for elders, both of which can affect
responses to human trafficking.16 In Muslim societies
as well, cultural emphasis on purity and virginity, for
example, can affect people’s views on those who have
worked in the sex industry, regardless of the circum-
stances that brought them there.
Work by faith-inspired organizations on human traffick-
ing, as a phenomenon and in its response, has political
dimensions at the national, regional, and international
levels. Human trafficking is a transnational issue that
crosses national and regional boundaries in Southeast
Asia, creating opportunities for increased cooperation,
as well as generating a host of sensitive debates.
2010
Human trafficking as a transnational issue has par-
ticular significance in Southeast Asia and requires more
|
effective cooperation. Expanding communications
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
technologies and increasing transnational religious
links, alongside active involvement of religious lob-
bies in some countries (especially the United States),
underpin common activism around trafficking.17 The
vitality, resourcefulness, reach of American Christian
church networks in particular, and growing church
membership in some countries ensures publicity and
support on key issues including human trafficking, at
an international level.18 International Justice Mission,
an American faith-inspired legal NGO, has brought
intense international attention to brothels in Cambodia
through its highly publicized raids alongside Cambodia
police; however, some groups are concerned that its
“cowboy” style and focus on political visibility may
undermine broader efforts.19 The mix of on the ground
efforts to work with communities and individuals and
high visibility international advocacy offer an example
of both the strengths of faith-inspired work, which
brings out the moral dimensions and builds on faith
communications assets and networks, and of some of
the pitfalls. The latter include the fragmentation of
efforts and lack of coherent reflection and consensus on
strategic approaches.
19
 Environment and Natural Disasters
Southeast Asia has one of the most fragile and diverse
natural habitats in the world. It is vulnerable to the
effects of climate change and natural disasters, prone
to frequent earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones, and mud-
slides, as well as rising sea levels. The region has only 3
percent of the world’s land area, but contains 80 percent
of the world’s biological diversity. Its long coastline is
home to millions who are at risk from frequent severe
weather and the adverse effects of climate change. Rapid
industrialization and agricultural expansion, along with
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
resulting population shifts, all put considerable pressure
on the already fragile environment. Many faith-inspired
organizations have taken up the cause, both as advo-
cates and activists. Their efforts remain rather decentral-
ized and largely unmeasured, so that consistent policy
level engagement is a challenge. Nonetheless, a number
of experiences highlight direct and constructive engage-
ment between faith-inspired organizations and govern-
ment/secular actors.
While in many ways faith-inspired organizations are an
integral and largely indistinguishable part of the region’s
civil society in terms of stance on environmental issues,
|
they can and often do bring special perspectives tied to
BERKLEY CENTER
both spiritual teachings and their lived experience. To
cite an example, Buddhist leaders speak forcefully and
often to great effect about the importance of respect for
nature and harmony within the ecosystem, and about
harming it as something that should be prevented.
Faith-inspired organizations, both in their operational
roles and speaking to their spiritual traditions, are
increasingly active in voicing concerns about environ-
mental degradation and climate change, including
advocacy, disaster relief, and long-term mitigation.
Long-standing programs of the Alliance of Religions
for Conservation (ARC) include workshops, revival
of ancient teachings (as in Mongolia), and train-
ing. Socially engaged Buddhist organizations engage
through individual monks working to preserve the
forest through advocacy work, for example informa-
tion campaigns, and “ordination” of individual trees to
symbolize their sacred character.
An area of intense activity is disaster response, and,
from there, advocacy and work to mitigate the adverse
effects of climate change and unsustainable develop-
20
ment projects. In Indonesia, the Philippines, and
Burma (Myanmar) in particular, faith-inspired actors
are particularly active in the response to natural disas-
ters and climate change issues, with numerous examples
of cooperation between international organizations,
governments, and local faith-institutions. Large organi-
zations including World Vision Australia and Muslim
Aid are engaged in government level advocacy, stressing
the importance of a systematic and concerted climate
change response, noting that the effects of climate
change have ramifications not only on the region’s
developing countries but on developed countries as
well—climate induced migration being one example
among many.
Faith-inspired development practitioners point to the
environment and climate change as topics of general
consensus and shared commitment, with potential for
increased interfaith collaboration. International inter-
faith conferences have involved faith-inspired develop-
ment practitioners from across Southeast Asia; a recent
interfaith climate manifesto in Sweden and numerous
programs during the December 2009 Parliament of
World Religions in Melbourne, Australia, are two
notable examples.
Governance and Transparency
Southeast Asia, like every world region, confronts a
wide range of governance challenges. Some challenges
are general to contemporary law and administration
and the evolving role of the state, while some are
imbued with the history and culture of each country
and, to a degree, the region overall. Religion and cul-
ture enter, through various paths, into both the overall
governance climate (for example in shaping community
values) and into some specific debates. As illustra-
tions, the current Thai crisis involves questions about
the Buddhist heritage in Thailand and its links to the
authority of the monarchy; in Indonesia and Malaysia,
Muslim ideals influence laws and approaches to gover-
nance; and in the Philippines Catholic leaders are vocal
in urging public participation. With increased access
to communications technology, religion is tending to
be a more visible part of the public discourse,20 though
its influence and reach vary widely depending on the
context. Generally, faith-engagement on development
policy for good governance remains a sensitive topic
in many countries, particularly when it moves towards
advocacy, though there are numerous examples where
organizations are strong and effective advocates even in
the face of government opposition and repression.
While some faith leaders would like to see religions in
a vanguard in advocating for good governance, espe-
cially promoting honesty and focus on the poor and
excluded, in practice their roles and record are mixed.
Close relationships with governments in some instances
dampen criticism and advocacy, while effective partner-
ships to bring tangible improvements in governance are
fairly rare. Mixed attitudes of governments towards civil
society roles color the way in which relationships with
faith-inspired groups akin to NGOs tend to evolve.
Groups that enjoy tacit support of the government, the
sangha-oriented Buddhist organizations in Thailand for
example, are often less involved in working actively for
Box 1
Filipino Catholic Church Fights for Good Governance and Against Corruption
In the run-up to the 2010 presidential elections in the
Philippines, the Catholic Church, along with other
Christian and civil society organizations, urged their
constituents to push for good governance and trans-
parency. On May 10, 2010, as a reported 75 percent of
the eligible 50 million Filipinos voted for a new presi-
dent, vice-president, senators, law-makers, and public
officials, Catholics stated publicly that they are con-
cerned about issues of governance and corruption.
According to Transparency International’s 2009 cor-
ruption perception index, the Philippines ranks rela-
tively low (139/182) on a ranking of the world’s most
corrupt countries.
On May 5, 2009 at a good governance summit in
Makati City, Angel Lagdameo, archbishop of Jaro and
president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the
Philippines, spoke about the need to reshape Philippine
society to promote a common good. Governance,
he said, should be anchored in grassroots economic
empowerment, strengthened by an effective political
system where accountability and the rule of law pre-
vail, and nourished by a system where Filipinos pro-
actively and responsibly participate in the mainstream
From http://www.ateneo.edu/index.php?p=120&type=2&sec=29&aid=7589
better governance and may support the status quo.21
Faith actors are, nonetheless, engaged in governance
issues through a wide range of often complex relation-
ships. Religious communities and networks are tightly
restricted and monitored in some countries, limiting
their formal capacity to influence governance norms
policies. In Burma (Myanmar) for example, the ruling
military junta retains tight control and influence over the
Buddhist sangha. In Cambodia, where corruption and
lack of transparency are widely acknowledged as chal-
lenges at all levels of government, some faith-inspired
organizations quietly promote good governance, but,
as advocacy arouses government suspicion, activities are
often not publicized. In Indonesia faith-inspired orga-
nizations are more visible and active players on issues
at the center of public policy debates. There are active
2010
political life. The Archbishop emphasized the need for
strong values in governance, and the malice of cor-
|
ruption in society. On his blog, he writes that “Graft
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
and Corruption is an evil that affects many levels and
areas of life. Graft and corruption is a sin that cries to
heaven especially if it is committed against the poor
people, like poor drivers,” and that “Leadership in gov-
ernance starts with leaders as citizens. Responsible
citizens produce good leaders, good leaders produce
good citizens.”
Ateneo University, home of the largest Jesuit commu-
nity in the Philippines, held a World Bank sponsored
conference on good governance from November 4 to
6,2009. The conference focused on: how local govern-
ment officials have successfully empowered their con-
stituents; how they have partnered with civil society
organizations for better public service delivery and
protection of disadvantaged groups; how they have
enhanced transparency and social accountability; and
how all these were used to make growth work for the
poor. These efforts represent important faith-inspired
approaches to promoting good governance, as well as
collaboration with secular development actors.
21
 Islamic political parties ranging from those advocating
an Islamic state, to those that aim to infuse democracy
with Islamic values. The largest religious organizations,
Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, have initiatives
that are explicitly designed to promote good governance
and government accountability.

The roles of faith-inspired communities and organiza-

tions in pressing for and supporting political reforms
also varies widely, by faith or community within faith
traditions, at different moments in time, and by coun-
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y

try. There are cases where religiously labeled and led

political parties are pivotal actors. Of particular interest
are the roles that religious institutions and communities
play in working for peace. Positive examples include
Buddhist movements working largely through peace-
ful social protest and criticism in both Thailand and
Cambodia, and the Catholic peacebuilding movement
in Philippines.

Faith-inspired organizations themselves acknowledge

many challenges within their own institutions in terms
of transparency, accountability, and efficient and honest
administration. Capacity weaknesses and a lack of well
|

adapted systems are partly responsible.

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22
23
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2010
 Part 3
Country Case Studies
T
he following sections examine in greater detail
the involvement of faith-inspired organizations
in Southeast Asia. Local realties and contexts
have a strong influence on the range and scope of their
activities, while political and historical particularities
shape the environment in which faith-inspired orga-
nizations operate. The country sections summarize
information on the country contexts where faith-
inspired organization operate, the challenges they face,
and specific examples of faith-inspired organizations
that are working independently, across faiths, with
secular organizations, and with governments. The lists
of organizations are far from exhaustive, as the number
of faith-inspired organizations involved in development
work is vast. The number working in the region is eas-
ily in the thousands. Those organizations listed are the
most well known and active, as well as smaller organiza-
tions known to be making a substantial difference in the
communities where they work.
Indonesia
Historical Overview
The world’s fourth most populous, third largest democ-
racy, and the country with the largest Muslim popula-
tion, Indonesia is comprised of 13,700 islands, strung
across 5,000 kilometers. Of its roughly 245 million,
largely rural population, approximately 88 percent
are Muslim, 6 percent Protestant, 3 percent Roman
Catholic, and 2 percent Hindu, with about one percent
a wide range of other faiths (Buddhist, traditional
indigenous religions, Jewish, and other Christian).22
Most Indonesian Muslims practice Sunni Islam, with a
Shia population of between one and three million. The
country’s Muslim population divides roughly along two
differing strains: “modernists,” who emphasize personal
interpretation of the Qur’an while embracing modern
learning and concepts; and “traditionalists,” who adhere
to strict scriptural interpretations (though some partici-
pants at the December 2009 consultation in Cambodia
suggested that the distinction between the two strains is
steadily diminishing).
Islam first arrived in Indonesia during the 11th cen-
tury, part of a pattern of increasing trade. By the 16th
century, it was established as the dominant religion
2010
practiced by most of the population with the notable
exception of the island of Bali. There, Hindus remain a
majority to this day.
|
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
It was during the 16th century that European traders
first came to the archipelago in search of spices. The
Dutch established the Dutch East India Company, and
when the company went bankrupt, the Netherlands
formally established the Colony of the Dutch East
Indies in 1800, maintaining control until World War
II. During World War II, the Japanese invaded and later
occupied Indonesia, ending Dutch rule but continuing
foreign occupation.
After the Allied victory in 1945, the nationalist
leader Sukarno (born Kusno Sosrodihardjo) declared
independence and was appointed president, despite
the Netherlands’ attempt to regain control of the
country. Seeking to incorporate elements of Marxism,
Indonesian nationalism, and Islam into the newly
independent state, Sukarno established the unique “five
principles” of Pancasila: 1) belief in one supreme God;
2) humanitarianism; 3) nationalism expressed in the
unity of Indonesia; 4) consultative democracy; and 5)
social justice. To balance different political factions, he
implemented an ideology dubbed “guided democracy”
along with martial law.
25
 The then-head of the army, General Suharto, with
the support of the United States ousted Sukarno and
became president in 1968. This ushered in an authori-
tarian New Order government. During his tenure,
Indonesia underwent an era of economic growth; how-
ever, the Asian Financial Crisis had devastating effects
on Indonesia’s economy in 1997, and Suharto resigned
in 1998. Indonesia has moved quite steadily towards
more democratic systems since then. In 2004, Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono became Indonesia’s first directly
elected president.
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
Religion and Government
Indonesia’s constitution states that “the nation is based
upon belief in one supreme God,” while at the same time,
it accords “all persons the right to worship according to
their own religion or belief.” Generally, the government
does recognize this right, although religious minorities,
notably Christian minorities, have faced discrimina-
tion. Officially, the government recognizes only six
religions: Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Confucianism. The notable exceptions to
the freedom of religion are traditionalist and animist reli-
gions of Indonesia, which are explicitly forbidden. The
|
government requires all citizens to note their religion on
BERKLEY CENTER
state-issued identity cards, and many localities will only
accept one of the six recognized religions.23
Though the government is officially secular, Muslim
religious leaders, notably the Council of Indonesian
Ulama (MUI),24 are given due notice by the govern-
ment when drafting legislation and formulating policy.
Following the 2002 nightclub attack in Bali and the
2003 and 2009 hotel bombings in Jakarta, the gov-
ernment cracked down on hard-line Muslim groups,
instituting strict anti-terrorism laws.
Many Christians and Christian organizations report
official discrimination by the government, for example
trouble registering marriages and births.25 Some reports
suggest that taxes are higher for building churches than
they are for mosques. Proselytizing is strictly forbidden
in The Guidelines for the Propagation of Religion, and
article 156 of the criminal code describes proselytiza-
tion as “spreading hatred, heresy and blasphemy.”
Aceh is the only province that can legally implement
Sharia law (non-Muslims are exempt), though other
26
cities have passed legislation restricting the rights of
women and certain religious minorities. The Jakarta
government granted this right after a struggle with
the separatist Free Aceh Movement (GAM), shortly
after the devastating tsunami in 2004. Local legislators
and large parts of the population, however, oppose
many of the laws derived from strict interpretations of
Sharia and elected more moderate Muslim legislators to
office in 2009.26
Development Challenges
Indonesia has made significant strides in development,
particularly in overall economic growth, and clearly falls
within the lower middle income category of nations
today. It does, however, still face multiple development
challenges. In 2007 almost half of the country’s popu-
lation lived below or only slightly above the national
poverty line. Development has been uneven across
Indonesia’s geographic regions. Indonesia has relatively
low health and infrastructure development indica-
tors, among others; its Human Development index is
0.734, ranking 111 out of 182 countries measured.27
The World Bank highlights that in addition to limits
imposed by financial resources, Indonesia is hampered
by a lack of effective procedures and accountability in
institutions across most sectors.
In the area of education, inefficient systems as well as
inadequacies in teacher qualifications, effective teach-
ing methods, school management, and community
involvement have all adversely affected the quality
of basic education (despite a generally impressive 94
percent enrollment rate for 7–12 year olds). 28 The
government, with substantial international com-
munity support, is investing heavily in the Ministry
of Education’s Strategic Plan (RENSTRA).29 USAID
specifically provides support, especially technical assis-
tance, to strengthen moderate madrasahs, which are
particularly important to the education of girls (who
make up a large part of madrasahs’ student bodies);
these schools typically suffer from a lack of resources
and weak capacity.30
Corruption in the public sector, at all levels, is
widely seen as a central challenge for Indonesia. The
World Bank’s National Program for Community
Empowerment Mandiri (PNPM), which follows from
the Kecamatan Development Program begun in 1998,
is one of the largest-scale community development
schemes in the world designed to promote good gover-
nance and alleviate poverty. There is a clear recognition
that community development strategies succeed best
when done in close consultation with local religious
leaders. USAID works with Muhammadiyah and
Aisyiah (a major Islamic women’s social activist organi-
zation) to promote the principle of democratic plural-
ism as an “Islamic value,”31 as part of increasing citizen
participation in local governance throughout Indonesia.
Health challenges include relatively high infant and
under-five mortality, a high incidence of neo-natal
and reproductive health problems for women, and an
increasing rate of HIV/STD infection.32 In general, these
problems stem from lack of access to adequate health
facilities, services, and information, as well as a related lack
of capacity in the health sector. To address some of these
issues, Muhammadiyah has integrated HIV prevention
and stigma reduction materials into certain curricula at
Islamic middle schools; Muhammadiyah also worked with
USAID on a community-based public health response to
the outbreak of avian influenza in mid-2006.33
Recently, the environment and climate change has
attracted attention as a priority development challenge.
Rapid industrialization has put pressure on the coun-
try’s extensive forests, with many large scale industries
vying for timber, consequently displacing small farm-
ers and communities from their land. Deforestation
contributes to climate change as well, putting the island
archipelago at a heightened risk of extreme weather
and rising sea levels. Islamic development organiza-
tions such as Muslim Aid have advocacy programs that
promote Islamic views on the environment, though
the struggle to harmonize rapid industrialization and
sustainable development has proven arduous.
The Government, Religious Institutions,
and NGOs
Suharto’s regime discouraged both religious and secular
NGOs, fearing that they would incite anti-government
sentiment or become too powerful (particularly those
advocating agrarian reform and human rights). At the
same time, civil society and religious groups began to
flourish under the new title of Self-Reliance Groups,
though as groups began to reach out to international
networks, the government became increasingly intoler-
ant. In 1985, the New Order regime passed the Mass
Organizations Law that required NGOS to file reports
so that the government could monitor their activities.
Suharto slowly improved relations with modernist
Muslims and went on hajj to Mecca in 1991. Observers
offer a number of reasons for this warming of relations,
one being Suharto’s realization that many government
policies required religious leaders’ sanction to be effec-
tive. Compared to secular organizations during this time,
religious organizations often seemed able to accomplish
more in terms of social and economic development.
Currently, the government and religious organizations
have generally strong relations, each realizing the ben-
efits of the other. The government appreciates the reach
and deep roots of religious organizations in society
and their ability to influence policies.34 Furthermore,
support from religious organizations is often crucial to
successfully implementing development projects. Two
examples highlight the importance of religious support
2010
for public policy measures.
During the 1970s, Suharto’s New Order emphasized
|
birth control and family planning as integral compo-
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
nents of its development programs. With the United
States, the National Family Planning Coordinating
Committee took on an ambitious program. In the ini-
tial phases of the family planning campaign, Indonesia’s
largest Muslim organization, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU),
campaigned aggressively against contraception and fam-
ily planning programs, the kyais (experts in Islam) stat-
ing it was against the will of God. Coupled with many
Indonesians distrust of the United States and fears that
family planning was a creative way of stemming Muslim
growth, the government was largely unsuccessful in its
campaign. It was not until NU approved of the pro-
gram that it was effectively implemented. The Ministry
of Religious Affairs worked with religious organizations
to shape the message of family planning in a way that
was understandable to the Indonesian population. NU
released a fatwa advocating “family welfare,” or kelaurga
maslahah, as opposed to family planning.35
More recently, NU and Aisyiyah (young women’s asso-
ciation within Muhammadiyah) were central to helping
implement a joint Indonesian government/USAID
immunization program against polio. In March 2003,
27
 polio appeared in Indonesia, largely on the island of
Madura. The four districts of Madura Island were iden-
tified by Indonesia’s National Expanded Program for
Immunization (EPI) for support under the Millennium
Challenge Corporation’s Indonesia Immunization
Project (MCC/IIP). MCC/IIP partnered with NU and
Aisyiyah to conduct social mobilization in support of
routine immunization. During the campaign, some
communities expressed concerns about vaccines being
developed using pork derivatives. Muslim elders con-
firmed that vaccines were halal and used Friday prayers
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
and Mosque loudspeakers to encourage families to
immunize their children.36
Faith-inspired organizations have a central role in pro-
viding education. There are about 13,000 pesantrens,
or Islamic boarding schools, throughout Indonesia,
especially in rural areas. In addition to the standard
academic curriculum approved by the Ministry of
Education, pesantrens also provide religious education.
Though there are numerous examples of partnerships
and some degree of cooperation, the government main-
tains tight oversight of religious organizations, including
|
non-Muslim organizations. A large number of Christian
BERKLEY CENTER
organizations work in Indonesia. Many provide primar-
ily disaster relief for large-scale natural disasters, but
others are committed to longer-term development goals.
Despite some religious tensions, international Christian
organizations seem able to work well in the country.
Most collaborate with secular and Muslim groups as well
as with other Christian organizations.
Nadlhatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah
Two Muslim religious organizations dominate
the realm of social and charitable organizations in
Indonesia: Muhammadiyah, whose 30 million mem-
bers are mostly modernists, and Nahdlatul Ulama,
whose 40 million members are mostly traditionalists.37
Muhammadiyah’s followers are largely concentrated
in the urban areas of Java, Sumatra, and outer islands
of Indonesia. NU members are found primarily in the
more rural areas of Java.
Both organizations have far-ranging social development
programs, notably in their involvement and sponsor-
ship of educational institutions. Muhammadiyah oper-
ates over 12,000 schools throughout the country, for
28
approximately one million Muslim and non-Muslim
students. There are two different styles of schools in
the Muhammadiyah system, those primarily secular
in curriculum, and religious pesantrens which typi-
cally include religious curriculum. NU operates both
secular and religious schools: 8,522 kindergartens,
197 elementary schools; 3,861 Islamic elementary
schools; 378 junior high schools, 733 Islamic junior
high schools, 211 senior high schools; and 212 Islamic
senior high schools, 44 universities and 23 academies/
colleges.38 NU is also indirectly involved in the major-
ity of Indonesia’s Islamic boarding schools. With only
between 1 and 2 percent of the country’s GDP going
to education (according to USAID), the involvement of
both organizations is clearly crucial. In addition to their
heavy role in education, both house women’s groups
and youth movements and operate health clinics.
Both NU and Muhammadiyah stress the importance
of pluralism and religious tolerance. Prominent figures
in both organizations have worked to promote inter-
faith cooperation on development projects. In 2003,
former leader of Muhammadiyah Ahmad Syafi’i Maarif
founded the Maarif Institute for Culture and Humanity
with a core mission to develop interfaith dialogue.
Similarly, in 2004, the late Abdurrahman Wahid,
former President of Indonesia and of NU, founded
the Wahid Institute, which among other goals aims to
develop dialogue between spiritual and political leaders
in the Western world and Muslim societies.
International Faith-Inspired
Organizations
International Christian organizations implement a
substantial amount of overseas aid, and the majority of
large organizations provide assistance to people irrespec-
tive of faith or creed. In addition to disaster relief and
recovery, many organizations are involved in long-term
healthcare and sanitation projects. Cordaid, a Dutch
Catholic organization, is one of the largest and most
active. Catholic Relief Services, in collaboration with
Caritas, also partners with numerous local Christian,
secular, and Muslim organizations, focusing on a range
of development issues including disaster recovery,
microfinance development, healthcare, and women’s
rights. World Vision also has an active chapter in the
country and is actively engaged in interfaith work with
Muslim organizations, notably with Muhammadiyah.
Islamic Relief Indonesia has a large presence, most nota-
bly in West Sumatra on account of frequent earthquakes
and other natural disasters. The disaster management
committee activates immediate responders in the disas-
ters, as seen in the aftermath of earthquakes in 2009.
Muslim Aid has also done substantial work on both
disaster relief and conflict related programming in Aceh.
Foreign missionaries must obtain religious worker visas,
and foreign religious organizations must obtain permis-
sion from the Ministry of Religious Affairs to provide
any type of assistance (in-kind, personnel, or financial)
to local religious groups. Though proselytizing is strictly
prohibited by law, a few Christian organizations still
actively promote their religion within their aid pro-
grams. In Aceh and Sumatra, for example, Christian
missionaries have been seen handing out Bibles along
with disaster aid and relief supplies. Such activities can
Box 2
Women’s Rights and Faith-Inspired Organizations
In the Muslim world, Indonesia is seen as a leader in pio-
neering women’s rights, particularly through pesantrens.
The numbers of female kyias, scholars, and teachers of
religion and the Qur’an are growing, and pesantrens are
increasingly focused on promoting female empower-
ment through religious teaching. Some estimates show
that slightly more than half of the roughly 5.7 million
students in madrasahs are girls. Still, there is a large
gender gap within the governmental school system
with girls dropping out of junior and high schools at
much higher rates than their male counterparts.
State and national law aver that women and men have
equal rights, obligations, and opportunities. At the
same time, women’s participation in development and
civil society must not conflict with their role in improv-
ing family welfare and education. Women throughout
the country can report cases of unfair treatment, par-
ticularly in Aceh and other areas where Sharia law has
been implemented.
Information from “Girls’ and Women’s Education in Indonesia” UNESCO Bangkok Office:
http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/appeal/gender/indonesia.pdf
UNESCO Regional Conference on Inclusive Education: Major policy issues in the Asia-Pacific region Bali, Indonesia, 29–31
May 2008. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Inclusive_Education/Reports/bali_08/
create tensions with faith-inspired and secular devel-
opment organizations, and within the communities
themselves. It also challenges increasing collaboration
and coordination among faith-inspired organizations,
for in some communities, development aid and relief
have become synonymous with religious missionaries.39
Interfaith Cooperation and Conflict
Interreligious cooperation among Muslim and
Christian NGOs has increased markedly over the past
few decades with the Indonesian government recently
embracing a more receptive stance.
In 2004, the government introduced the Religious
Harmony Bill, which outlined strict segregation of reli-
gious communities, penalties for interreligious marriage,
and prohibitions against celebrating a religious holiday
or entering a house of worship that did not reflect one’s
2010
Family law in Indonesia is largely governed by the
|
Sharia-based family law for Muslims, depriving women
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
of some rights men enjoy. For example, many women
say it is difficult to refuse their husbands taking more
than one wife, though legally they must consent, and
it is difficult to get divorced. The official State Ministry
of Women’s Empowerment reported in 2004 that 90
percent of women and 25 percent of men experienced
sexual harassment in the workplace.
Many faith-inspired organizations have components
or projects specifically devoted to women and gender
rights. Both NU and Muhammadiyah have active wom-
en’s groups dedicated to promoting women’s rights
and involvement in the community. A number of organi-
zations, one being The Fahmina Institute, are devoted to
exploring women’s rights and issues, often through the
lens of Islam. Founded initially to explore and promote
women’s rights in pesantrens, the Fahmina Institute has
become a large and influential organization.
29
 own religion. In response, religious organizations united
under the banner of the Advocates for Intercommunity
Relations and convinced community leaders to lobby the
Ministry of Religious Affairs to reject the bill, marking
one of the first occasions that Muslim groups not only
actively addressed interfaith issues in the public sphere,
but did so alongside Christian organizations. NU and
Muhammadiyah joined the Council of Churches in
condemning the bill.40 NU has its own International
Peace Forum, founded by Abdurrahman Wahid, who
also founded the Wahid Institute to “seed plural and
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
peaceful Islam.” As previously noted, former leader
of Muhammadiyah Ahmad Syafi Maarif founded
the Maarif Institute for the fundamental purpose of
developing interfaith dialogue. Muhammadiyah and
World Vision set an example of Muslim and Christian
organizations cooperating closely around development
programs. Muhammadiyah recently built a school along
with World Vision and posted the Muhammadiyah
symbol on the school, painted with World Vision colors,
as a symbol of unity and common humanity.41
Despite these positive developments, Muslims and
Christians have historically tense relations in some
|
parts of the country, notably on the island of Sulawesi
BERKLEY CENTER
in Maluku and North Maluku, where there have been
cases of interethnic and religious conflict over the past
decade. Tensions have also flared in Bali (notably the
2002 nightclub bombing in the tourist district of Kuta),
which, in contrast to the rest of Indonesia, is 90 percent
Hindu. In the face of violence, many religious groups,
along with the government, are taking active steps to
encourage interfaith harmony. The Pura Dalem Jawa
Hindu Temple in Bunutin Village for example, in cel-
ebration of centuries of both Muslim and Hindu pres-
ence on the island, offers space for Muslim ablutions
and has hosted numerous interfaith exchanges.
Philippines
The Philippines is extraordinarily dynamic in its social,
cultural, and political landscape. Distinctive in its reli-
gious demographics (particularly in the context of Asia),
it has the world’s third largest Catholic population and
a significant Muslim minority. After weathering two
successive colonial regimes and the repressive dictator-
ship of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 to 1986, civil
society in the Philippines today is vibrant and dynamic.
30
Though the country still struggles with poverty, envi-
ronmental problems, and armed conflicts that have per-
sisted for decades, civil society, including faith-inspired
organizations, is engaged with these issues in ways that
show promise for sustainable, positive advances.
Socio-Economic Background
The Philippines’ nearly 92 million people are
approximately 81 percent Roman Catholic, 12 per-
cent Christian of other denominations, and 5 percent
Muslim (concentrated in Mindanao). Its per capita
GDP is $3,300, placing it as a lower-middle income
country. GDP has fluctuated somewhat in recent years,
and the pace of growth is down from a high of 7.3 per-
cent in 2007 to 3.8 percent in 2009.
The Philippines’ main industries are electronics assem-
bly, garments, footwear, pharmaceuticals, chemicals,
wood products, food processing, petroleum refining,
and fishing, while its main exports are semiconductors
and electronic products, transport equipment, gar-
ments, copper products, petroleum products, coconut
oil, and fruits. The country has a very active multiparty
political system, with prominent parties including
Lakas-Kampi Christian Muslim Democrats, Struggle of
Filipino Democrats, Liberal Party, Nacionalista Party,
Nationalist People’s Coalition, People’s Reform Party,
Force of the Philippine Masses, and United Opposition.
Although its characteristics differ by region, poverty in
the Philippines is predominantly rural. Thus, it dispro-
portionately affects the more rural southern part of the
country. In 2006, an estimated 33 percent of the popu-
lation lived below the Philippines’ poverty threshold.
Issues that contribute to rural poverty include: inade-
quate expenditure on rural infrastructure (infrastructure
represents a small portion of the Philippines’ GDP; 2.8
percent in 2002),42 a lack of high quality social services
in rural areas (for example, only 10 percent of doctors,
dentists and pharmacists, 20 percent of medical techni-
cians, and 30 percent of nurses practice in rural areas),43
inequitable land and income distribution (of those
working in agriculture, 68 percent do not have access to
land other than their residence; income inequality—the
richest 10 percent have 20 times that of the poorest 10
percent),44 and high population growth (the country’s
projected 2009 population was 91,983,000,45 up from
48 million in 1980 and over 66 million in 1990).46
Religion in the Philippines
C a t h o l i c i s m , t h e m a j o r i t y re l i g i o n t o d a y, i s
“Philippinized” (a term coined by historian John Leddy
Phelan), with emphasis on certain faith aspects that
resonate with Philippine heritage. Latin-Catholic tradi-
tions, such as the fiesta celebrating the day of a town’s
(or barangay) patron saint are central to the culture of
many Filipinos; however, many Catholic observances
are blended with native folk traditions.
Those belonging to smaller Christian denominations
constitute a significant proportion of the population.
The Aglipayan Church, or Philippine Independent
Church (which maintains full communion with the
Box 3
Mindanao: Conflict and Development
One of the foremost development challenges facing
the Philippines is the conflict in Mindanao. Throughout
more than three decades of conflict in the province,
more than 160,000 people have been killed, and
nearly 2 million have been displaced. The development
impact on society has been equally severe in areas
including health, education, and economic develop-
ment. According to the United Nations Development
Program Human Development Report for 2008/2009,
the quality of life in the conflict-affected provinces
of Mindanao is the worst in the Philippines, and the
World Food Program Reports that over 50 percent of
the population lives below the national poverty line.
Health concerns include a lack of adequate healthcare
facilities and basic amenities such as clean drinking
water and are compounded by forced displacement.
The stretching of health resources has been particularly
acute for the pregnant and recent mothers among the
displaced. The conflict has contributed to difficulties
in education, particularly as adolescents in conflict-
affected areas leave school early to provide for their
families. The overall dropout rate for Mindanao is 23
percent, the highest in the Philippines. Males are more
disadvantaged than their female counterparts in access
to education throughout the Philippines; but the situa-
tion is even more pronounced in Mindanao, where the
incidence of child labor and recruitment into gangs is
Episcopal Church of the United States), claims 5
percent of the population. Many native Philippine
Protestant denominations tend to be restorationist and
non-Trinitarian in outlook, such as the Iglesia ni Cristo
(Church of Christ), the largest indigenous religious
organization in the country.47
Islam is the oldest non-native religion in the Philippines
and was introduced to the southern islands in 1350.
Today, the majority of the Muslim population is con-
centrated in the southern island of Mindanao, and most
Muslims (or “Moros,” a term employed by Spanish
colonizers which Philippine Muslims now use to self-
identify) belong to ethnic minority groups.
particularly high for boys. The conflict has contributed
to an increase in internal and international human traf-
2010
ficking from Mindanao, as is reported by the United
States Department of State. Some families in rural areas
who have lost land and other economic means due to
|
the conflict have turned to sending their young chil-
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
dren out of their communities to be domestic workers.
Faith-inspired organizations have played a particularly
central role in responding to the conflict. At the recom-
mendation of the government and the MNLF, Davao
City Archbishop Fernando Capalla and Mahid Mutilan,
President of the Ulama League of the Philippines,
founded the Bishops-Ulama Conference (BUC) in
1996 to advance peace and interreligious understand-
ing between Muslims and Christians in Mindanao. To
date, the BUC has held 35 dialogues on common con-
cerns about the peace process in Mindanao and related
themes. The organization has issued joint statements
calling for the government and Moro separatist orga-
nizations to work towards a constructive peace, often
condemning specific acts of violence. The BUC has
facilitated the Imams-Priests-Pastors Dialogue, a series
of seminars-workshops on interreligious dialogue and
peaceful coexistence in communities and schools that
encourages participation in the government-sponsored
Mindanao Week of Peace. In 2008, President Arroyo
asked the BUC to direct a “deep consultative ➤
31
 Box 3 (continued)
process” to formulate a plan for enduring peace
in Mindanao.
Grassroots and local initiatives focusing on interfaith
solutions to conflict and development are widespread
and an integral component of the development strat-
egy in Mindanao. The range of organizations working
is vast, with established local coordinating bodies rec-
ognizing the intrinsic faith component to the conflict.
The Mindanao coalition of NGO networks (MINCODE—
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
comprised of 12 NGO members) is one such mecha-
nism, functioning since 1992. At the government level,
on March 16, 2010, the Philippines hosted the Special
Non-Aligned Movement Ministerial Meeting on Interfaith
Dialogue and Cooperation for Peace and Development
(under the auspices of the United Nations), attended
by President Arroyo. At the conference, Dr. Alberto
Romulao, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, stated that “to
broaden participation, we must institutionalize a pro-
gram that will recognize grassroots [interfaith] initiatives.”
One grassroots endeavor that has made particular
strides in interfaith collaboration for peace and devel-
|
opment is between the Muslim organizations Ummah
BERKLEY CENTER
Fi Salam (whose name means “Community for Peace”)
and the Catholic organization Socio-Pastoral Institute
(SPI), to implement a multifaceted interfaith program
entitled “Building Darusalam (Peace Communities),”
funded by the British organization Christian Aid. The
Faith and Public Life
The Philippines constitution guarantees freedom of reli-
gion, and the U.S. State Department’s 2009 Religious
Freedom Report on the Philippines stated that the
government “generally respected religious freedom in
practice.” Religion, particularly Christianity, is regularly
invoked by government leaders and is evident in public
monuments such as the statue of the Virgin Mary that
is part of the shrine to the Epifano de los Santos Avenue
(EDSA) movement which ousted Ferdinand Marcos.
Most welfare organizations in the Philippines during the
colonial periods grew out of the Catholic Church and
related religious orders; these, however, functioned primar-
ily to serve the elite.48 Cofradías (religious brotherhoods)
were established to fulfill broader social and community
32
program works in the areas of interfaith dialogue, com-
munity organizing, human rights and community devel-
opment advocacy, and networking for peacebuilding
and economic development. Among the specific proj-
ects Ummah Fi Salam and SPI have undertaken jointly
to address these issues have been interfaith workshops
for low-income urban community groups, support
for impoverished Muslim families through leadership,
healthcare, nutrition, education, sanitation programs,
interfaith community events, mass interfaith mobiliza-
tions in support of access to employment and services,
and advocacy against housing demolition.
Catholic Relief Services is one of the most engaged
international faith-inspired organizations in addressing
the conflict and its development impact. It helps fund a
variety of activities, including: interfaith dialogue groups
(grassroots and otherwise), such as Women of Faith in
Dialogue and the aforementioned BUC; peace educa-
tion institutions and the integration of peace education
into school curricula; capacity-building through semi-
nars and workshops; and development programming
aimed at engaging Christian and Muslim communities
in projects together. Other international faith-inspired
organizations working in Mindanao include: the
Mennonite Central Committee, World Vision, Adventist
Development and Relief Agency, Muslim Aid, the World
Conference of Religions for Peace, Jesuit Refugee
Service, Lutheran World Relief, and Soka Gakkai.
support functions, and later some were established to
oppose Spanish rule. Out of the cofradías grew the
Propaganda Movement, led by the native intellectual van-
guard, which pursued social reforms and equal rights for
Filipinos under the Spanish colonial government. During
the time of the American colonial government, religious
organizations such as the Catholic Women’s Organization
contributed to welfare efforts, alongside secular domestic
organizations and American NGOs. With the rise of the
communist movement in rural areas in the 1920s and
1930s, the Church sought to directly engage peasant
farmers’ social and economic plight in order to counter
communist affiliation among this demographic. It is with
these and subsequent agricultural and economic efforts by
non-Catholic churches that rural development efforts truly
began in the Philippines.
 Box 4
Civil Society, the Catholic Church, and Agrarian Reform
Civil society has had particular success in the Philippines
in the area of agrarian reform. Working in concert with
pressure exerted by reformist politicians, civil society
groups have secured the expropriation and redistribution
of contested private estates to landless and near-land-
less peasants. Although the Arroyo administration has
not been a strong proponent of land reform, the World
Bank argues that, from 1972 to 2006, the Philippines
has achieved a significant level of partial land reform. In
numerical terms, government records state that as of
2006, 5.9 million hectares of private and public lands,
constituting about half of the country’s farmland, have
been redistributed to 3 million rural poor households,
about two-fifths of the agricultural population.
Following the Vatican II reforms in the 1960s, the
Catholic Church hierarchy and Church-related orga-
nizations including the Institute on Church and Social
The Catholic Church has also taken a role in environ-
mental action. In 1981, in the midst of national protests,
Basic Christian Communities (local groups that discuss
and take action on their social concerns) organized by the
Diocese of Boac began to protest the impacts on fishing
and health caused by Marcopper Mining Company’s
illegal dumping of tailings into Calancan Bay. In 1988,
the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines
(CBCP) released an influential pastoral letter urging
action to counter environmental degradation, and also
passed a resolution calling for the repeal of the Mining
Act of 1995. In recent years, the Catholic hierarchy (led
by Bishop Arturo Bastes and others) has been involved
in protests opposing mining operations on the island of
Rapu-Rapu and in the southern island of Mindanao.
NGOs, Civil Society, Faith, and the backbone of the “people power” movement, along
Development
The Philippines is a host to myriad development actors,
both international and national, with particularly active
contributions from faith-inspired organizations. The
role of the Catholic Church in public affairs, including
development is marked, and in Mindanao, the Muslim
minority is active in promoting social development and
peace building efforts.
Issues and the Bishops-Businessmen’s Conference for
Human Development lent support to peasant organiza-
tions on agrarian reform advocacy. In 1987 the Catholic
Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines’ (CBCP)
National Secretariat of Social Action, Justice and Peace
organized a “Campaign for a Genuine Agrarian Reform
Program,” although the resulting Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law of 1988 produced very little new
reform and land distribution because of the influence
of large landowners in Congress. With the expiration
of this law in 2008, Catholic bishops advocated for a
more comprehensive and vigorous extension of the
measure. An extension passed and was signed into
law on August 7, 2009, and is intended to distribute
land to millions of poor farmers. The CBCP has revived
a task force to monitor closely the implementation of
the law to ensure that the government appropriates
its agreed upon budget allocation to land distribution.
2010
Civil society is extraordinarily active and diverse in
|
the Philippines. Organized groups in the Philippines
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
fall into two legal categories: NGOs and community-
based organizations known as People’s Organizations
(POs); NGOs are intermediaries between POs and the
state. The country has more NGOs per capita than any
other country in Asia, and the legal controls over the
establishment and oversight of NGOs are less stringent
than most other East and Southeast Asian countries.
No prior permission is required to establish an NGO,
and although they are subject to the oversight of the
Securities and Exchange Commission, actual supervi-
sion is limited.
POs and NGOs played crucial roles in bringing Spanish
and American colonial rule to an end, as well as forming
with Catholic leaders, that overthrew the Ferdinand
Marcos’ dictatorship in 1986. Partly because of the
government’s sensitivity to popular demand and pres-
sure, and civil initiative following the Marcos regime, the
Philippines has one of the most robust and advanced civil
societies in the developing world.49 As examples, Fidel
Ramos (president from 1992–1998) involved civil society
in the Mindanao peace initiative (particularly in engag-
33
 Box 5
Environmental Call for Action
In recent years and months, the Philippine government
has kept pressure on foreign governments to ratify a
new treaty to reduce greenhouse gasses. President
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo’s advisor for global warm-
ing and climate change, Heherson Alvarez, stated that
the UN Conference of Parties (which met in December
2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark) should respond to
the targets of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
Change, which posits a 25 percent to 40 percent cut
in emissions from 1990 levels to prevent irreversible cli-
mate change by 2050.
The Philippine government is also taking steps of its
own to combat climate change. On October 23, 2009,
President Arroyo enacted a new law that established
a Climate Change Commission (CCC), to coordinate
action plans to prepare the country for extreme weather
and integrate climate change initiatives into broader
policies. For the Philippines, the issue of climate change
is very real, given the link experts have drawn to recent
weather-caused disasters that have struck the island
|
nation. In 2009 alone, typhoons caused a landslide
BERKLEY CENTER
which killed 250 in April and at least 240 died in flood-
ing due to a typhoon in late September. These storms
were more severe than the Philippines had seen in years
and exhibited unusual patterns in their geographic inci-
dence as well as the time of year they occurred.
Faith-inspired organizations are active in addressing key
ecological issues. The Jesuit organization, Environmental
Science for Social Change (ESSC), is active on several
fronts. It employs innovative environmental mapping
ing poor communities) and in national policy formation,
and current president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo has
included NGOs in the formulation and implementation
strategy for the Medium-Term Philippine Development
Plan, 2004–2010, addressing economic growth and job
creation, social justice and basic needs, education and
youth, and anti-corruption and good governance.
To help make NGO efforts more efficient and orga-
nized, a number of NGO networks and coordination
mechanisms have been formed. These NGO networks
tend to be characterized by horizontal cooperation,
34
techniques to facilitate ecological sustainability in: nat-
ural resource management, development planning and
policy, trade and investment, and international devel-
opment assistance. ESSC also engages Christian and
Muslim communities in Southern Mindanao in the local
government planning processes, in particular barangay
(or district level) development planning, to facilitate and
foster interfaith cooperation on environmental respon-
sibility. In the absence of a national land use inventory
for nearly 20 years, the organization’s resource monitor-
ing efforts have helped guide local policy and regional
agencies to facilitate water and nutrient resource sus-
tainability in the highland areas of the country.
In Central Mindanao, Christian NGO Dalan sa Kalambuan
(DALSAKA), provides environmental education, among
other community development initiatives. Similarly,
Buklod Biyayang Kristiyano, Inc. (BBK), located in
Laguna, engages in community environmental educa-
tion as it relates to waste management and other issues.
The National Coalition for Urban Transformation (NCUT)
was formed from organizations within the Alliance of
Christian Development Agencies (ACDA) which works
with Roman Catholic and Muslim organizations and
leaders and counts among its activities the promotion
of environmental advocacy through education. Its mem-
ber congregations have also endorsed political candi-
dates based upon their support for ecological or other
development policies. Thus, faith-inspired organizations
have been instrumental in bridging the grassroots and
policy levels on the environment.
as opposed to vertical hierarchy, and constituent
members of the networks are typically very engaged
in the decision making processes. CODE-NGO (The
Caucus of Development NGO Networks) is one of
the largest NGO networks, comprised of one national
NGO, seven national networks, and two regional net-
works—about 3,000 NGOs (including faith-inspired
organization) in total. Its member networks each have
particular foci. PHILDHRRA (Philippine Partnership
for the Development of Human Resources in Rural
Areas) focuses on agrarian reform, rural development,
aquatic reform and fisheries, upland development, and
 Box 6
Habitat for Humanity—Peace Build
Program in Mindanao
In Mindanao, Habitat for Humanity operates, in coop-
eration with other organizations, the Peace Build
program (funded by the European Commission),
in which interfaith housing builds are held in areas
where there has previously been violent conflict that
saw many people of both faiths lose their homes.
Representatives from the Philippine army, the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF), different levels
of government, the United Church of Christ, the
Catholic Church, as well as the local imam and even
the former Miss Universe were among the signato-
ries to the peace covenant establishing the frame-
work for the program. Peace Build has included
government soldiers and ex-MNLF combatants in
the builds, and some of the latter have been among
those who have contributed land for build sites.
The project aims to build at least 1,010 houses in
Peace and Development Communities (PDCs). By
September 2008, Habitat had, under Peace Build,
built and renovated over 600 houses.
social forestry; NCSD (National Council on Social
Development) focuses on social welfare and develop-
ment; relief and rehabilitation; PHILSSA (Partnership
of Philippine Support Service Agencies) focus on
urban land reform, organizing low-income urban areas,
and housing; NATCCO (National Confederation of
Cooperatives): cooperatives, credit, and livelihood,
among others. Faith-inspired organizations are active
members of all these networks.
The faith-inspired NGO community is a vibrant and
important part of the broader cohort of develop-
ment NGOs. The Catholic Church, having attained
a predominantly Filipino clergy by the 1990s (at the
Vatican’s encouragment), has embraced social and
economic development work throughout the country,
working alongside a multitude of faith-inspired NGOs.
It also has extensive network of parochial schools, many
of which are attentive to the connections between
education and poverty, reaching out in particular to
poor and marginalized youth. Filipino Catholic orga-
Box 7
The Catholic Church and Contraception
The official position of the Catholic Church in the
Philippines has been to oppose contraception of
any kind, a viewpoint at odds with many in civil
society and the development community. Recently,
the Church opposed the Reproductive Health and
Population Development Act of 2008, which would
require governments at all levels to provide free or
low-cost reproductive services, excluding abortion.
The bill was presented to Congress in January 2010,
but expired after the congressional session ended,
following heated debate among legislators. Even
though the Church holds great influence over the
views of many Filipinos, the reproductive health bill
is supported by 63 percent of Filipinos, according
to a Pulse Asia poll conducted in October 2008.
Advocates of the bill have affirmed that they will re-
file the law in the next legislative session, while the
Catholic Bishop’s Conference of the Philippines has
2010
encouraged Filipinos to vote against political can-
didates favoring any government support for con-
traception in the May 10, 2010 elections.
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BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
nizations have forged long-term relationships with
foreign Catholic faith-inspired organizations helping to
increase the capacity and sustainability of the former.
Although smaller in numbers, non-Catholic Christian
faith-inspired organizations have been equally vigorous
in their development and peacebuilding efforts, particu-
larly in trying to foster economic self-reliance among
structurally disadvantaged segments of the population
and promoting peaceful coexistence in pluralistic
communities. The number of Muslim faith-inspired
organizations in the Philippines has grown in recent
years, seeking to confront particularly severe poverty in
Mindanao and calling for a peaceful political solution
to the conflict there. Muslim and Christian groups have
been intentional about constructive interfaith collabo-
ration in addressing the conflict in Mindanao, working
together even in light of instances of violence, such as in
August and September of 2008.
Faith-inspired organizations are active across various
sectors and regions in the Philippines. There are many
35
 international religious NGOs undertaking development
initiatives across the country. Catholic Relief Services,
one of the most active, provides microloans to the
poor (90 percent provided to women with small busi-
nesses—12,000 new loans worth over $1 million in loans
in 2002), partners with church, government, and com-
munity organizations to expand access to health services
in underserved areas, and engages in emergency disaster
relief. Habitat for Humanity has built over 26,000 homes
throughout the country through 15 affiliates and 6
Local Management Councils (See Box 6). World Vision,
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
in addition to emergency relief, assists approximately
122,000 children with education needs through child
sponsorship and community-based programs.
As a major part of development initiatives to address
poverty in the country, there has been a growth of
grassroots, faith-inspired microfinance organizations
that have come about alongside secular organizations
of the same kind. Some of the former have origins in
other countries, but many draw their ideas from native
Filipino faith communities and/or are sustained by
local efforts. For instance, Kabilikat para sa Maunlad
na Buhay, Inc. (KMBI) is a Christian microcredit
|
organization operating across the Philippines, focused
BERKLEY CENTER
in particular on improving the livelihood of Filipina
women, stressing what it sees as the interrelated nature
of entreprenurial development, community develop-
ment, and personal internal renewal. The Christian
microcredit organization Rangtay sa Pagrang-ay, Inc.
(RSPI) seeks to empower financially the marginalized
indigenous groups of the Cordillera region.
Faith-inspired organizations are quite active in inter-
faith dialogue and interreligious peacebuiling activi-
ties. Given that faith is a central component of life
for large parts of the population in conflict affected
regions, religious leaders are particularly influential
in mobilizing communities scarred by religious
conflict toward reconciliation and understand-
ing. Silsilah (meaning “chain” or ”link” in Arabic)
Dialogue Movement is a Muslim-Christian interfaith
organization founded by a Catholic priest in 1984 in
Zamboanga City, Mindanao, oriented toward dialogue
based on a deepening of Christian and Muslim faith,
education, interfaith immersion, and cooperative
economic activities. Two local faith-inspired organiza-
tions, Socio-Pastoral Institute (Christian) and Ummah
36
Fi Salam (Muslim), have forged interfaith dialogues
at the grassroots level throughout Mindanao, creating
Peace Communities, or Darusalam, encompassing
a wide range of interventions including community
organizing; interfaith dialogue for understanding and
solidarity; advocacy for human rights and community
development; and networking for peacebuilding and
development. 50 It is clear that faith-inspired orga-
nizations, particularly at the grassroots level, have a
crucial role to play in peacebuilding in Mindanao
in particular (see Box 3).
Another important area of focus for faith-inspired
development organizations is that of children and
youth. Kalinga Mula Sa Mga Anak ni Juan Florentino
(Apostolic Catholic) and Daughters of Mary Help of
Christians: Salesian Sisters of St. John Bosco (Roman
Catholic) are two examples of Christian organizations
that seek to improve the health and welfare of disadvan-
taged children in urban and remote, rural areas. Finally,
capacity building and local governance is increasingly
becoming an area of interest for faith-inspired organiza-
tions. Both Christian (the Catholic Church is publicly
engaged) and Muslim inspired development organiza-
tions are active on issues of governance. Governance
is one of the principal areas of programming for the
Consortium of Bangsamoro Civil Society, the umbrella
group for Muslim NGOs in Mindanao.
Emerging Challenges
Corruption and a lack of transparency at all levels of
government is a significant challenge for faith-inspired
organizations, and civil society more generally. The
Catholic Church has shown leadership in certain
reforms (see Box 1), though it is important to note that
the Church in the Philippines is not a monolithic voice
in terms of its socio-political agenda, and so effectively
coordinating a unified effort to vigorously address cor-
ruption and transparency is a challenge. However, since
many elected officials do heed the views of the Church,
it is the most likely candidate for spearheading a con-
versation on these themes that would have substantive
impact. The National Council of Churches in the
Philippines (which includes the Catholic Church) has
formed a group to combat fraud in the May 2010 elec-
tions. In Mindanao, local patronage and clanship-based
politics further complicate the environment, already
made extremely difficult by violent conflict and extreme
 Box 8
Sister Adelia S. Oling and People’s Alternative Livelihood Foundation
Sister Adelia Oling, a Sister Servant of the Divine Healer,
is CEO and founder of People’s Alternative Livelihood
Foundation, a microfinance organization that provides
capital to low-income people in central and southern
Philippines who are unable to provide adequate col-
lateral for conventional loans. Since she began explor-
ing ways to increase locally-grown food for economic
development, her efforts have supported more than
11,000 small and medium scale entrepreneurs, nearly
all women, who have worked to bring their families out
of extreme poverty.
Sister Oling, along with the help of a priest, conducted
a questionnaire “to understand how pervasive under-
lying poverty was keeping local residents out of the
economic market.” Her research found that meeting
monthly expenses was a large contributor to persistent
poverty and an inability to meet basic needs. Learning
Source: Fox, Thomas C. “Nun lifts the lives of thousands.” National Catholic Reporter 13 April 2010.
Web. http://ncronline.org/news/women-religious/nun-lifts-lives-thousands Accessed 21 April 2010.
poverty. However, the great diversity of both Muslim
and Christian organizations on the island and , in many
instances, seriousness of cooperation between the two
faith communities demonstrate that there is a desire
and resilience among many in Mindanao to address
development needs meaningfully despite challenges
posed by power dynamics.
Cambodia
Background
Cambodia is a country of special emphasis for this
exploration of intersections between religion and
development and specifically the work of faith-inspired
organizations. WFDD is engaged in a year-long “map-
ping” review for Cambodia, in partnership with the
Asia Faiths Development Dialogue (AFDD). Primarily
through an intensive set of interviews, WFDD is inves-
tigating the development related activities of individuals
and organizations that are in significant ways motivated
and shaped by faith. This discussion reflects preliminary
findings of the review. A full report should be available
by August, 2010.
about the Grameen model of microfinance from a
nearby development agency, Sister Oling decided that
simple interest in the poor was not enough, but that
she would turn to social action to fight poverty, taking a
particular interest in microfinance. In 1997, she secured
a grant from Catholic Relief Services for $50,000, and
by 2006, her foundation had reached a credit line of
over $800,000 and was serving 20,000 clients. Sr.
Oling’s work to address people’s “woundedness” from
poverty, as informed by her faith, continues today,
and the Foundation now operates out of Sorsogon
and Zamboanga (in the southern Philippines) and has
grown from a three-person operation to a staff of 109.
In the words of Sister Oling, “When I hear someone
say, ‘Thank you very much, before we could not even
purchase milk for our children, but now we can,’ I feel
very satisfied indeed.”
2010
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BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Religious traditions have played an important role in
Cambodia’s history and its present, though the shock
of tumult under the Khmer Rouge (especially during
the 1975–79 period) represented a sharp discontinuity
from which Cambodia is still recovering. Substantial
research on Cambodia’s religious heritage is available,
and there is lively attention to the contemporary roles
of Cambodia’s particularly active civil society. However,
the development roles of the large number of faith-
inspired organizations that work in Cambodia are
poorly understood. To a degree, these organizations
are part of communities and civil society more broadly,
but their religious character presents some distinctive
features that merit both a broad survey of what they are
doing and why, the overall impact of their work, and
its actual and potential contribution to building a more
equitable and prosperous Cambodia.
Cambodia’s recent economic and social progress, given
the devastation of decades of conflict and genocide, is
impressive on many fronts. Nonetheless, Cambodia
faces extraordinary challenges, which include grow-
ing imbalances between rich and poor, notorious
37
 governance and capacity weaknesses, a range of social
tensions, and environmental threats. Perhaps foremost
among the challenges, given its importance for future
stability, are the weaknesses of Cambodia’s education
system, which was decimated during the period of
troubles. These weaknesses are linked to widespread
institutional capacity challenges.
Faith-inspired communities and institutions are very
much part of the overall development process, espe-
cially contributing to humanitarian aid, and today
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
focusing on education and health service delivery. By
international standards, Cambodia has an unusually
large array of faith-inspired organizations that work
in virtually every sector with particular concentra-
tions on health, education, and post conflict heal-
ing. The role that religion will play, especially the
Buddhist values that Cambodians view as a central
feature of their social fabric and culture, and the
specific place for faith-inspired organizations, which
represent a diversity of traditions, are important
questions facing Cambodia as it looks to the future.
However, many of these groups, individually and
as a community (though it is a stretch to suggest
|
that a faith-inspired community exists), have not
BERKLEY CENTER
been notably part of national development plan-
ning and strategic reflection, for example about the
Millennium Development Goals.
Cambodia’s Religious Heritage
Cambodia has a rich religious heritage and many
faiths are present among Cambodia’s population, but
today most Cambodians call themselves Buddhists.
The country’s official motto underscores the impor-
tance accorded to faith tradition: “Nation, Religion,
King.” 2008/2009 statistics published by the Ministry
of Cult and Religions in Cambodia indicate a religious
profile with (out of a population of about 14 million)
some 96 percent Buddhists, 0.3 percent Muslim, and
less than 0.1 percent Christian. Other sources give
somewhat different breakdowns, showing greater
religious diversity.
Both Hinduism and Buddhism have ancient roots in
Cambodia, though their origins and early history are
shrouded in legend.51 Sacred texts and some recently
discovered ancient Buddhist statues date back to before
500 CE.52 Hinduism gained a foothold primarily in
38
royal circles, but by the latter half of the 10th century,
Buddhism had overtaken it as the major faith of the
population and elites. 53 Few Cambodians practice
Hinduism today, but Hindu traditions contributed to
the uniquely Cambodian forms of Buddhism, includ-
ing, for example, traditions of ancestor worship and a
strong grip of superstitions.
Islam also has a long history in Cambodia. The first
Muslims to arrive in Cambodia were the Chvea, an
ethnic group thought to have immigrated as early as
the fourteenth century from the Malay Peninsula or
the Indonesia archipelago. A second wave of Islamic
followers arrived in the late fifteenth century, when the
Cham, people from the now-extinct Champa kingdom
in present day Vietnam, migrated to Cambodia to
escape conflict.
French Catholic missionaries first came to Cambodia
in the early 18th century, even before the French
protectorate, but their converts were few in number.54
Far more intensive Christian influence came after the
fall of the communist regime and after 1979, when
Christian missionaries and aid workers flocked to the
refugee camps along the Thai and Vietnamese borders,
where hundreds of thousands of ethnic Khmers had
sought refuge. When Cambodians returned to their
home provinces, many Christian churches and aid
organizations entered the country. A wide array of orga-
nizations expanded emergency aid and relief portfolios
into development activities, thus securing a place for
Christianity in Cambodian society.
The legacy of the Khmer Rouge and communist regime
for Cambodia’s religions is still felt today. Religious teach-
ings and practices of all kinds were banned, and those
found to be practicing were punished, often by death.
A Muslim man highlighted the impact of the genocide:
“after the Khmer Rouge, all religions were reborn.”55 Lack
of knowledge and of people to teach has colored a none-
theless remarkable revival of both Buddhism and Islam.
But religious understanding, particularly amongst the
younger generation, is still relatively weak. Christianity
is the fastest-growing faith tradition in Cambodia,
owing in part to the presence of overseas missionaries, an
increase in the number of churches, and the assistance
provided by the multitude of Christian-based relief and
development organizations. The shifting balance gives
rise to some tensions, but Cambodia prides itself on its
constitutional guarantees of freedom of religion and long
traditions of religious tolerance.
Development and Buddhist lack of publicity (and fanfare) make the true magnitude
Organizations
Despite the wide presence of visible symbols of
Buddhism, like spirit houses in homes and shops and
orange-clad monks moving in and out of the ubiquitous
pagodas, Buddhism’s links to Cambodia’s dynamic
development processes are not easy to pin down. On
Box 9
The Association of Buddhists for the Environment (ABE)
A self-described former “socially active” monk, Hiek
Sopheap, has long been interested in the interplay
between his Buddhist faith and the natural environ-
ment. “The Buddha was born in the forest and reached
enlightenment in the forest and passed away in the for-
est,” explains Sopheap. “The forest is life.” After nearly 20
years in the monkhood, Sopheap disrobed and is today
the Executive Director of the Association of Buddhists
for the Environment (ABE). ABE is a faith-inspired NGO
in Cambodia, which leverages the influence of monks
to promote environmental conservation and conscious-
ness in a country where economic growth, lax regula-
tion, and a lack of understanding about natural resource
management are all working to quicken the pace of
environmental degradation.
ABE’s aim is straightforward: monks should demonstrate
in word and action the importance of preserving the
environment. In practice, this means ABE trains monks
who then return to their temples and turn the grounds
into a focal point for rallying the community in support
of environmental issues. To date, ABE has trained over
200 monks in 21 provinces throughout Cambodia, with
plans for more trainings. “The monks are respected by
members of the community,” says Sopheap. “When
monks tell people to do something, they listen.”
Not only have communities learned to accept the monk’s
newfound roles (some were skeptical at first because
traditionally monks do not engage with communities),
community members themselves have become involved.
Hundreds of local residents have shown up at individual
the surface, Buddhism appears to be little engaged with
the development enterprise. While quite a wide range of
local and international Buddhist-inspired organizations
operate in Cambodia, their informal structures and a
and impact of their work difficult to assess. Nonetheless,
Buddhist teachings and institutions do play significant
and probably increasing roles and merit careful attention.
Several international Buddhist organizations, most
based in Korea and Japan, give financial aid to local
screenings of an ABE-produced educational video show-
casing various initiatives throughout Cambodia where
monks are taking an active role in environmental con-
servation activities. The video, which highlights the con-
nection between Buddhism and the environment, has
2010
helped place greater attention on the need for commu-
nity members to take responsibility for their environs.
|
ABE has championed a number of other projects.
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Pagodas in Kampong Chhnang and Kampot provinces
have been outfitted with community announcement
boards to communicate important messages about
environmental initiatives. Monks have participated in the
planting and ordaining of trees in forests, constructed
compost bins at Pagodas, and helped oversee the main-
tenance of community wells. Moreover, with the support
of the UK-based Alliance of Religions and Conservation
(ARC), ABE maintains a website (although somewhat
dated) for the Sangha Network which is dedicated to
helping connect Buddhist communities throughout Asia
who are working to promote environmental conservation.
Satisfied that ABE’s contributions are making a differ-
ence, Sopheap says that communities are gradually
beginning “to realize the important role the environ-
ment plays in their lives.”
(Donors past and present to ABE include the United
Nations Development Programme, Mustard Seed
Charitable Trust UK, the Alliance of Religions and
Conservation, USAID, Conservation International,
WildAid, and the Wildlife Alliance).
39
 pagodas. More significant are local organizations that
appear to be taking increasingly active roles, work-
ing in various sectors. Examples include Buddhism
for Development, The Association of Buddhists for
the Environment, and the Buddhism Society and
Development Association. A significant difficulty
in measuring and evaluating social action in com-
munities by Buddhists is their decentralization and
fragmentation. Work is often carried out by indi-
viduals or small informal groups. Compounding the
difficulty in recognizing Buddhist contributions to
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
development is the pattern whereby formal organiza-
tions that do exist often have limited publicity. As
one Buddhist monk put it, Buddhists would rather
“focus on the end result,” adding that monks and
laypeople are “respected more because we do not
announce our activities.”
Many development organizations, both secular and
faith-inspired, recognize the benefits of engaging monks
and laypeople linked to pagodas as a way to ensure the
strong links to communities that are vital for develop-
ment. They have embarked on specific efforts to engage
Buddhist structures in development work. Projects
|
focused on educating the community on health and
BERKLEY CENTER
environmental issues and providing support to persons
living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) and their families are
the most common. UNICEF has a program called The
Buddhist Leadership Initiative56 that actively engages
monks in community outreach surrounding HIV/
AIDS prevention and awareness, and support of those
already infected. Monks, and to a less obvious extent
nuns, are respected authority figures in their communi-
ties. One monk characterized Cambodian monks as
having “salty spit”—meaning that people listen to them
and act upon what they are told.
The role that Buddhist institutions should play in devel-
opment work is actively debated today in Cambodia,
particularly between older and younger generations.
Some argue that Buddhist faith and traditions require
active engagement with the society and the corre-
sponding actions or contributions, while others see
Buddhism’s proper role as more removed from modern
demands, meeting spiritual, not material needs. There is
among all who speak to Buddhism’s role a strong focus
on the values that Buddhism represents, which range
from compassion to a commitment to integrity.
40
Development and Muslim Organizations
Indigenous Muslims in Cambodia fall into two ethnic
groups, the Cham and the Chvea, who share the same
religious views but tend to live in separate villages.57
The Chvea have long had roots in the Malay commu-
nity in southern Thailand and Malaysia. It is thought
that the Chvea preceded the arrival in Cambodia of
the Cham, who came to the country from Champa,
present day central Vietnam, beginning in the late
15th century. 58 Today the Cham and Chvea recog-
nize the same supreme religious leader in Cambodia
and many Chvea, largely owing to the similarities
between their ethnic group and the Cham and also
for reasons of simplicity, often refer to themselves
as Cham. This blending of the two ethnic groups as
one Muslim minority corresponds with the narrative,
which suggests that little distinction is made between
Islamic-based NGOs run by particular branches of the
Muslim community.
Like many Buddhist organizations, Muslim develop-
ment organizations in Cambodia are often difficult
to identify, owing largely to the small size and scope
of their activities. Numbers are not clear, but there
are about 20 formal Muslim organizations work-
ing in Cambodia, among them the Islamic Local
Development Organization (ILDO), the Cambodian
Islamic Youth Association (CIYA), and the Cambodian
Islamic Association (CIA). An umbrella group,
Cambodian Muslim Development Foundation, acts
as a coordinating body and channel for donor funds
for eight Muslim development organizations. Muslim
organizations address a range of development issues
but place particular emphasis on education and income
generation activities.
In addition to the structured organizations, a more
informal system consisting of elected committees
formed around individual mosques provides an out-
let for community members to request emergency
assistance. Committees help where they can, provid-
ing small loans and on occasion material goods, but
are often constrained by lack of financial support.
Notwithstanding the limited assistance provided by
the committees and the support available from the
structured organizations, few other avenues exist for
community members to secure funds or other resources
for communal projects or individual use.
Several Muslim majority countries, notably Malaysia,
Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait, are playing an increasingly
influential role in supporting Cambodia’s Muslim
community. Foreign financing has contributed to the
construction of mosques and Islamic boarding schools.
Foreign nations are also sending religious teachers to
Cambodia to serve as teacher-trainers to Cambodian
Muslims eager to enter the profession. In addition,
Cambodian Muslim students are receiving scholarships
to study abroad in such places as Kuwait and Saudi
Arabia. Students who go abroad combine religious and
secular studies. For some however, studying the Qur’an
and Islamic practices is their sole form of education.
Christian Development Activities
Although Christianity’s influence is relatively new to
Cambodia, the majority of faith-inspired organizations
operating there today are rooted in Christian prin-
ciples and beliefs. Virtually all the leading international
Christian-inspired NGOs have active programs in
Cambodia, including World Vision, Catholic Relief
Services, Caritas, Church World Service, the American
Friends Service Committee, World Relief, and Jesuit
Refugee Services. There are also a large number of
smaller organizations representing an extraordinarily
wide set of denominations. Christian organizations are
involved in all sectors, including peacebuilding, health,
education, children, environment, trafficking, and
income generation.
In discussions in Cambodia, some Cambodians drew
a distinct line between the way they perceive the
work and motivations of “Christians” and Catholics,
“Christians” being for the most part Protestants. The
Catholic Church and its associated organizations are
often described more favorably than other Christian
organizations. Reasons for the divide are unclear, but
it may well be related to the quite wide perception
that many Christian groups use development projects
as a means for or excuse to proselytize. Others cite the
Catholic Church’s long history in Cambodia and thus
deeper roots.
Emerging Issues
In addition to the myriad project-specific challenges
that each faith-inspired organization faces (which are
not dissimilar to those facing most NGOs), given the
generally difficult operating environment in Cambodia,
some common challenges emerge. All organizations
must find ways to respond to the general capacity weak-
nesses and to endemic patterns of corruption. These
are linked to generally weak institutional capacity and
unclear ‘“rules of the game.” Coordination challenges
are rife, accentuated by the large number of organiza-
tions, communications difficulties, weak coordination
mechanisms, and a tendency towards competition.
Essentially, Cambodia attracted large numbers of
organizations in the post genocide period, and for some
time they operated with little administrative restraint.
Voluntary coordination mechanisms emerged, and
several NGO coordination mechanisms took root. One
that is specifically Christian and faith linked is Chab
Dai, a resource center and coordinating mechanism for
groups working in the field of trafficking.
It is generally appreciated that corruption is deeply
embedded in Cambodia today. Organizations face
difficult ethical dilemmas: pay bribes or risk facing
programmatic delays. This issue is especially problem-
2010
atic, because faith-inspired organizations oftentimes
feel the need, or are driven by their faith, to exercise
a certain moral code of conduct. Some groups take
|
a strong stance, refusing to pay any extra “fees,” even
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
if it means, for example, waiting months for a ship-
ment of much needed wheelchairs to clear through the
Customs Department.59 Other organizations take the
view that paying a bribe to expedite the delivery of the
wheelchairs can be viewed as simply paying an express
fee, similar to what one might part with to expedite the
delivery of a package, thereby sidestepping the issue
of perpetuating a corrupt system. For organizations
operating today, there is no clear solution, since they
are, individually, unlikely to have any significant impact
on the overall climate and problem. However, there is
merit in engaging the community in broader ongoing
discussions with the government and the aid commu-
nity, which has given high priority to finding practical
solutions that will improve accountability and increase
the demand for good governance.
Lack of effective dialogue among organizations or reli-
gious bodies, either by choice or circumstance, creates
another set of complications. The current rather poor
coordination creates gaps and overlaps in the delivery
of services. Faith-inspired organizations develop their
own materials and projects based on the knowledge
41
 they have, rather than building upon the experience
and materials of other organizations. For example, there
is no standard set of training materials for HIV/AIDS
work in the country. Organizations spend time and
resources creating their own HIV/AIDS curriculums
and educational materials.
Cambodia is a country where special and quite
intensive effort is going towards aid coordination.
The government chaired Cambodian Development
Cooperation Forum, or CDCF, brings together govern-
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
ment and major external development partners on a
fairly regular basis. Alongside, there is a plethora of local
aid coordination mechanisms, led by the government,
which vary in intensity and form by sector (for example,
health is particularly active). The larger faith-inspired
groups, like World Vision and CRS, are well tuned in
to this system, particularly the sector working groups or
sub-groups, but the many smaller organizations largely
fall outside the system. In addition, there are three
networks that aim to address civil society coordina-
tion challenges: the NGO Forum, MEDiCAM, and
the Cooperation Committee for Cambodia (CCC).
Membership is voluntary for NGOs, and they are
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descibed as the most effective way for them to influ-
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ence policy. The three networks have one representative
who sits in on the CDCF, which serves as a high level
meeting of government officials and donors. Relevant
research and operational experience can be presented in
this setting. Overall, these mechanisms represent a sub-
stantial investment and show some success. However,
the general judgment is that both coordination and
networking efforts and bodies, on balance, are plainly
inadequate to the challenge.
Competition for volunteers among beneficiary groups is
fast becoming a major concern of organizations. While
one organization, for example, might provide sizeable
per diems and motorbikes to volunteers, another organi-
zation operating in the same area and providing similar
services might be willing to cover only their volunteers’
cost of transportation. Inconsistencies in how organiza-
tions choose to, and are able to (given limited resources)
engage and build relationships with communities and
volunteers inhibit the productiveness of programs.
The operating environment for non-governmental
organizations is changing, with new legislation
42
aimed at better regulating civil society activity under
discussion. The government tends to make a sharp
distinction between service delivery and advocacy
organizations, with the latter subject to greater
skepticism and restrictions. Organizations that
proselytize or are seen to proselytize are also viewed
with apprehension, with many comments about “rice
Christians” or “food for faith.” Most faith groups
say that their work is clearly differentiated between
service and development versus evangelical work.
That includes groups well-known for evangelizing
tendencies, like the Church of Latter-day Saints and
Adventists. The practical meaning of religious free-
dom is a topic of lively exchange today. University
of Cambodia Professor and Ministry of Culture
Secretary of State Samraing Kamsan summarizes the
situation and challenges as follows:
“There are problems with Christianism in
Cambodia today. The youth, especially young
students, are not interested in going to the
pagodas. They do not spend time on Buddhist
practices and even if they do it is very superficial.
What they want most is IT, computers, and
to learn English. The Christian churches offer
English lessons, completely free. They have com-
puters. They take young people on sightseeing
trips, to Angkor Wat and other places, and they
offer trips overseas. So young people are attracted
and they join.
There is freedom of belief in Cambodia, so this
is all legal and accepted. Having this freedom
is part of peace and harmony. But the trend
towards joining Christian churches and the
weakness of Buddhism are also worrying for
us, for the Ministry of Culture, and for those
responsible for religion. Buddhism is part of
our culture, deeply so. And it has much to offer
for daily life.
What this means is that Buddhism has to work
much harder to make its messages clearer.
Buddhism is not about reciting the Dharma alone.
It is about much more. But for young people in
Cambodia today that is not easy to understand.”
Thailand
An Overview
Thailand’s rich history and culture are inextricably
intertwined with Buddhism. Most social and political
institutions are deeply rooted in Therevada Buddhist
tradition. Religion influences many aspects of Thai
society and life and serves as an important unifying
force, exemplified during recent political upheavals that
affected both civil society and the upper echelons of
political leadership. The majority of the population is
Buddhist, but Thailand has significant religious diver-
sity, with a variety of ethnic and religious influences,
including a sizable and politically active Muslim minor-
ity (4.6 percent) concentrated in the southern prov-
inces.60 Religion is thus an integral part of Thailand’s
approach to its development challenges.
Socio-Economic and Political population. The majority of these laborers come from
Background
Of Thailand’s population (estimated at 66 million), 75
percent are ethnically Thai, 14 percent ethnic Chinese,
and the remaining 11 percent Malays, Khmers, Karens,
Vietnamese, and numerous smaller groups. With a
GDP per capita of US$8,400 (2008 est.), Thailand is
a middle income country, with one of the most robust
economies in South East Asia. However, following
the 2006 military coup and the 2008 global financial
crisis, as well as prolonged political tensions, economic
growth has declined sharply. The economic contraction
was primarily caused by a decrease in global demand
and a decline in investor confidence spurred on by the
continued political instability. Political instability has
also affected the tourism industry, which contributes
about 7 percent to the economy.61 The official unem-
ployment rate is among the world’s lowest (1.4 percent
in 2008) but is rising significantly (end 2009 estimate
close to 2.5 percent).62
Thailand has impressive achievements to show on
human development and ranks 87 on the Human
Development Index, near the top of the medium devel-
opment bracket and higher than all of its neighbors.
Income inequality is approximately the same as the
United States. The percentage of the population liv-
ing below the poverty line is also relatively low, at 10
percent. Poverty, however, remains a persistent problem
and a contributing factor to social conflict, especially
the northeastern and southern provinces. Some 66 per-
cent of Thailand’s population lives in rural areas.
Thailand hosts more than 143,000 Burmese refugees in
camps near the Thai-Burma (Myanmar) border; thou-
sands of Burmese live outside the camps without being
recognized as refugees. Burmese refugees started seeking
refuge in Thailand in large numbers in the late 1980s.
Pro-democracy demonstrations in Burma (Myanmar)
in 1988, followed by the failed 1990 elections, increased
the exodus of Karen, Karenni, Mon, and Shan ethnic
populations, as well as students and pro-democracy
activists to Thailand. Many refugees have lived in the
camps for 15 to 20 years; many more live as internally
displaced people in the Burmese jungle. As human
rights abuses continue in Burma, refugees are still arriv-
ing to Thailand in significant numbers.63 Thailand also
has a large (largely undocumented) migrant worker
Burma, but also Laos and Cambodia.
Faith-inspired organizations are active in working
2010
with both refugee and migrant populations. The Jesuit
Refugee Service in Thailand, for example, operates refu-
gee settlements along the border with Burma (Myanmar)
|
and works in urban centers on education, counseling,
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
legal aid, social services and community development,
emergency medical services, and advocacy.
Thailand has been embroiled in a political crisis
since the military coup of 2006. Anti-government
street protests in April 2009 disrupted the regional
ASEAN summit, following an extended period of
rising political tensions, and led to a temporary state
of emergency in the capital, Bangkok. Protests against
the ruling party continued in early 2010. The crisis
began when populist multi-billionaire Prime Minister
Thaksin Shinawatra was accused of corruption, ousted
from power, and fled to exile in Dubai; he has never
completely left the Thai political scene. The political
intrigue and regional character of the crisis deepened
in late 2009, when former Prime Minister Thaksin was
appointed advisor to the government of Cambodia,
prompting diplomatic tensions between the two
countries. A nagging territorial dispute has escalated
as both countries exert their claim to land near the
Preah Vihear Buddhist temple. Thailand’s deeply
respected king remains one of the only unifying figures
in Thailand’s political landscape.
43
 Religion in Thailand
Religion plays a prominent role in Thai society and poli-
tics. A large majority of Thais are Buddhist, and although
officially there is not a state religion, the influence of
Buddhism is clearly evident. Thailand’s King Bhumibol
Adulyadej is the world’s the longest ruling monarch and
is part of a royal lineage dating back to the 13th century,
where the king, as was the Buddha, was bodhisattva,
or on the path to enlightenment, as he continues to be
viewed by many today.64 Many Thais regard the king as a
semi-divine figure, and he remains a unifying force.
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
Thai Buddhism is unique among its Buddhist neigh-
bors, influenced by the region’s particular history.
Theravada Buddhism was imported from Sri Lanka,
and Hindu beliefs and indigenous religions figure
prominently in local traditions and festivals. At some
point in their lives, almost all Thai men are ordained
as monks, and monks are given preferential treatment
in society. For example, they have free access to public
transportation. The pagoda generally plays a central role
in village life, as a spiritual center, as well as a hub for
social and economic activity.
|
Depending on the figures used, Muslims (majority
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Sunni) comprise 5–15 percent of Thais, highly concen-
trated in the south along the Malaysian border. Most
are ethnic Malay, but the Muslim population includes
descendants of immigrants from South Asia, China,
Cambodia, and Indonesia. There are 3,644 registered
mosques in 67 provinces; 3,088 of them located in
the 14 southern provinces. A separatist movement by
the ethnic Malay Muslim population in the south has
caused widespread violence and unrest. Though ethnic-
ity is a large contributing factor to the conflict, religion
is closely intertwined, as is lack of representation in the
national government.
The 2000 census estimated that Thailand had 438,600
Christians, or 0.7 percent of the population. The
government recognizes five Christian organizations:
the Catholic Mission of Bangkok (Roman Catholic);
the Church of Christ in Thailand (Protestant); the
Evangelical Fellowship of Thailand (Protestant); Saha
Christchak (Baptist); and the Seventh-day Adventists.
There are nine recognized tribal groups, or chao khao,
comprised of approximately 920,000 persons who prac-
44
tice varied forms of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism,
and spirit worship.65
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion,
in section 38:
A person shall enjoy full liberty to profess a religion,
a religious sect or creed, and observe religious precepts
or exercise a form of worship in accordance with his
or her belief; provided that it is not contrary to his
or her civic duties, public order or good morals. In
exercising the liberty referred to in paragraph one, a
person is protected from any act of the State, which
is derogatory to his or her rights or detrimental to
his or her due benefits on the grounds of professing a
religion, a religious sect or creed or observing religious
precepts or exercising a form of worship in accordance
with his or her different belief from that of others.
The 2007 Constitution also has a clause providing that
the government must “patronize and protect Buddhism
and other religions.” The government has a budget for
all recognized religion, to fund education, allowances
for monks and clerics, and for renovation of temples,
churches, and mosques.66
Socially Engaged Buddhism in Thailand
The pagoda is a center of social and economic life in
many communities across Thailand, and Buddhist
monks have been instrumental in reaching the poor-
est and most marginalized communities through
their social work. Historically, Thai Buddhism has
a strong heritage of social engagement across a wide
range of sectors and issues, notably the environment
and HIV/AIDS, and is a model of for social engage-
ment across Southeast Asia and within international
Buddhist networks. Over the last few decades, monks
in Thailand have borne witness to the harmful societal
and environmental effects of unsustainable develop-
ment, giving rise to a national and international
socially engaged Buddhist movement led by promi-
nent figures including Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and Sulak
Sivaraksa (founder of the Sathirakoses-Nagapradeepa
Foundation and the International Network of
Engaged Buddhists—INEB). Today, monks across
the country are engaged in environmental advocacy,
health, and economic and societal marginalization,
among other issues of social justice.
On the environmental front, monks living in the forest
and rural communities (“ecology monks” as they have
come to be known) have been negatively affected by
various development projects, including gas pipeline
construction, strip mining, and deforestation. Ecology
monks trace a direct connection between the root causes
of suffering (greed, ignorance, and hatred) and environ-
mental destruction, and as such see environmental
activism closely aligned with Buddhist teachings. 67
Sulak Sivaraksa is a vocal activist for the environment,
publicly placing blame on international corporations
and corrupt officials for unsustainable development
practices. Recently, a 2006 Thai judicial ruling dropped
charges against him for obstruction of the Yadana Gas
pipeline in Kanchanaburi, considered by environmental
groups to cause ecological and social damage in the
local villages. Monks continue to “ordain” trees as well,
a symbolic protest that aims to signal to loggers that the
forest is a sacred place. In 2005, Phra Supoj Suwajano,
a monk involved in forest protection in Chiang Mai
province, was murdered, highlighting the sensitivity of
social advocacy and further bringing the environmental
cause of Thai monks to international attention.
Thai monks have been active at the grassroots level,
working on HIV/AIDS from the early days of the
epidemic in the early 1990s. UNICEF and UNAIDS,
recognizing the effectiveness of monk engagement,
have partnered with the monk community through
the Sangha Metta Project since 1997. Sangha Metta is
an NGO based in Chiang Mai, which trains monks in
social awareness, prevention education, social engage-
ment, tolerance, acceptance, and spiritual support for
people living with HIV/AIDS. As of 2003, about 7,000
monks, nuns, novices, community members, and youth
had completed project training courses.68 The project
shows good sustainability, as the Thailand Government
Department of Religious Affairs has followed up with
funding for HIV care projects in temples.69
The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and
Malaria actively supports the engagement of monks in
HIV prevention and care. The monks help to change
the mindset of the predominantly Buddhist society,
portraying HIV as a cultural and social issue, and not
only a sexual issue, one that would preclude monks
from becoming involved. As of 2007, Buddhist monks
had educated over 300,000 people on HIV prevention
in Thailand through Global Fund supported projects
to the Ministry of Health and Raks Thai Foundation.70
Interfaith Cooperation and Dialogue
A clause in the 2007 Constitution requires the govern-
ment to “promote good understanding and harmony
among followers of all religions.” The government has
sponsored interfaith dialogue through regular meet-
ings and public education programs. The Religious
Affairs Department (RAD) has responsibility for car-
rying out and overseeing many of these efforts. On
August 18, 2008, the RAD held its annual interfaith
assembly with approximately 1,200 representatives and
members of all registered religious groups participat-
ing. From May 12–14, 2009, the RAD sponsored a
Youth Reconciliation Camp in Chonburi Province, just
outside of Bangkok, that attracted 214 participants.
Further, the Ministry of Public Health conducted a
religious camp in Chiang Mai that brought together
Buddhist, Muslim, and Christian youth to participate
in activities that promoted religious reconciliation.
2010
Other events included the Religious Relations Caravan
(a relief project for the poor in January 2009), the cele-
|
brations for World Visakha Bucha Day (held during May
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
2009 in Bangkok and Nakhon, and involving approxi-
mately 2,000 participants), and Mobile Religions, Arts,
and Cultures Program to the Southern Border Provinces
(a series of events featuring religious exhibitions and
seminars—the first event in May 2008 in Natahiwat
and the second in June 2009 in Pattani). In addition,
the Police Crime Suppression Division in Bangkok
conducted an interfaith seminar on crime prevention
in January 2009. Members of the Buddhist, Muslim,
and Christian religious communities in Bangkok par-
ticipated. Lastly, a group of “peace ambassadors” com-
prised of representatives of the Buddhist, Muslim, and
Christian communities met with the 4th Army Chief,
Pichet Wisaijorn, at the Sufficiency Economy Learning
Center in Pattani in May 2009 for a peace conference.
The RAD has a religious interfaith subcommittee that
is comprised of approximately 30 representatives from
all religious groups in the country and RAD officials,
and convenes at least every two months. The RAD also
produces a weekly television program, Thailand: Land
of Good People, as well as CDs/DVDs and the periodic
newsletter, Religion Direct.71
45
 Faith-Inspired Organizations
Numerous faith-inspired organizations from the three
major regional faiths are active in Thailand, working on
a host of issues: children and youth, human trafficking,
education, HIV/AIDS, health, and gender issues. These
organizations include a wide range of both national and
international actors.
Large international Christian organizations present
on the ground include: Adventists Development and
Relief Agency (ADRA), World Vision, Jesuit Refugee
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
Service, and Caritas International. The Jesuit Refugee
Service is active working with Burmese refugees at
the Burma (Myanmar) border, as well as with labor
migrants that work in Bangkok in often dangerous
conditions. ADRA is working on a range of program-
ming areas with current projects focusing on migrant
worker rights, minority rights and development, HIV/
AIDS education, and a refugee vocational training
program. One project focuses specifically on girls in
Chiang Rai province, providing education, shelter for
at-risk youth, and awareness campaigns on trafficking
and sexual exploitation.
|
Thai Christian organizations are active on a broad
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spectrum of activities with numerous organizations
focusing on at-risk youth and operating orphanages.
Huen Nam Jai Home of the Chang Kham Church in
Bangkok, as an example, provides shelter and education
to street children at risk of drug use, prostitution, and
AIDS. The Im Jai House in Chaing Mai, an orphanage,
provides education, food, shelter, and spiritual teaching
to the children in the city. The Human Development
Foundation—Mercy Centre in Bangkok is shelter for
street kids, orphanage, kindergarten for 500 children,
hospice, and home for mothers and children with HIV/
AIDS, originally built on a former Buddhist temple
site, established over 30 years ago. The center’s director,
Father Joseph Maier, has been working in the country
for over 30 years and received the Most Noble Order of
the Crown of Thailand for his service.
Buddhist organizations are largely motivated by the
teachings of socially engaged Buddhism and are active
in the areas of environment, health, education, gender
equality, and social justice, among others. There are
numerous examples of faith-inspired organizations,
movements, and individuals working for social justice
46
across the country, including the Sangha Metta Project
(HIV/AIDS prevention and care—funded by UNICEF
and UNAIDS), Thailand’s Health Promotion Temple
Project (initiated by Public Health Ministry for Physical
and Mental well-being), Thai Bhikkhunis (promotion
of women in Buddhism and ordination), and the We
Love Nan Province Foundation (founded by Phrakhru
Pitak—an environmental conservation NGO).
Several Muslim organizations work on development
and peacebuilding related issues, particularly in the
south. Notable examples include the Asian Muslim
Action Network (Muslim and interfaith network at
grassroots and policy level working on poverty reduc-
tion, environmental protection, human rights, social
justice, interfaith and inter-cultural dialogue, and com-
munal harmony and peace) and Kamphuan Women’s
Group (Sustainable livelihoods for women).
Development work by organizations linked to other
faiths include Jewish organizations (American Jewish
World Service Thailand, and Thai Jewish Community
under the leadership of Rabbi Yosef C. Kantor), and the
Baha’i (Baha’i Foundation of Thailand).
Vietnam
An Overview
Vietnam is at a unique and critical juncture on develop-
ment issues, a communist regime rapidly opening up
to the global economy. Against a long history of con-
frontation with several foreign powers, today it actively
courts international investment.
Vietnam is one of the fastest growing economies in
the world, with an average annual GDP growth of 7.2
percent prior to the recent worldwide economic reces-
sion, (the government expects growth to rebound to
6.5 percent in 2010). Through wide ranging develop-
ment initiatives with a myriad partners, Vietnamese
and international, Vietnam has lifted approximately 35
million above the poverty line. Vietnam’s poverty rate
fell from 58 percent in 1993 to 14 percent in 2008.
Vietnam aims to reach middle-income status (defined
by the World Bank as countries with a per capita
income above US$1,000) in the near future. Even so,
Vietnam still has significant pockets of poverty, espe-
cially among its ethnic minorities, who live primarily in
mountain regions The next few years will be crucial in
Vietnam’s development trajectory.
Vietnam’s population is quite diverse. Approximately
86 percent of Vietnamese belong to the Kinh (Viet)
majority ethnic group, and there are seven minority
ethnic groups that constitute at least one percent of the
population each, and four percent of the population
belong to smaller ethnic groups. Official census figures
indicate, in terms of religion, that approximately nine
percent of Vietnamese identify as Buddhist, seven per-
cent as Catholic, 1.5 percent as Hoa Hao, one percent
as Cao Dai, 0.5 percent as Protestant, 0.1 percent as
Muslim, and 81 percent claim no religious affiliation
at all. A key unifying spiritual and cultural element for
nearly all Vietnamese is ancestor veneration.
Religion in Vietnam
Historically, Mahayana Buddhism is the largest reli-
gion of Vietnam since it arrived in Vietnam’s Red
River Delta from China in the second century A.D.
Theravada Buddhism from India also came to the
southern Mekong Delta between the third and sixth
centuries (and mostly remains in those regions). Over
time, Mahayana Buddhist rituals have become, to vary-
ing degrees, intertwined with indigenous animism and
Confucian and Taoist philosophies. The communist
regime established in the North in the 1950s repressed
Buddhist activity, while the clergy had a great deal of
independence in the South, even though the Ngo Dinh
Diem administration increasingly discriminated against
Buddhism in favor of Catholicism.
After Vietnam was consolidated in 1975, following the
Vietnam War, the government attempted to co-opt and
control the clergy in the South through the Patriotic
Buddhist Liaison Committee. As a consequence of
coercive government policies, Buddhist practice was
substantially reduced. Today, the government still
exerts significant influence though the state-sponsored
Buddhist Church of Vietnam (BCV), the only officially
recognized Buddhist entity in the country.
French, Spanish and Portuguese missionaries brought
Catholicism to Vietnam in the early 17th century, and
the French colonial government promoted its spread
to “balance” Buddhism. Today Catholics enjoy some
specific freedoms (such as the ability to conduct mass in
public), and the estimates of the number of Catholics
in Vietnam range from 5 million to 8 million, giving
it the second largest Catholic population in Southeast
Asia after the Philippines.
Hoa Hao and Cao Dai are nationalistic Buddhist-
derived religious sects and were among the first groups
to instigate armed revolt against the French and then the
Japanese colonial presence. The government officially
recognizes them both, but many of their followers reject
affiliation with government committees that oversee
their respective religious affairs, causing some conflict
with the government. Hoa Hao was founded in 1939
by Buddhist reformer Huynh Phu So, whom its adher-
ents regard as a prophet. Cao Dai is more syncretic than
Hoa Hao, with its collection of saints including Jesus
Christ, Confucius, Muhammad, Julius Caesar, Joan of
Arc, Pericles, Sun Yat-sen, and Victor Hugo.
Protestantism represents only a small percentage of
the population, but it is the fastest-growing religious
2010
denomination in Vietnam, having grown as much as
600 percent in the last decade. There are two main
state-sanctioned Protestant bodies: the Evangelical
|
Church of Vietnam North (ECVN) and the Southern
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Evangelical Church of Vietnam (SECV).72 Many small
Christian groups are not registered with either. These
include Christian members of ethnic minorities in the
central highlands, known collectively as Montagnards,
who meet in house churches. In 2007, Hanoi officially
recognized Mennonite and Baptist denominations,
and it recognized the Presbyterian Church in Vietnam
(PCVN) in 2008.
Islam in Vietnam is mostly associated with the Cham
ethnic minority, although about a third of Muslims
in the country are of other ethnicities, and 15–20
percent of Cham people are Hindu. Islam has become
somewhat syncretic in nature with many Vietnamese
Muslims practicing Bani Islam, which uses a 20-page
version of the Qur’an.
Development Work in Vietnam
Registered faith-inspired humanitarian NGOs are gov-
erned by the same guidelines as secular organizations
doing such work, and there are few legal obstacles in
conducting development work in the country. Non-
Vietnamese faith-inspired organizations registered with
47
 the government see good progress, reporting a trend
towards liberalization as development and international
engagement increases.73
International Organizations
In Vietnam, international NGOs tend to occupy the
roles and fulfill the functions of development and poverty
reduction that domestic NGOs do in other countries
in Southeast Asia, sometimes operating through local
NGOs. International NGOs are particularly active at the
commune level (the administrative level below that of
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
“district”), often working with mass organizations (which
are mainly funded by the Communist Party).
As of 2004, at least 50 of the 450 international NGOs
registered with the Vietnamese Government’s People’s
Aid Coordinating Committee (PACCOM) were
faith-inspired organizations, although organizational
affiliation or lack thereof is often ambiguous. In
general, larger faith-inspired organizations are more
likely to register with PACCOM than smaller entities.
Among these larger organizations, World Vision is very
active in Vietnam. It introduced Area Development
Programs (ADPs) in 1997 as one of their principal foci
|
of work in the country. ADPs involve a participatory
BERKLEY CENTER
and long-term view toward community development
and integrate into their operations poverty reduction,
attention to administrative structures, gender issues,
and environmental considerations, among other ele-
ments. In 2008, Caritas, seizing upon recent changes in
government disposition toward faith-inspired NGOs,
resumed working in Vietnam after a 32-year hiatus with
development programs focused on the most marginal-
ized segments of Vietnamese society.
Oxfam Hong Kong has worked at the commune level
(but also with other levels of government) on issues
related to landmines, as well as construction of a water
supply system as part of a “Peace Village Project.”
The Peace Village is a de-mined area that provides
housing and other infrastructure for 100 families that
have a member affected by “left-over” landmines.
Japan International Volunteer Center has created
“Community Development Committees” in rural areas
of Vietnam to, among other activities, promote agricul-
ture and forest conservation that supports the livelihood
of community members, is environmentally sustain-
able, and is oriented toward promoting local owner-
48
ship. Islamic Relief, through the Disasters Emergency
Committee (United Kingdom), was involved in emer-
gency relief for Vietnam following the devastation of
Typhoon Ketsana in September 2009.
Smaller international Buddhist and Christian groups
(sometimes including overseas Vietnamese) that work
informally with Vietnamese nationals often arouse less
government suspicion and scrutiny than larger Western
NGOS and are thus able to operate relatively easily.
One such organization is the Committee for the Relief
of Poor Children in Vietnam (CRPCV), a U.S.-based
Buddhist NGO founded by a Vietnamese expatriate,
working on issues of food, shelter, education, and the
effects of natural disasters as they pertain to disadvan-
taged and orphaned Vietnamese children.
Vietnamese Organizations
Since the mid-1990s, there has been a substantial
increase in Vietnamese NGOs that are relatively inde-
pendent from the state compared to those that came
about because of the Doi Moi reforms of the late 1980s.
There has been a recent surge of growth among all types
of civil society organizations (including CBOs and
cooperatives), so that by 2005 there were approximately
140,000 CBOs, 3,000 cooperatives, 1,000 local NGOs,
and 200 charities recognized by the Vietnamese govern-
ment. At the grassroots level, the profusion of commu-
nity-based organizations (CBOs), mostly consisting of
issue-specific groups not sponsored by the government
(such as water-user organizations, farmers’ collectives,
and credit groups), has been spurred by involvement of
international NGOs and foreign donors.
Faith-inspired organizations in Vietnam are active
among these organizations on a wide range of develop-
ment work. Among the officially sanctioned organiza-
tions, the Buddhist Church of Vietnam is engaged in
anti-drug and child welfare programs, and the Hoa Hao
organization asserts that it is involved in various chari-
table activities and local development projects. Cardinal
Jean-Baptiste Pham Minh Man, the Archbishop of
Ho Chi Minh City, has proposed that the Catholic
Church in Vietnam provide “educational training” to
help the Vietnamese people (particularly those in large
cities) to address social issues of concern to the Church,
including unrestrained consumerism, prostitution,
drug addiction, HIV/AIDS, among others. Vietnamese
Catholics and Buddhists have participated in interfaith
dialogues, encounters, and educational exchanges in
recent years to increase mutual understanding, and
also work together on social development issues. As
an example, Buddhist nuns were recently invited by
the Catholic Church to learn about the Church’s
social programs, and at least one nun is pursuing the
experience with related studies at Ho Chi Minh City
Open University. Elsewhere in Ho Chi Minh City, a
Buddhist nun, Hue Tri, works with a Catholic social
worker operating a “compassion house” that addresses
the needs and problems of street children. Vietnamese
Salesians (members of an international Roman Catholic
charitable religious order) are engaged in social develop-
ment work in other Asian countries. For instance, in
Mongolia the Vietnamese Salesian mission runs a kin-
dergarten, a technical school, two farms, soup kitchens,
and a shelter for 120 disabled children.
Some local Vietnamese NGOs have been able to con-
tribute to government policy-making processes, while
other organizations have made some advancements
with issue-based advocacy. This is partly because of a
shift in law and policy-making away from a solely top-
down process, to one that mandates impact assessments
of new laws and the consultation of public opinion
regarding the laws. The reforms have allowed NGOs
greater access to lobby the government regarding devel-
opment issues including HIV/AIDS.
Laos
Socio-Economic Background
The Lao People’s Democratic Republic is one of the few
remaining one-party Communist states in the world.
It is also one of the least developed countries in East
Asia. About 31 percent of its population lives below
the poverty line. It has the highest infant mortality rate
in Asia apart from Afghanistan, and the 23rd highest
worldwide. Nearly 80 percent of the labor force works
in subsistence agriculture.
There are some signs of economic development hope in
the country. The government began decentralizing con-
trol over the economy and encouraging private enter-
prise in 1986, which resulted in an average of 6 percent
annual growth from 1988 to 2008, excluding the Asian
financial crisis years in the late 1990s. There have also
been increased government overtures at foreign invest-
ment; the World Bank argues that it is feasible that Laos
could graduate from the UN Development Program’s
list of least-developed countries by the target year 2020.
In terms of ethnicity, Laos is a very diverse country. The
Lao majority comprises 55 percent of the population,
while the Khmou and Hmong make up 11 percent
and 8 percent respectively; the remaining quarter of
the population consists of over 100 minority ethnic
groups. The minority ethnic groups lag behind the
national average for many development indicators cov-
ering health, education, and economic status. Though
literacy rates for the country as a whole increased from
48 percent to 79 percent during the years 1980–2001,
the literacy rate for the Mon—Khmer ethnic group,
for example, only reached 55 percent for males and 20
percent for females.
Religion in Laos
67 percent of Laotians identify as Buddhist, and
2010
Buddhism was the state religion of the Kingdom of
Laos, the government in place prior to the communist
revolution in 1975. Theravada Buddhism was brought
|
to Laos in the eighth century by Mon Buddhist monks,
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
and many Laotian kings were patrons of Buddhism.
The Pathet Lao communist movement that overthrew
the Kingdom of Laos gained the support of some of
the sangha (Buddhist clergy), which was important to
their mobilization of popular support at the village level.
In the years immediately following the revolution, the
practice of Buddhism waned; but in the late 1980s,
with economic reform and political liberalization, there
was a marked resurgence of Buddhist religious activity.
Even earlier, the PDR government attempted both to
influence and capitalize on Buddhism for specific politi-
cal goals: highlighting the stated compatibility between
Marxism and Buddhism at conferences, mandating a
prominent political component to the curriculum at
Buddhist schools, and allowing party members to partici-
pate in Buddhist ceremonies and be ordained as monks.
Today, Buddhism continues to be important in Laos,
especially at the village level in the lowlands. The wat
(Buddhist temple) is an important center of village life,
as a residence for monks, place for prayer sessions, and
location for village meetings. Villages celebrate several
major religious festivals throughout the year, including
49
 the beginning and end of Buddhist lent and Vixakha
Bouxa, the celebration of the birth, enlightenment,
and death of the Buddha. Traditionally in Laos, all men
are expected to spend time as monks or novices before
marriage (and possibly in their later years), which brings
distinction to these individuals’ parents, and gives them
an important standing in the village.
The small Christian minority in Laos, about 1.5 percent
of the population, has faced persecution by the gov-
ernment (although evidently less in recent years than
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
immediately following the 1975 revolution), according
to reports received by the UN and Western media,
alleging that government forces have used violence to
compel Christians to “prove” that they have given up
their beliefs.
The worship of animist spirits, known as phi, is the
oldest religious practice in Laos, taking various forms
throughout the country; the second oldest, Theravada
Buddhism, did not become widespread until the late
13th or early 14th century. In Laotian animism, phi
are omnipresent within living and non-living entities.
Animist shrines can be found throughout the country,
|
and animist traditions are explicitly observed at most
BERKLEY CENTER
Buddhist wats in combination with Buddhist practices.
At Wat Aham in the city of Luang Prabang, the servants
of Khun Borom, the mythical founder of the Lao race,
are venerated as the guardian spirits (devata luang) of
the city. The Lao Buddhist baci ceremony, which seeks
to bestow good luck upon an individual as they take a
significant step in their life, derives from the worship of
animist guardian spirits called khuan.
Although the syncretism between animism and
Buddhism is deep and pervasive throughout much of
Laos, the country’s ethnic minorities largely do not
display this integration of belief. Most of the Lao Soung
(collectively, the highland ethnic minority groups) and
Lao Theung (the mid-slope minorities) are animists,
exhibiting various religious practices that have in com-
mon a cult of ancestors. The Lamet minority’s animist
beliefs involve every village having a spirit practitioner
(called a xemia) who is responsible for making sacrifices
to village spirits. According to the animist beliefs of the
Hmong, there is a class of shamans above that of “ordi-
nary” spirit practitioners that is able to directly contact
spirits (neeb); this ability is evidenced by one surviving a
50
grave or protracted illness. From these examples, among
others, there is clearly a great deal of diversity within
animist belief and practice among Laotian ethnic
minority groups.
In recent years, the Lao PDR government has taken
up a purge of animism, ostensibly because animism
is not “compatible” with the communist party ideol-
ogy. However, because of the fusion between animism
and Buddhism, persecution of animist practices has
increased tensions between the government and the Lao
Buddhist sangha. Government repression continues to
fall disproportionately on ethnic minority groups striv-
ing for greater autonomy, but who also largely belong
to animist and Christian sects. It is often difficult to
disentangle political dissent from religious persecution
and government antagonism.
NGOs, Politics, and Development
Though there are many challenges associated with
development work in Laos, there is an active interna-
tional presence with organizations doing a wide range
of work. Many foreign, secular NGOs in Laos work
specifically on issues affecting women and children in
poverty, and actively engage faith-inspired organiza-
tions. Examples of active American and European
organizations include Action with Lao Children, Agir
pour les Femmes en Situation Précaire (Action for
Women in Precarious Situations), Aide et Action, and
Aide Odontologique Internationale (International
Dental Aid). Japan International Cooperation Agency
supports projects related to education, health, water
resources, governance, social security, transportation,
natural resources and energy, private sector develop-
ment, agricultural and rural development, and urban/
regional development.
In 2007, the UNDP and Lao PDR sponsored the
“Government-Civil Society Organisations Partnership
for Poverty Reduction,” which included a conference
for government officials to meet with leaders from
Lao civil society, as well as regional Asian government
and civil society representatives, to discuss requisites
for and obstacles to effective collaboration. In 2008,
the Vietnam Union of Science and Technology
Organizations and Voluntary Action Network India
hosted a capacity-building conference for civil society
organizations in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
Despite the significant amount of work being done,
Laos still faces many obstacles to sustainable peace and
development. Laos’ foray into the area of civil society
development is quite recent, with the government
having only approved in April 2009 a decree to allow
non-profit organizations to form and operate. So far,
the government has recognized few organizations under
this decree, and because the decree only became opera-
tional in November 2009, it remains to be seen how
easy or difficult it will be for organizations to register.
Future development will likely depend on the degree
to which Laos’ one-party system chooses to afford
civil society a voice on governance and development
issues. At the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) People’s Forum/ASEAN Civil Society
Conference, Laos was one of five countries to reject its
democratically selected civil society representative who
was to participate in the conference.
Faith-Inspired Development Work
Catholic Relief Services (CRS) and Church World
Service (CWS) are both active in Laos. The latter spon-
sors initiatives such as the CWS Village Clean Water
Program, which operates in rural areas. The Adventist
Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) aims to help
Laos meet the UN Millennium Development Goals
and increase food security by working with communi-
ties in the model of sustainable development. ADRA
also operates health programs (including a youth HIV/
AIDS education project, an ethnic minority health
project, providing systems for clean water and sanita-
tion, and advocating for a tobacco control law) and sup-
ports the Community Initiative for Primary Education
Development (CIED).
Organizations linked to engaged Buddhism have
implemented social and aid projects in Laos. The
Shanti Volunteer Association (SVA), founded in 1980
by the Soto Zen sect of Japanese Buddhism, engages in
development, education, and cultural activities in Laos
and other countries in Southeast Asia. The Buddhist
Aid Center (BAC), a Japanese Buddhist NGO, has
made building schools in Laos its main activity since
1993, and by 2004 it had constructed 102 build-
ings (Mukhopadyaya). Also from Japan, World Wide
Support for Development, with organization president
Mr. Handa Haruhisa, met directly with Laotian Prime
Minister Bouasone Bouphavanh in January 2010 sur-
rounding the groundbreaking ceremony of a nursing
school and the Mother and Child Hospital.
In recent years, there has been close collaboration
between Buddhist organizations and other entities
working on HIV/AIDS issues. Several organizations
have worked in partnership with Population Services
International (PSI) to promote HIV/AIDS awareness
and prevention throughout the country. PSI works with
the Lao Buddhist Organization at traditional festivals
and concerts to promote the Buddhist message of vir-
tue, emphasizing abstinence and safe sex. Champassak
Province Buddhist Association worked with PSI in
2001 to develop a documentary on HIV/AIDS pre-
vention from a Buddhist perspective. PSI works with
monks at the village level, where monks provide a venue
(the village wat) and promotion for PSI’s video presen-
tation on HIV/AIDS prevention. The Sangha Metta
Project, a Thai Buddhist organization, has worked in
Laos to train and equip monks, nuns, and novices to
work with communities to prevent AIDS and assist
2010
those living with the illness. It has also launched “Metta
Tham,” a collaborative project between the Lao Sangha
and the Department of Religion of the government’s
|
Lao Front for National Construction.
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Burma (Myanmar)
The Country in Context
Burma, officially known as the Union of Myanmar
since the military government changed its name in
1989, is geographically the largest country in Southeast
Asia. While religion is clearly a major part of Burmese
identity and society, the role that religion plays in devel-
opment is severely cramped by the nation’s authoritar-
ian regime, and Burma (Myanmar’s) international links
are constrained.
Burmese culture reflects diversity of both people and
geography with an estimated 135 different ethnic
groups officially recognized by the government and
many others unrecognized. The nation has a rich
Buddhist history; contemporary Burmese Buddhism
shows influences both of international Buddhism and
Burmese indigenous beliefs.
Recent events have focused international attention on
Burma (Myanmar) and the repressive policies of the mili-
51
 tary junta that has ruled the country since 1962. Aung
San Suu Kyi, recipient of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize and
elected Prime Minister in 1990 elections, has been under
house arrest for 14 of the past 20 years, and remains so
despite increasing international pressure to allow her
party to participate in the elections scheduled for 2010
(she is, however, officially excluded from holding public
office in Burma’s [Myanmar’s] Constitution).74
The Saffron Revolution of 2007, when tens of thou-
sands of monks took to the street in non-violent protest
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
against government oppression, highlighted tensions
and frustration with the ruling junta. The government
responded violently, killing protestors and civilians
as it feared losing its grip on power. There was wide-
spread international criticism of the brutality. Lack of
opportunity (especially for young people) in a country
where the military controls even social mobility was a
significant impetus for the protests, igniting a tradition
of political protest that stretches back to the time of
British colonial rule.
Burma was also shaken by the catastrophic 2008
Cyclone Nargis that destroyed countless towns and vil-
|
lages, killed tens of thousands, and displaced hundreds
BERKLEY CENTER
of thousands more. Many deaths could have been pre-
vented if the government had responded immediately to
offers of international help. During the disaster, national
faith-inspired organizations played a critical role in pro-
viding assistance, filling the gap left by the absence of the
government and international community.
Non-state actors involved in social development in
Burma (Myanmar) face a wide array of challenges,
including severe government restrictions, religious per-
secution, and lack of social opportunity.
Socio-Economic Background
Burma’s (Myanmar’s) population of approximately 42
million is about 28 percent urban. Ethnically, the coun-
try is diverse; 68 percent Burmans with other significant
ethnic minorities being the Karen (7 percent), Rakhine
(4 percent), Chinese (3 percent), Mon (2 percent),
Indian (2 percent), and other (5 percent). The ethnic
diversity has posed challenges to national integration.
The military government oppresses certain groups,
resulting in unpaid forced labor campaigns, scorched-
earth policies that destroy farmland, and forced reloca-
52
tion programs.75 Years of oppression have given rise to
insurgencies which cause even greater human suffering
and loss of life.
Despite substantial natural resources, poverty is a cen-
tral fact of Burmese life today. Government controls
and economic policies perpetuate poverty, especially in
rural areas. Economic mismanagement and corruption
have prevented the majority of Burma’s population
from benefiting from the country’s vast oil and gas
deposits. As the debacle surrounding Cyclone Nargis
showed, government restrictions make international
assistance extraordinarily challenging and thus limited.
The United States has maintained economic sanctions
against Burma since 2003 that, along with a poor
investment climate and the global economic crisis,
aggravate economic hardship.76 The military govern-
ment largely controls social and economic opportunity,
and the private sector is very small, offering few alter-
natives. These conditions have contributed to social
unrest, most recently manifesting itself in the nation-
wide anti-government protests of September 2007.77
The black market is a large source of economic activity,
estimated to be at least as large as the formal economy.
Almost 33 percent of the population falls below the
poverty line. Economic growth has decreased signifi-
cantly since 2006, falling from 3.4 percent and to 1.1
percent in 2008. The poor education system perpetuates
poverty. Teacher pay is very poor and investment insuf-
ficient. Though there is officially 90 percent enrollment
in primary school, UNICEF reports a 50 percent drop-
out rate before completion.78 Burma’s (Myanmar’s) low
rank on the global Human Development Index (138
in 2009, life expectancy 61.2 years and PPP GDP per
capita US$904) sums up the tragedy of its poverty and
missed opportunities.
Religion in Burma (Myanmar)
A multi-country analysis that gauges governments’
religious regulation, persecution, and favoritism ranks
Burma (Myanmar) as the third most restrictive coun-
try in the world, only behind Saudi Arabia and the
Maldives (see Figure 2).79 74 percent of the population
is Therevada Buddhist, and though Buddhism is not an
official national religion, it is actively supported by the
government. Buddhist monks, including novices, num-
ber more than 400,000. The hierarchy of the Buddhist
 FIGURE 2
Religious Freedom Indicators
8.6
7.9
GRI: Government Regula- GFI: Government Favorit-
tion of religion Index, 0–10, ism of religion Index, 0–10,
low is less regulation low is less favoritism
Source: The Association of Religion Data Archives
sangha is quite tightly controlled by the government.
Religious organizations are tightly monitored and their
activities restricted. Government crackdowns are com-
mon, especially visible after the pro-democracy monk
protests of 2008.80
There are significant religious minorities, including
Christian (seven percent), Muslim (four percent), and
Hindu (two percent). The religious diversity is closely
linked to Burma’s ethnic diversity, with most minority
religions concentrated within minority ethnic groups.
The Christian population has members from all ethnic
groups, but the Karen are the largest group. As a result,
persecution of minority ethnic groups by the military gov-
ernment has often coincided with religious persecution.
The Muslim population, which comprises four percent of
Burma’s (Myanmar’s) population, faces particular hard-
ship and discrimination against Muslims is widespread.
The majority of Muslims identify themselves as members
of the Rohingya ethnic group. The Rohingya are not offi-
cially recognized by the military junta, and consequently
do not have citizenship per se and do not receive state
services. There are over 300,000 Rohingya refugees in the
country, and over 250,000 have fled to Bangladesh.
Faith in Burma (Myanmar) cannot be fully understood
without taking into account indigenous beliefs, includ-
ing animism, astrology, and spirits that are intertwined
with Burmese culture and faith. Burma became inde-
pendent in 1948, which astrologists believed was an
auspicious time, as was the case with relocation of the
capital from Yangoon to Naypyidaw.81
9.3
10
SRI: Social Regulation of Religious Persecution,
religion Index, 0–10, low is 0–10, high is more
less regulation persecution
Role of Faith-Inspired Actors
Burmese social services and infrastructure are poorly
developed. The new capital of Naypyidaw has consis-
tent electricity, well manicured gardens, and a modern
zoo, while the rest of the country lives with intermittent
electricity, poor education, lack of opportunity, and
2010
limited social freedoms.82 The government operates a
failed educational system, where teachers are poorly
paid. Non-governmental organizations work to com-
|
pensate for the many gaps and public sector failings,
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
and engage in all aspect of social development and
humanitarian relief.
Given the obstacles that international organizations
face to work in Burma (Myanmar), faith-inspired
organizations, many with local roots, have been
crucial in filling the gap. Community based monks,
churches, and mosques work both independently
and in collaboration with international organiza-
tions. Cyclone Nargis highlighted the effectiveness
of many faith-inspired actors as first-responders to a
humanitarian emergency. The Post-Nargis Recovery
and Preparation Plan prepared by the government,
ASEAN, and the United Nations, specifically points to
the importance of community-driven recovery, noting
that at the village level the traditional social welfare
support systems, including faith-based structures
(Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, and Hindu) all played
a role. Faith-inspired organizations were involved in
all stages of response, from initial humanitarian relief,
to coordination and planning, to program implemen-
tation; their extensive network and presence helped
many who were most in need.83
53
 The government does not allow missionaries to operate;
however, Christian aid organizations, both international
and national, do operate, as do many socially engaged
Buddhist temples and monks. International faith-
inspired organizations include: the Christian Reformed
World Relief Committee (CRWRC), Kids Alive
International, Save the Children, and World Vision.
PEPFAR (U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS
Relief ) works with Buddhist monasteries, including one
project where the monastery produced a soap opera that
was viewed by over a thousand people at an important
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y

Buddhist festival. Temples, especially in rural areas, are

the center of religious and social life and in practice
often act relatively independently despite the many
restrictions imposed on the city based Buddhist sangha.
|
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54
55
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2010
 Part 4
Transnational Dimensions
T
he following sections examine the role of
transnational faith-inspired organizations in
Southeast Asia, particularly those from the
wealthier countries in Asia, but also from the United
States and Europe. Religious and cultural ties, economic
and political interests, and historical circumstances
all influence present day relationships, and common
faith beliefs transcend national boundaries, drawing
faith-inspired organizations to contribute to a range
of work throughout the region. The country sections
summarize information on the country context where
faith-inspired organizations are based, the factors that
facilitate regional roles, and the countries and sectors in
which organizations work. As in the country case stud-
ies in section 3, the number of organizations working in
the region is vast. The organizations listed are the most
active and well-known, as well as smaller, lesser known
organizations that have made particular contributions
at the regional level.
Japan
Japanese Foreign Assistance
Since the end of World War II, Japan has emphasized
Asia as a pillar of its diplomatic policy.84 Japan and
Southeast Asia have especially strong interdependent
ties, economically and politically. Japan began direct
dialogue with ASEAN countries in 1978, and views its
relationship with the region as an important strategic
partnership.85 Economically, Japan is the largest trading
partner for ASEAN countries, followed by the United
States and the European Union. From 2002 to 2006
Japan led the region in both Official Development
Assistance (ODA) and Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI). 86 In Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Burma
(Myanmar), Japan is actively engaged in regional pro-
grams for the development of the Mekong river basin,
with Japanese Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama on
November 6, 2009 pledging US$5.5 billion in aid over
the next three years.87 Overall, approximately 60 per-
cent of Japanese foreign aid goes to Asia, with emphasis
on country-focused and regional programs. Aid is given
in a wide variety of sectors, including infrastructure
development, construction of schools and hospitals,
restoration and preservation of historical and cultural
sites, and human development. To that end, Japan
has involved a broad spectrum of organizations and
2010
institutions, including government and international
organizations, NGOs, and faith-inspired organizations.
|
Japan allocates significant resources to development,
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
making it one of the largest donors globally. Japan’s
net ODA in FY2008 was US$9.4 billion, represent-
ing an increase of over 8 percent from 2007. The
government utilizes various mechanisms to distribute
foreign aid. The Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund
(OECF) was created in 1961 to extend low-interest
long-term funds to developing countries. The Japanese
International Cooperation Agency (JICA), established
in 1974, is one of the most active and largest govern-
ment development agencies in the world, providing
assistance to over 100 countries. JICA is especially
active in Southeast Asia and engages with faith-inspired
organizations throughout the region, an early example
being collaboration with a Buddhist organization,
Shanti Volunteer Association, during the Cambodian
refugee crisis of the 1970s and 1980s.88
Japan is also one of the world’s largest donors to
international multilateral organizations, including
the Asian Development Bank, World Bank and the
United Nations. In 2000, Japan initiated the US$360
million Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction at the Asian
Development Bank and the Japan Social Development
57
 Fund at the World Bank, both created with the mis-
sion to provide direct assistance to the world’s poorest
and most vulnerable. In 2008, Japan saw an increase
in overall ODA, largely due to a rise in contributions
to international financial institutions, including a
contribution of US$1.06 billion to the United Nations.
Additional prominent international Japanese develop-
ment initiatives include the United Nations Human
Security Fund (UNTFHS) (directed towards key the-
matic areas including health, education, agriculture and
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
small scale infrastructure development), International
Planned Parenthood Federation, the Japan Trust Fund
for HIV/AIDS, and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS,
Tuberculosis, and Malaria.
Religion
Religion in Japan historically has been influenced
by the major religions of Asia, notably Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Taoism, yet religion in the country
has developed a character that is uniquely Japanese.

Box 10

Soka Gakkai

Soka Gakkai has its roots in Nichiren Buddhism and The quotation by Japanese author and critic Mimpei
is a lay organization founded in the 1930s by teach- Sugiura, in Soka Gakkai’s daily newspaper, Seikyo
ers wanting to reform the Japanese education system. Shimbun, in the May 3, 1981, issue summarizes well the
There are now over 12 million members worldwide in work and approach of the organization:
192 countries following the Nichiren Buddhist teachings
The Gakkai’s greatest achievement lies in unleash-
for “empowerment and inner transformation or ‘human
ing the power of the people, of those at the very
revolution’ which enables individuals to take responsi-
lowest strata of society, and in revitalizing their
bility for their lives and contribute to building a world
lives. This, actually, is something that I have also
where people of diverse cultures and faiths can live in
|

devoted great energy to. . . . [After the Second

peace.” Though Soka Gakkai began in Japan, its world-
World War,] there were so many people suffer-
BERKLEY CENTER

wide offices are independently operated and funded.

ing emotional or economic distress as a result of
Social development programming is for the most part
physical disabilities, illness, the loss of a spouse,
independently organized, ensuring a country specific
and so on. Determined to help them in any way
focus. Three of the most active and organized offices
I could, I went to villages and offered assistance
are located in Singapore, Malaysia, and Hong Kong.
and undertook various volunteer activities. I made
Soka Gakkai’s programs are unique in that as a general the Eighth Route Army of China [renowned for
rule, they do not provide material support. One story its selfless service to the people] one of my mod-
from Soka Gakkai in Cambodia illustrates how one indi- els. But it was no good. You can’t foster genuine
vidual worked to improve her community. independence in people merely through chari-
table deeds or donations of money. But helping
A woman called Samith decided that the wells
people become self-reliant is precisely what the
in her community needed to be cleaned. Every
Soka Gakkai has done.”
week from then on Samith took it upon herself to
clean the wells, without anyone paying her, and In addition to social development activities, Soka
without anyone asking or expecting any praise. Gakkai is an active advocate internationally in the
Eventually others joined in, but she began out campaign to eliminate nuclear weapons.
of a personal drive to contribute to her commu-
nity. It was not part of any formal program, but
an individual taking it upon herself to make her
community a better place.
—Anecdote from interview with Joan Anderson,
Office of Public Information—Tokyo Office

58
Buddhism and Shinto are Japan’s two major religions.
Buddhism was first introduced to Japan in the 6th
century, and today Japanese Buddhism is quite varied.
Nichiren Buddhism is one strand that, in particular, has
inspired social and development work both in Japan
and abroad. Buddhism has coexisted for centuries with
Shinto, which is indigenous to Japan, with both reli-
gions influencing each other to a degree. Shinto was the
state religion of Japan from 1871 to 1947, but the con-
stitution mandated separation of church and state after
World War II. Shinto is a belief system in which spirits,
or kami, if treated properly, will positively intervene in
one’s life. Many consider Shinto more about ritual than
a religion, and this has allowed it to exist peacefully
with Buddhism for centuries.89 Many Japanese consider
themselves both Shinto and Buddhist, which lends spe-
cial difficulty to quantitative efforts to estimate Japan’s
religious adherents.
Japan has witnessed the birth of a variety of “new reli-
gions” (shinshukyo) stemming from both Buddhist and
Shinto beliefs. The largest three new religions are Soka
Gakkai, Rissho Kose-kai, and Tenrikyo; all have been
very successful in exporting their beliefs and practices
around the world. Soka Gakkai reports a presence in
190 countries and is also highly involved in social devel-
opment work throughout Asia (see Box 10)
Japanese religion and beliefs have influenced attitudes
towards charity and social development. Buddhism is
seen to serve as a moral compass for social development
work, wherein societal harmony is held as the highest
value.90 Virtually every Japanese Buddhist organization
engages in some sort of international relief or social
development activity.
Faith-Inspired Organizations and does not have a large presence on the international
Development in Japan and Abroad
Many faith-inspired organizations in Japan are engaged
in social development work, both throughout Asia and
around the world. The large majority of the organiza-
tions stem from Japan’s numerous Buddhist sects, but a
smaller number of Christian and Shinto inspired orga-
nizations are involved in development work abroad.
Japan has the most complex NGO framework in Asia,
as well as the most comprehensive body of NGO clas-
sification. The 1991 “Approved Community-Based
Organization Law” and the 1998 “Special Nonprofit
Activities Legal Persons Law” state that nonprofit
entities whose activities include promotion of health,
welfare, education, community development, arts, cul-
ture, sports, disaster relief, international cooperation, or
the administration of organizations engaging in these
activities can be established without approval by the
government. In 2006, there were 237,167 registered
non-profit person entities in Japan, of which 183,894,
or 77.5 percent, were religious or faith-based entities.
Japan has a specific law dealing with Religious
Corporations, shyuukyou houjin, (the Religious
Corporation Law, Article 4 (1951) for entities whose
purpose is evangelizing, conducting religious rites, and
educating and nurturing believers.91
In the Japanese context, NGO refers specifically to
groups engaged in international cooperation activities.92
Some of the largest and most active faith-inspired organi-
zations include Soka Gakkai International, The Buddhist
NGO Network of Japan, Tendai Shu’s Light Up Your
2010
Corner Movement, Rissho Kosei-kai, Association for
Renge-in Tanjoji International Cooperation (ARTIC),
Shingon Risshu Volunteer Association, Shanti Volunteer
|
Association (SVA), Buddhist Aid Center (BAC), Relief
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Assist Comfort Kindness (RACK), The Arigatou
Foundation, Ayus Buddhist International Cooperation
Network, Terra Net, International Shinto Foundation,
World Mate, and World Vision Japan .
Korea
South Korea launched its official development assis-
tance (KOICA) program in 1991, after one of the
most rapid post-war industrialization and development
periods Asia has seen. Though comparatively Korea
scene in terms of monetary amount, it is an influential
actor in Southeast Asia. Korea modeled its foreign aid
program after Japan, with a large component devised to
develop Korean industry, using both Korean supplies
and technical materials. The foreign aid program also
has a substantial training component. Korea relies heav-
ily on Personal Voluntary Organizations and NGOs as
a component of its aid strategy.93
Korea is the most rapidly Christianizing (Protestant)
country in the world. The Christian community in
59
 Korea sends more missionaries abroad than any other
country in the world, after the United States (see Box
11). Many missionaries travel abroad under the guise
of development workers.94 The recent kidnapping of 23
missionaries in Afghanistan has elicited some discussion
in Korea about the sensitivities of sending missionaries
abroad, particularly to conflict zones.
A range of faith-inspired development organizations are
active working both in Korea and abroad, representing
various faiths. World Vision Korea, established in 1950,
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
works in South Korea reaching out to low-income fami-
lies in urban areas, as well as abroad, supporting 155
development and relief projects in 43 developing coun-
tries, including Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand,
Indonesia, and the Philippines. World Vision Korea
Box 11
Korean Missionaries
One of the most prolific, influential, and at times
controversial faces of Korea in Southeast Asia is the
explosion of Christian missionaries throughout the
|
region. Over the past half decade, Korea has expe-
BERKLEY CENTER
rienced one of the world’s largest growth rates of
the Christian Church. The 1960 government census
recorded 600,000 Protestant Christians; the number
had grown to nearly nine million Protestants and five
and a half million Catholics as of 2007. After the United
States, Korea sends the largest amount of Christian
missionaries abroad. Between 2000 and 2006, the
number of missionaries abroad doubled, from 8,000 to
over 16,000. As of 2008, the number was still increas-
ing. The Korean World Mission Association reports 58
denominations and 217 mission organizations send-
ing 19,413 missionaries to 168 countries; nearly 12,000
to Asia, of which 5,337 are in Southeast Asia. Included
in these numbers is the Yoido Full Gospel Church
(Assemblies of God), the largest Christian church in
Korea, as well as the world’s largest congregation,
under the leadership of David Yonggi Cho. Yoido Full
Gospel Church sends missionaries throughout the
world, and it was reported that the church had 634
missionaries worldwide in 2007.
Also in 2007, Korean missionaries gained international
attention when 23 missionaries from the Saemmul
60
is particularly active on government advocacy towards
child rights, poverty, and HIV/AIDS, directly affecting
government policy on child protection.95 The Adventist
Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) works both in
Korea and in Southeast Asia on food security, economic
development, primary health care, education, and
emergency management. Soka Gakkai International has
an active Korea branch, focusing on a range of issues
both in Korea and in cooperation with other faith-
inspired organizations, including Japanese-Korean rela-
tions, intercultural relations, and youth development.
Other faith-inspired organizations include Compassion
South Korea, Caritas, Good People World Family, The
World Fellowship of Buddhist Youth, Won Buddhist
Youth Association, Habitat for Humanity Korea, and
Loving Concern International.96
Church were abducted in Afghanistan while proselytiz-
ing. The event highlighted concerns about missionaries
and the impact they have abroad. Faith-inspired orga-
nizations in Southeast Asia have voiced some concerns
about the ramifications Korean missionaries can have
for faith-inspired development work, both Christian
and non-Christian. In Cambodia, one Catholic leader
suggested that Korean Christian missionaries some-
times lack sensitivity to the local context, including
the indigenous Buddhist beliefs and the government’s
sensitivities to proselytization, especially when a mis-
sionary group links their charity to their belief in Jesus
Christ. Another leader reported that negative per-
ceptions of insensitive missionary work have spillover
effects for all Christian organizations doing aid work,
regardless of their denomination or practice.
Despite the tensions, Korean missionary groups are a
significant presence across the Southeast Asian faith
and development landscape. The general coordination
challenges that characterize much faith-inspired work
seem to apply particularly to Korean groups, given a
reluctance to engage in networking and coordina-
tion work. Efforts for engagement and interfaith dia-
logue with Korean missionaries have proved difficult,
though all agreed that they are an important voice to
call to the table.
A number of organizations, in addition to Southeast
Asia, have a particular focus on North Korea, address-
ing both the humanitarian needs of the North Korean
people and refugees, and laying a foundation of trust
and understanding for the future opening of the coun-
try. Both World Vision (through local partner Korea
National Economic Cooperation Agency and its South
Korea office) and ADRA (with an office in North
Korea) have active relief and development programs.
In 2005, as an example, ADRA opened a western style
café in Pyongyang, and the organization has been in the
country since 1999 working in five provinces. Caritas
works on advocacy for poverty reduction as a key com-
ponent of political and diplomatic efforts, as well as
implementing programs focusing on food aid, health,
and agriculture. The DPRK government maintains
strict control over NGO activities in the country. Given
the challenges, many faith-inspired organizations work
through government partners and a range of United
Nations organizations, including WHO, WFP, and
UNICEF, among others.
The Korean government is giving increasing priority to
its role in Southeast Asia with larger investment in the
region. In 2009, the Korean government established an
ASEAN center in Seoul to increase engagement with
regional leaders. Korean faith inspired actors are present
in almost all countries in Southeast Asia.
Taiwan
Taiwan holds a unique position in Asia. An industri-
alized and developed nation, it is one of East Asia’s
“Economic Tigers,” and an economic powerhouse. Its
tenuous relationship with China presents particular dif-
ficulties, but despite its political predicament, Taiwan
has maintained high development indicators, includ-
ing strong commitment to religious freedom. A large
number of faith-inspired organizations work both in
Taiwan and overseas. Some Taiwanese organizations
play important roles in development in other Southeast
Asian countries, though their roles are in some places
circumscribed by political factors.
About 35 percent of the population is Buddhist and 33
percent Taoist, with many people considering them-
selves adherents in some degree to both (2006 govern-
ment statistics). Much of the population also follows
beliefs and rituals considered “traditional Chinese folk
religions.”97 There is officially a separation of Church
and State, but Taiwanese culture is deeply influenced by
Buddhist and Confucian values, seen as important to
create a harmonious society.98 Some argue that political
cooperation with the government is an important value
for the Confucian social ethic.99
As martial law of the 1940s to the early 1980s slowly
transitioned into a more liberal system of governance,
civil society organizations and religious organizations
flourished. The largest religious organizations emerged
during this time not in opposition to the government,
but with some degree of government cooperation that
allowed them to grow and flourish over the decades.100
As Taiwan’s economy began to grow in the 1960s, reli-
gious organizations expanded their religious mandates to
include provision of social services. Many organizations,
the largest with memberships in the millions, encourage
their adherents to engage in social services. Faith-inspired
organizations have played critical roles in supporting the
2010
government’s democratization, health, and education
endeavors, as well as responding to natural disasters.
|
Religious organizations play a particularly important role
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
in delivering healthcare where the state cannot. In 1995,
although the government instituted a National Health
Insurance system providing basic services to 95 percent
of the population, the state-financed medical institutions
cannot always reach the most destitute citizens who live
in remote regions.101 As of March 2005, religious groups
were operating 32 hospitals, 43 clinics, 25 retirement
homes, 33 centers for the mentally handicapped, 14
handicapped institutions, 3 rehabilitation centers, 12
orphanages, and 39 nurseries in the country. Among
these institutions, Tzu Chi operates a medical university,
hospitals, and clinics around the country. Faith-inspired
groups are also active in education, having established
352 kindergartens, 12 elementary schools, 41 high
schools, 6 colleges, 14 universities, and 107 monasteries
and seminaries, as well as 147 libraries and 59 publish-
ing houses issuing 774 publications.102 Recognizing the
close relationship between faith-inspired organizations
and the Taiwanese government, in October 2008, the
Taiwanese government held a ceremony honoring more
than 200 religious groups from all major religions rep-
resented in Taiwan, for contributions to public service,
social welfare, and social harmony.103
61
 As of September 2008, 1526 religious organizations
were registered with the government (750 at the national
level and 776 at the local level), belonging to 26 regis-
tered religions and religious groups,104 compared to only
17 in 1988.105 The majority of Taiwan’s faith-inspired
organizations are Buddhist or Taoist. The largest and
most active Buddhist organizations today working
in Taiwan and abroad are Tzu-Chi, Fo Guang Shan,
Dharma Drum Mountain, and Chung Tai Shan. There
are a smaller number of Christian organizations, among
which World Vision has been in the country since 1950.
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
The Ministry of Information in 2006 reported that
roughly 18.72 million people in Taiwan are members of
one or more religious groups, and that these groups are
actively engaged in many sectors in society.
Box 12
Tzu Chi
The Tzu Chi Foundation, a prominent Taiwanese-
based Buddhist organization, is one of the largest
philanthropic organizations in the world. Awarded the
|
2008 Niwano Peace Prize for its peace and relief work
BERKLEY CENTER
around the world, the organization was founded in
1966 by Dharma Master Cheng Yen at Pu Ming Temple
on the east coast of Taiwan. It began as an organization
of 30 housewives who donated a portion of their gro-
cery money to help others in the community. The orga-
nization has since expanded to over 75 countries with
over 500 staff members giving material aid to those in
need and inspiring the Buddhist concept of compas-
sion in both the givers and receivers of its aid. Tzu Chi is
a spiritual as well as charitable organization, and relies
strongly on volunteer work, combining Buddhist and
Confucian spiritual ethics with modern efficient man-
agement, a factor in its longevity and success.
Master Cheng Yen believes that a root cause of many
of the world’s problems is a “lack of love for others.”
Her goal is to serve all of humanity, creating a world of
kindness, compassion, joy, and equality. She believes
that in tackling the world’s problems, “we must begin
by transforming the human heart.” Master Cheng Yen
uses traditional Buddhist teachings to inspire her aid
and relief work, focusing on the virtue of compassion,
and reinterpreting relief and volunteer work as a core
62
Taiwanese faith-inspired organizations are active
abroad as well as in Taiwan. Tzu-Chi operates in 51
countries around the world, including many coun-
tries in Southeast Asia. In October 2009, Tzu-Chi
volunteers provided emergency aid following flooding
in the Philippines and an earthquake in Indonesia.
They provided goods and services including hot meals,
heavy machinery, temporary jobs for victims, and rain
boots. In commenting on the work of her organiza-
tion, Master Cheng Yen, founder or Tzu-Chi, said “we
should all unite together and cherish and respect our
land with the spirit of Great Love,” exemplifying the
philosophy behind the Buddhist organization’s work.106
spiritual practice of Mahayana Buddhism, translat-
ing Buddhist teachings into everyday practice for Tzu
Chi’s members.
Tzu Chi began its international work in 1991, aiding
typhoon victims in Bangladesh. Its international relief
work now reaches out to victims of violent conflict,
floods, drought, earthquakes, and other natural disas-
ters. Its activities focus on four areas: international
disaster relief, a bone-marrow bank, environmental pro-
tection, and community volunteer work. As a central
tenet of its work, Tzu Chi encourages disaster victims
to help those around them and thus also help them-
selves to become more independent and involved in
rebuilding their own communities.
Tzu Chi remains non-political, raising the majority of its
funds through small personal donations, often received
on a daily basis; daily smaller donations encourage
compassion on a daily basis. The organization has
made important contributions to health, introducing
modern medicine, alongside the traditional spiritual
healing of Buddhist temples. Tzu Chi attracts many
women, both laywomen and nuns, following the char-
ismatic character of Master Cheng Yen, who many of
her followers believe to be an incarnation of the bohi-
sattva Guanyin.
Malaysia
An Overview
Malaysia has been one of Southeast Asia’s top perform-
ing economies over the past two decades, and it is a
middle income country. Malaysia ranks 66 of 182
countries in UNDP’s 2009 Human Development
Report. Malaysia’s influence in the region is substantial
and growing. Malaysia has made purposeful, efforts
to rebalance inherited ethnic inequalities, while try-
ing to maintain harmony and tolerance among its
multi-ethnic and religious society. Despite challenges,
it has enjoyed relative political stability, for which it
has earned admiration in Southeast Asia and beyond.
Recently, however, tensions among both ethnic and
religious groups have mounted, and these tensions also
have repercussions across Southeast Asia.
Islam plays a prominent role in cotemporary Malaysian
culture, politics, and society, with about 60 percent
of the population legally defined as Muslim. The
Constitution (Article 11) assures that “every person
has the right to profess and practice his religion” and
(Article 3) that “Islam is the religion of the Federation“.
All ethnic Malays are by law Muslim and are not
permitted to convert out of Islam. Proselytizing by
non-Muslim groups, particularly in Muslim major-
ity areas, is strongly controlled by the government.107
Approximately 19 percent of the population identifies
themselves as Buddhist, nine percent Christian, six
percent Hindu, and three percent Confucius, Taoist
and other traditional Chinese religions. Religion and
ethnicity are tightly linked in Malaysia; ethnic divisions
remain distinct, and ethnic communities have tended
to be quite inwardly focused in terms of politics, educa-
tion, and economic activity.
Malaysia’s quite secular traditions are coming under
pressure today with several political groups pressing
for larger and more formal roles for Islam. The United
Malays National Organization (UNMO), Malaysia’s
largest political party, has significant political sway,
and some observers argue, has been slowly integrating
Islamic law into the country over the past few years,
including Sharia courts for cases involving Malaysian
Muslims. The growth of the Islamic bureaucracy and
recruitment of Islam studies-trained graduates into
the civil service may be a contributing factor to this
trend. Other ethno-religious political parties include
the Malaysian Indian Muslim Congress and the Pan-
Malaysian Islamic Party.
Ethno-religious tensions have become more visible in
recent years. Church burnings in early 2010 were a reac-
tion to a December of 2009 court ruling that allowed
the Catholic weekly publication Herald to use the word
“Allah” for God. This and other religiously linked ten-
sions are the topic of active dissent in Malaysia.
Islam, Ethnicity, and Development
Islam, religion, and ethnicity are explicitly addressed
in Malaysia’s development planning, which historically
aimed to promote greater balance (largely political and
economic) among the country’s ethnic groups. A series
of five-year economic development plans have aimed
to guide development. The Seventh Malaysia Plan
(1995–2000), along with continued emphasis on pri-
vate sector growth and ethnic balance, reflects on and
further acknowledges the growing influence of Muslim
moral and ethical values.
2010
In the Foreword to the Seventh Plan, then Prime
Minister Mahathir Mohamad acknowledged that rapid
|
economic growth in Malaysia had brought prosperity
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
but also accompanying social problems, notably an
unequal distribution of wealth. The plan highlighted
the need to incorporate moral and ethical values based
on religion, customs, and tradition with economic
development as well as to “inculcate sound spiritual,
moral, and ethical values in order for Malaysia to
become fully developed.”
2010 marks the final year of the Ninth Malaysia Plan,
which broadly sought to elevate high-tech industry
development, increase knowledge-based capacity by
improving the school system, address socioeconomic
problems and decrease income disparity, and promote
development through international cooperation.
Malaysia’s policies have favored ethnic Malay in an effort
to rebalance inequalities. In 1971, the New Economic
Policy aimed to eradicate poverty for all Malaysians by
increasing the Malay share of the national economy,
also carrying over to areas including the civil service,
housing projects, and higher education. Nominally
the plan has expired, but many of the quota policies
continue, though in 2009, Prime Minister Najib Tun
63
 Razak announced the abolition of the 30 percent Malay
requirement for corporate equity for some service sec-
tors. Political opposition parties offered cautious support
for constitutional reform and an end to the positive dis-
crimination policies.108 All Malaysians are still required
to list their religion on their identity cards, a move which
many non-Muslims view as discriminatory.
Malaysia is a regional leader on education and is actively
positioning itself as an education hub for international
students. Many come from the Muslim world, though
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
data is partial and not readily accessible.109 Malaysia’s
educational systems still show the influence of a Muslim
bearing, and the role of Islam in education has been
and remains a subject for political as well as educational
debate. Islam is the only religious instruction provided
in public schools, though non-Muslims are not required
to study Islam.
Box 13
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The Hajj Fund and Islamic Banking in Malaysia
BERKLEY CENTER
Malaysia has emerged as an international center on
Islamic Finance. In 1962, Malaysia established the
“Tabung Haj” or “Hajj Fund” for Muslims to save money
to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Hajj Fund, allows
Muslims to save without being involved in an interest-
based system. The Islamic banking system was born
out of this fund.
Islamic banking, based on the principles of Sharia,
adhere to several principals including prohibition of
riba or usury (removing the payment or acceptance
of interests on loans). Banks that follow Sharia are pro-
hibited from investing in anything considered haram
and forbidden under Islamic law from partaking in a
business operation that may deal with anything
haram. “Ethical investing” and “moral pur-
chasing” are encouraged. Some of the
micro-lending institutions that are
active throughout Muslim Southeast
Asia, notably Malaysia, Indonesia and
Bangladesh, operate with Islamic prin-
ciples in mind. Islamic banking is based
64
NGOs, Religious Organizations, and
the Government
Malaysia’s NGO sector is diverse, with both regional
and international organizations. Many faith-inspired
organizations are active in supporting development
and humanitarian/disaster relief at home and abroad,
including the Southeast Asia region. Malaysia’s devel-
oped economy and infrastructure facilitate its role as a
regional hub for many NGOs.
The government Registrar of Societies has authority
for registering religious organizations, thereby qualify-
ing an organization for government grants and other
benefits, while some report a tendency to favor Muslim-
inspired organizations.
Islamic faith-inspired organizations active on humani-
tarian relief and development include Islamic Relief
Malaysia, which implements relief programming in
Southeast Asia and around the world and has been
active in Indonesia since 2000, providing disaster relief
on a commitment to spiritual values, socio-economic
justice, and human brotherhood.
Built on the principles of Sharia, the Bank Islam of
Malaysia operates with no interest-based transac-
tions. The government funded the bank at its outset,
but now owns only 13 percent of the Bank, which is
listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. Since
the formation of Bank Islam Malaysia numerous other
banks have begun to offer interest-free transac-
tions. The Central Bank of Malaysia reports that 17
licensed Malaysian Islamic banks and four interna-
tional Islamic banks operate in the country. In 2009,
Prime Minister Najib observed that Islamic finance
accounted for 19 percent of Malaysia’s bank-
ing assets. Many Muslim development
NGOs have ventured into microfinance
following Islamic banking standards,
both in Malaysia and abroad. All banks
in Malaysia that are Islamic or follow
Islamic banking practices are required to
display the Perbankan Islam logo (left).
and post-disaster rehabilitation assistance. The Muslim
Youth Movement of Malaysia (ABIM) frequently takes
vocal stances in support of Muslim causes around
the world, notably Albanian Muslims in Bosnia and
Palestinians. In 2001, ABIM launched Misi Keamanan
Sejagat (Global Peace Mission) to provide humanitarian
aid, education and health care to displaced Afghans; 64
other NGOs, including Christian, Buddhist and secular
organizations have joined the cause.110
World Vision Malaysia (Christian) operates in Malaysia
with the specific mandate to raise funds and awareness
for communities overseas, particularly in Southeast Asia.
Some other examples of non-Muslim organizations in
Malaysia (some with regional mandates) include the
Tzu Chi Foundation (Buddhist), The Baha’i Center,
the Adventist Development and Relief Organization
(Christian), and the Salvation Army (Christian).
Given Malaysia’s pluralistic ethnic and religious charac-
ter, Malaysia is home to numerous interfaith initiatives,
both national and international. Examples include the
Malaysia Interfaith Network, which among its activities
works on governance issues, and the United Nations
Population Fund interfaith forum “Strengthening
Partnerships with Faith-based Organizations (FBOs) in
Addressing ICPD,” involving both Malaysian and Asian
faith-inspired organizations.111
Singapore
Singapore has the 8th highest per-capita GDP in the
world, the world’s lowest infant mortality rate, and
reports that none of its population lives below the
poverty line. This success is partly attributable to an
economic strategy adopted in the 1960s that was pro-
business, pro-foreign investment, and export-driven,
combined with investments in strategic state-owned
corporations that were directed toward the government.
Its achievement in promoting social harmony in its
diverse population is another factor in Singapore’s suc-
cess, as is heavy investment in education and aggressive
campaigns to stop corruption.
Singapore plays an important regional role. As a leader
in development in the region, several regional secular
organizations have their headquarters in Singapore,
including the Gentle Fund Organization, which pro-
vides assistance to orphans and other disadvantaged
young people in Vietnam; Singapore’s Think Centre
which works on strengthening civil society within the
country and partners with organizations, including
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN);
The Canadian think tank International Development
Research Centre (IDRC), which has their Southeast
Asian/ East Asian headquarters in Singapore; and the
Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, whose research
addresses a wide variety of region specific issues, includ-
ing those related to faith. Singapore is home to many
universities, an example being the Lee Kuan Yew School
of Public Policy in the National University of Singapore.
Singapore’s government has actively sought to foster
understanding among Singapore’s diverse ethnic and
faith groups. Approximately 77 percent of Singaporeans
are Chinese, 14 percent are Malay, 8 percent are Indian,
and 1.5 percent belong to other ethnicities. By religion,
approximately 42 percent are Buddhist, 15 percent are
Muslim, 9 percent are Protestant Christian, 9 percent
2010
are Taoist, 5 percent are Catholic, 4 percent are Hindu,
1 percent follows other faiths, and 15 percent claim no
religious affiliation. The government mandated “inter-
|
racial and religious confidence circles” (IRCCs) in the
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks. IRCCs are
informal entities intended to promote knowledge and
understanding among religious and ethnic groups and
also to keep track of grievances and signs of conflict at
the community level (information which the national
government also utilizes).
Several faith-inspired organizations in Singapore are
involved in socio-economic development and relief
work in Southeast Asia, including interfaith efforts,
despite some challenges of government restrictions.112
The organization Mercy Relief brings together
Singaporean youth from different faith communities
to work on humanitarian charity projects in the region,
addressing both disaster relief and longer term devel-
opment issues, including through a partnership with
Soka Gakkai. Jamiyah Singapore, a Muslim missionary
and humanitarian organization, collaborates with non-
Muslim religious organizations, including recent joint
efforts with the Singapore Hindu Endowments Board
to raise money for earthquake victims in China and
Myanmar. The Baha’i community office of interfaith
activities addresses significant work with youth. World
65
 Vision’s Singapore office works both in Singapore and
throughout Southeast Asia.
Faith-inspired NGOs have focused on migrant worker
rights. Most of these organizations are attached to local
churches that provide pastoral services, training courses,
and leisure-time activities. HOME, a secular NGO, has
partnered with faith-inspired organizations at home
and abroad, particularly through the Catholic Church,
notably the Scalabrini Sisters in the Philippines.113
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
Australia
Australia is active in all Southeast Asian countries
in many domains, including economics, education,
and diplomacy. Australia is a quite secular country,
but its religious communities tend to have strong
ties to neighboring countries, and immigrant com-
munities, especially from Indonesia, are increasingly
active in Australia. This is giving rise to a progressively
more energetic set of organizations and influences.
With religious tensions mounting in the region, the
Australian government and civil society have focused
quite sharply on religion and particularly on interfaith
|
dialogue and action. This stance was one reason why
BERKLEY CENTER
the World Parliament of Religions met in Melbourne in
December, 2009, and Australia has supported interre-
ligious dialogue in Indonesia and elsewhere over many
years. It is in this context that Australian faith-inspired
organizations are active participants in development
discussions and action across the region.
Australia is one of the largest aid donors in the Pacific
Rim, forecast to provide US$3.8 billion of total official
development assistance (ODA) in 2009–2010. Of
this figure, US$2.82 billion is to go to the Asia Pacific
region. Australia is an influential actor in regional devel-
opment policy, with significant development interests
and activities throughout Southeast Asia.
As a proportion of total Australian development assis-
tance, the percentage of development funds going to or
through faith-inspired organizations is relatively small.
However, Australian faith-inspired organizations are
actively engaged in relief and development work across
Southeast Asia on topics including corruption, good gov-
ernance, humanitarian relief, health, children and youth,
education, human trafficking, and the environment and
66
climate change. Climate change in particular has attracted
recent much attention, specifically as a likely cause of
migration from Southeast Asia countries to Australia.
The largest faith-inspired development organization
active in Southeast Asia, with respect to reach and bud-
get, is World Vision Australia, with around 50 percent
of all overseas giving. World Vision Australia works
with youth on education, health, child protection, and
governance, as well as engaging in interfaith work on
disaster relief and conflict resolution. Within Australia
as well, World Vision has been influential in advocacy
work with the government for involving civil society in
social development work, as well as continuing support
for international development through the most recent
world economic crisis.114
Apart from World Vision, there are numerous other
Christian organizations involved in international
development work. In 2009, the top 10 NGOs in
Australia raised $0.6 Billion, 70 percent of which
was for faith-inspired organizations.115 Jesuit Refugee
Service works with refugees and asylum seekers in
Australia and the Southeast Asia region, as well as on
advocacy and capacity building within the Church and
with civil society on displacement in Southeast Asia
and the Pacific. The Adventist Development and Relief
Agency Australia (ADRA) works across the Mekong
region and the Pacific on a broad spectrum of relief
activities, including food security, civil society strength-
ening, health, education, economic development, and
emergency management, collaborating with local orga-
nizations on project implementation. Other Christian
faith-inspired organizations include, Caritas Australia,
Christian Child Fund, Christian Blind Mission, YWCA
Australia, TEAR Australia, Sisters of Mercy, Assemblies
of God in Australia World Relief, Australian Relief and
Mercy Services (ARMS), Baptist World Aid Australia,
Feed The Hungry Australia, Habitat for Humanity
(Australia), and Palms Australia.
A significant number of Muslim organizations are
involved in development work in Southeast Asia
countries. Muslim Aid, one of the largest, supports
programming both in Australia and aboard. The
Baha’i community works both in Australia and
abroad as well with a particular focus on indigenous
rights in Australia.
United States and Europe
The private roles of faith-inspired organizations from
the United States and Europe across Southeast Asia are
varied and, at times, a significant contributor to devel-
opment policy dialogue and programs in the region. Of
particular note is their dynamic and significant presence
during major humanitarian emergencies, notably the
2004 tsunami. Areas of focus include human rights,
trafficking of people, education, health, conflict resolu-
tion, and environmental protection. This section briefly
highlights some major institutions and trends as they
apply in Southeast Asia. The Berkley Center reviews
that focused on the United States and on Europe
address the range and scope of faith-inspired work in
those regions in far greater depth.116
United States
The large and diverse United States faith-inspired
development community is active in most all Southeast
Asian countries. The actors range from large interna-
tional organizations such as World Vision and Catholic
Relief Service, to local churches, temples, and mosques
engaged in community level relief and development;
their work includes fund-raising, collection of mate-
rial donations, and short and long-term missions. The
US government quite actively involves faith-inspired
organizations in its development strategy, both domes-
tically and internationally. The United States Agency
for International Development (USAID), has a small
office for “faith-based and community initiatives,”
which engages organizations working worldwide,
including in Southeast Asia. Between 2001 and 2005,
USAID financing of faith-based organizations abroad
doubled.117 The United Board for Christian Higher
Education in Asia, as an example, works with Christian
colleges and universities in the Philippines, Taiwan,
Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand, and Singapore, with
USAID funding. The United Methodist Committee on
Relief is presently engaged in Southeast Asia as well with
USAID support, working in Burma (Myanmar) and
Indonesia on disaster relief assistance. In 2006, mem-
bers of InterAction, the largest coalition of U.S.-based
international NGOs, of which many are faith-inspired,
managed $2.8 billion in U.S. overseas development
assistance and $6 billion in private funds.118
The President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)
has a 5 year, US$48 billion budget to combat global HIV/
AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. This offers an example of
a program which has worked purposefully to engage faith
communities. In 2007, 34 percent of PEPFAR funds went
to faith-inspired organizations.119 Cambodia, Indonesia,
and Thailand are among PEPFAR’s target countries.
The US government gives particular focus in its Asia
Pacific strategy to regional cooperation, and it aims to
emphasize regional responses as opposed to bilateral,
and increase coordination with the key donors in the
region, including Australia, Japan, and New Zealand.
USAID’s total request for funds for the East Asia/Pacific
region for fiscal year 2009 was approximately US$544
million.120 Apart from government funding, US foun-
dations and private organizations actively work with
faith-inspired organizations. The Asia Foundation is an
example of a foundation that works closely with faith-
inspired organizations and the government.
Europe
Religious leaders and faith-inspired organizations
2010
engage actively in social dialogue and development,
both within Europe and abroad, including Southeast
Asia. The share and form that this takes varies accord-
|
ing to the statutes and traditions of each country in
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
relation to religion. Of the European Union’s (EU) 27
member-states, five have state religions,121 and Sweden
legally separated church and state in 2000. Faith-
inspired organizations within the European Union
receive subsidies both at the EU level and by national
governments. Austria, Denmark, Norway, Fin land,
Greece, and Italy all subsidize faith-inspired organiza-
tions. France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden
are constitutionally secular states but provide direct
or indirect subsidies for institutions associated with
recognized faiths, including religious schools and social
and health services. In Germany, the Protestant and
Roman Catholic churches, as well as Judaism (though
not Islam—the third largest faith in the country), are
entitled to federally collected church taxes and have
the right to run state-subsidized religious social services
and hospitals. In France, 25 percent of students attend
publically funded Catholic schools.122
International aid in the European Union is chan-
neled through two primary institutions: ECHO
(European Community Humanitarian Aid Office) and
the European Commissions’ External Co-operation
67
 Programs office (EuropeAid). On a country level, most
EU countries have some form of institutionalized for-
eign aid mechanism, whether at the national level, or
decentralized through state registered organizations (ex.
churches, temples, or mosques). The largest European
country donors include France, United Kingdom,
Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, and Italy. Newly
admitted countries to the EU are also creating interna-
tional development agencies. Many international orga-
nizations headquartered in Europe work in Southeast
Asia, including many United Nations institutions that
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y

cooperate to a degree with faith- inspired organizations

(WHO, UNESCO, WFP, and FAO are examples).

Many European based faith-inspired NGOs work in

Southeast Asia. Islamic Relief, headquartered in the
United Kingdom, is one of the largest Muslim-inspired
aid organizations in the world, and is active in mul-
tiple countries in Asia, including a large program in
Indonesia. Caritas Internationalis, one of the largest
and most active Catholic Charities in world, headquar-
tered in the Vatican, has many programs in Southeast
Asia, with a regional office located in Bangkok. Caritas
Internationalis was one of the first responders to
|

Cyclone Nargis in Burma (Myanmar), working through

BERKLEY CENTER

local partners and Catholic networks to reach difficult

to access locations. Other large European faith-inspired
organizations include Cordaid (Netherlands), Muslim
Aid (UK), Christian Aid (UK), Catholic Agency For
Overseas Development (CAFOD) (UK), Progressio
(UK), Tearfund UK, and World Vision Germany.

68
69
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2010
Appendix 1
Annotated Bibliography
Achacoso-Sevilla, Luningning, ed. The Ties that Bind: Population
and Development in the Philippines. 2nd ed. Asian Institution of
Management, Policy Center. Makati City, Philippines. 2004.
This book discusses the correlation of population growth in the
Philippines with issues of food security, health, housing, basic educa-
tion, and government resources. It raises interesting debate vis-à-vis
the Catholic’s Church stance on contraception and birth control.
Agricultural Land Redistribution: Toward Greater Consensus. The
World Bank. Chapter 8. Washington: The World Bank, 2009.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/Resources/Ag_Land_
Redistribution.pdf.
Chapter 8 includes a discussion of Philippine land reform, and
the challenges and emerging issues surrounding land reform. Of
particular importance for this report is the discussion on the role
of the Catholic Church in the pro-peasant movement encouraging
rural farmers to claim rights to their land.
ASEAN Cooperation on Environment. Association of Southeast Asian
Nations. Jakarta: ASEAN, 2009. http://www.aseansec.org/8914.htm.
This section gives a general overview of programs, plans, initiatives
and priority areas developed by ASEAN to address environmental
issues that affect Southeast Asia. It also outlines the governance
structure of ASEAN as it pertains to implementing or addressing the
above. A useful reference for examining regional cooperation around
the environment in Southeast Asia.
Baharuddin, Azizan. “Rediscovering the Resources of Religion.” in
The Lab, The Temple and the Market: Reflections at the Intersection of
Science, Religion and Development. Sharon M.P. Harper, ed. Ottawa:
Kumarian International Development Research Center, 2000.
Commissioned by the International Development Research Center,
this book offers analyses on how different religions intersect with
development and humanitarian work. Coming from the perspective
that development organizations have been overlooking the role and
influence of religion on peoples’ lives, development, and economic
growth, it offers perspectives from practitioners of different faiths
and their reflections on the Church, Hinduism, the World Bank,
and the connectedness of religion and development. The authors
argue that religion and personal faith can make positive contribu-
tions to development.
Bello, Walden, et al. The Anti-Development State: The Political
Economy of Permanent Crisis in the Philippines. New York: Zed
Books, 2005.
Bello and his co-authors attempt to explain the problems with pov-
erty and underdevelopment that the Philippines has faced since the
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) “revolution,” which unseated
dictator Ferdinand Marcos. They specifically blame the “EDSA
system,” and its weakness in disciplining private sector activity, as a
main factor in the economic-political problems that have mired the
country since then.
Beng Huat, Chua. Singapore: A report on civil society organiza-
tions and activities. “Presented at Conference—Preliminary Asian
Cultural Forum—Connecting Networks.” Singapore: National
University of Singapore, 2005.
Chua’s paper describes how arts, green, religious, and women’s
organizations (aided in part by a high level of internet connectivity)
within Singaporean civil society are advancing change and to some
degree contesting the status quo-conserving People’s Action Party
government.
Bertrand, Jacques. Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia.
China Everbest Printing Company. 2004.
Bertrand argues that recent ethnic and religious conflicts in
Indonesia are the result of the constraints imposed by Suharto’s
2010
regime, which left the country unprepared for political and social
change. Consequently, the definition of the Indonesian nation
and what it means to be Indonesian has come under scrutiny. The
author examines religious and ethnic conflict within the complex
|
Indonesian context.
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
Boomgard, Peter. Southeast Asia: An Environmental History. Santa
Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2007.
Boomgard’s book gives a thorough environmental history of
Southeast Asia, from prehistoric times to the present day, culminat-
ing in the ecological effects of recent economic and population
growth, as well as touching on the complex interplay between
religion and the environment in the region, and how that has
affected society. It is of particular interest for gleaning insight into
the role of religion confronting the environment today in light of a
modernizing society.
Candland, Christopher, and Nurjanah Siti. “Women’s Empowerment
through Islamic Organizations: The Role of the Indonesia’s Nahdlatul
Ulama in Transforming the Government’s Birth Control Programme
into a Family Welfare Programme.” February 2004. http://www.
wellesley.edu/Polisci/Candland/KBIndonesia.pdf.
The essay contains information about Nahdlatul Ulama’s family
planning campaign as well as the varied role of women and women’s
organizations across the country. The social welfare of Muslim
organizations, the authors argue, go beyond a Muslim’s individual
obligation to aid the poor through zakat, and that some organiza-
tions have become important agents for social change.
Chandler, David. A History of Cambodia. Chiang Mai Thailand:
Silkworm Books, 2008.
71
 David Chandler provides an in-depth analysis of Cambodian
history, with notable attention to the reign of Pol Pot, the Prince,
and the period following the Vietnamese invasion in 1979. He pays
special attention to the implications of recent history on present day
Cambodia, as well as an analysis of Cambodia in face of the changes
presented to society by globalization.
Cheng, Tun-jen and Deborah A. Brown. Religious Organizations and
Democratization: Case Studies from Asia. Armonk, New York: M.E.
Sharpe, Inc. 2006.
This book includes a case study on Taiwan and the role of Buddhist
organizations throughout Taiwanese history and their relation-
ships with different systems of government. Addresses the role of
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
organizations in bolstering social services where government was
lacking and their relationships with authoritarian governments and
democratic ones. The author displays that Buddhist organizations
have been an important actor in social service provision in Taiwan.
“Christians allegedly persecuted in Laos, ministry denies charges.”
Radio Free Asia. 21 March 2007. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/
docid/469dc7b4c.html.
This report recounts assertions by Lao exiles in France describing
expulsions by Laotian government forces of Lao ethnic minority
Christians who refuse to renounce their faith. The report also cites
government responses describing any conflict in Christian ethnic
minority areas as “local” issues that are not based on religion because
Laos “has a law guaranteeing religious freedom.” It raises the often
close relationship between ethnic and religious conflicts.
|
BERKLEY CENTER
Cima, Ronald J., ed. Vietnam: A Country Study. Washington: GPO
for the Library of Congress, 1987. http://countrystudies.us/vietnam/.
This volume includes a discussion of Buddhism and Catholicism
in Vietnam (and a short section about some of the smaller, native
Vietnamese religious groups), including the creation of government-
sanctioned churches to control religious practice in the country.
Clarke, Gerald, and Michael Jennings, eds. Development, Civil
Society, and Faith-Based Organizations. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2008.
This book contains discussions of the intersection of faith, develop-
ment, and civil society in broad terms, as well as Chapter 6 focusing
on the role of the Catholic Bishop’s Conference of the Philippines’
involvement in electoral politics and promoting citizen engagement
after the Marcos regime.
Darlington, Susan M. “The Ordination of a Tree: The Buddhist
Ecology Movement in Thailand.” University of Pittsburgh- Of the
Commonwealth System of Higher Education. Ethnology, vol. 37,
no. 1 (Winter, 1998): pp. 1–15.
An account of how monks in Thailand have used tree ordination
for environmental protection, in light of changing societal pressures
in Thailand. A particularly interesting argument on the evolving
relations between religion and the state in light of modernization
and development.
72
Epley, Jennifer. “Development Issues and the Role of Religious
Organizations in Indonesia.” Studies on Asia, Series II. vol. 1, no. 1
(Fall 2004).
The paper provides a general framework to analyze the intersection
of economics, religion, and politics with regards to development
issues in Indonesia. Case studies on Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul
Ulama are included, with information about their family planning
campaign, as well as about religion and development in Indonesia
more generally.
Farkas, Jami. “The Growing NGO Lobby in Vietnam.” Nguoi-viet.
com. 6 Dec 2008. Report in News.newamericamedia.org. http://
news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=7735
6f5298a3c964965a3e969fddc801.
As recounted in this article, changes in government policy making
in Vietnam, which mandate impact assessments for and the consul-
tation of public opinion regarding new laws, have given NGOs in
Vietnam greater ability to influence government activity with regard
to their sectoral concerns.
Fontein, Jan, and Marijke Klokke, eds. Narrative Sculpture and
Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia (Studies in Asian Art
and Archaeology). Boston: Koln Brill, 2000.
A study of how ancient India’s incredibly rich literary heritage has
been visually represented. Numerous temples, not only in South
Asia, but also in Southeast Asia, carry the images of India’s great
narratives. This text gives attention to those in Karnataka (India),
Java (Indonesia), Angkor (Cambodia), and Tra Kieu (Vietnam). It
discusses theoretical aspects, provides interpretations, and proposes
interpretations through advanced comparative and contextual
approaches. Useful in examining the continued influence of Indian
culture and Hinduism in Southeast Asia.
“Foreign Religious Organizations in Vietnam: Law and Practice.”
Fund for Reconciliation & Development. 2004. http://www.ffrd.org/
Foreign%20Religious%20Organizations%20in%20Vietnam.pdf.
This background paper discusses the legal status of foreign reli-
gious organizations in Vietnam and how they are able to operate
because of and despite of that status. It notes that while the Bush
Administration and the Christian Right have criticized Vietnam
for violations of religious freedom, the experience of some foreign
religious organizations provides an alternative, more nuanced view
of the state of religion in present-day Vietnam.
Friend, Theodore, ed. Religion and Religiosity in the Philippines and
Indonesia. Washington: Southeast Asia Studies Program, 2006.
The essays in this book deal with different topics related to religion and
society in the Philippines and Indonesia, taking a comparative look, and
trying to tease out the complexities of faith and its relationship to social
dynamics. The authors find that while neither country promotes a state
religion, both lack partitions between church and state.
“Girls’ and Women’s Education in Indonesia.” UNESCO Bangkok
Office http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/appeal/
gender/indonesia.pdf.
An overview of the shortcomings in gender equality in the
Indonesian school system, exploring both religious and secular
schools, and the various actors that are involved in education in
Indonesia, including state, non-state, and religious actors. The main
challenges to girls in attending school, the author states, are: limited
family income; distance of schools; traditional role of women in
society; limited access to scholarships. The author proposes strategies
to increase girls’ access to education at all levels. Includes statistics
and data.
“Global Report on Trafficking in Persons.” United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime. New York: UNODC, February 2009.
This report first gives an overview of the global situation of human
trafficking, and then provides country profiles (categorized by
region) for 155 UN member states regarding the status of human
trafficking within each.
Goldoftas, Barbara. The Green Tiger: The Costs of Ecological Decline
in the Philippines. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
This volume serves as a reference on the Catholic Bishop’s
Conference of the Philippine’s (CBCP) actions on deforestation,
as well as some of the Catholic Church’s broader environmental
activism. The author finds that religious organizations, the govern-
ment, and NGOs, all have deeply rooted views on the environment,
economic development, and environmental degradation, and that
their inclusion in policy discussions may contribute slowing the
process of strengthening democratic institutions, but cooperation on
environmental work can contribute to constructive progress.
Gosling, David L. Religion and Ecology in India and Southeast Asia.
New York: Routledge, 2001.
Chapter 5 of this book discusses the connections between ecology
and Buddhism, contextualizing it within the development of the
latter. Chapter 6 is a case study of Buddhist ecological thought and
action in Thailand, discussing the contributions that notable Thai
Buddhist figures such as Buddhadasa Bhikku and Sulak Sivaraksa
have made in this area.
Handley, Paul M. The King Never Smiles: A Biography of Thailand’s
Bhumibol Adulyadej. Yale University Press, 28 July 2006. WO0905/S00160.htm.
The author provides a provocative account of the king’s life, from
a childhood in the West to ascending to the thrown in Thailand.
Of particular relevance for this report is the author’s account of
how the king today remains a symbol of unity despite the political
tensions that are boiling in the country. Especially interesting is the
discussion of how the king, born in the United States and raised in
Switzerland, came to hold the status of bodhisattva.
Hefner, Robert, ed. Making Modern Muslims: The Politics of Islamic
Education in Southeast Asia. Hawaii University Press, 2009.
Robert Hefner, in this edited volume, brings to light the challenges
and realties facing Islamic education in Southeast Asia, particu-
larly post September 11, 2001. His purpose in writing the book
is to “shed light on the varieties and politics of Islamic education
in modern Southeast Asia.” For the purpose of this report, the
author’s analysis of Islamic influence on education in Malaysia
and Cambodia highlighted regional tensions around the content
of Islamic education, ramifications on relations between diverse
Muslim communities, and the political ramifications at the national,
regional, and international levels.
Hertzke, Allen. Freeing God’s Children: The Unlikely Alliance for
Global Human Rights. USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2004.
This influential book analyzes the increasing trend of collaboration
between affected groups on international issues of human rights,
social justice, and religious freedom in particular. He cites specific
examples, from human trafficking to Tibet to Darfur as areas around
which religions are working together for a common cause. In the
case of Southeast Asia, the phenomenon that Hertzke describes is
of particular importance for human trafficking, given its regional/
transnational character.
Hertzke, Allen. “The Globalization of Religious Advocacy in
America.” E International Relations. 28 February 2010. http://
www.e-ir.info/?p=3318.
Allen Hertzke examines the role of international religious networks
in engaging international relation and social causes across borders.
He cites human trafficking and track-two diplomacy as two areas
of increased involvement. Globalization, he argues, has heightened
international awareness and increased engagement by religious
2010
interest groups. His analysis of involvement in human trafficking is
of particular interest in the Southeast Asia context.
|
Hing, Lee Kam, and Tan Chee Beng. The Chinese In Malaysia
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
(South-East Asian Social Science Monographs). Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2000.
This is a comprehensive study of one of the three major ethnic
groups which make up the Malaysian society and nation, covering
the historical, economic, political, and socio-cultural development
of the Chinese in Malaysia.
“Hmong Suffer Religious Persecution in SE Asia.” Center for Public
Policy Analysis. Nong Khai and Washington: Center for Public
Policy Analysis, 7 May 2009. Web. http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/
This press release describes some of the recent campaigns and
operations against dissident Hmong ethnic and/or religious groups
(mostly Buddhist and Christian) by the Lao People’s Army and
government security forces. In some cases, the Thai government has
helped these organs of the Laotian state track down, harass, capture,
forcibly repatriate, or even kill Hmong who have fled into Thailand
(including some Lao American citizens).
“Lao Government and civil society move closer to one another.”
United Nations Development Programme. New York: United Nations
Development Programme Newsroom, 17 Oct 2007. http://content.
undp.org/go/newsroom/2007/october/lao-government-civil-
society-20071017.en.
In this press release, UNDP discusses a conference held in Vientiane,
Laos in late August, 2007, which included as participants Lao govern-
73
 ment officials, members of Lao civil society, and government and
civil society representatives from several South Asian and Southeast
Asian countries. In general, this conference was aimed at helping the
Lao government understand the potential role for Lao civil society in
development and, related to this, beginning to create a framework for
future cooperation between government and civil society.
“Lao PDR Approves Decree for Non-Profit Associations.”
International Center for Not-For-Profit Law. Washington:
International Center for Not-For-Profit Law, 21 May 2009. http://
www.icnl.org/KnoWleDge/news/2009/05-21.htm.
In this press release, the ICNL announces the promulgation by the
Lao government of a decree regarding the regulation and operation
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
of NGOs in Laos. The decree authorizes the Public Administration
and Civil Service Authority to register and monitor these organiza-
tions, but the future of non-profits in the country remains unclear,
as there is no standing law regulating their activity.
Madsen, Richard. Democracy’s Dharma: religious renaissance and
political development in Taiwan University of California Press, 2008.
A discussion of the four largest Taiwanese religious organizations,
notably Tzu Chi and their role in bridging the gap between civil
society and government and the oftentimes fluid relationship
between organizations and the government.
Means, Gordon P. Political Islam in Southeast Asia. United States/
United Kingdom: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2009.
|
This book provides an in-depth analysis of Islam in Southeast Asia;
its historical progression in Southeast Asian societies,and its influ-
BERKLEY CENTER
ence on politics, education, civil society and economics. Through
varied case studies from Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the
Philippines, as well as in regional narrative, the author argues the
point that Islam in Southeast Asia in not a monolithic voice, but
rather “a religion of many faces,” manifesting itself differently in
each country. He provides discussion on the recent divisions within
Islam, between liberal and moderate views and more fundamentalist
or radical views, and the effects of each on the political, educational,
and economic realms.
Mukhopadhyaya, Ranjana. “Transnational Networks of Dharma
and Development: Engaged Buddhism in the Era of Globalization.”
“Presented at 2009 Academic Conference on Humanistic
Buddhism—Taiwan.” http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/crs/cshb/confer-
ence/note/march09/Paper_Ranjana%20Mukhopadhyaya.pdf.
Provides an excellent overview of transnational Buddhist organiza-
tions in Asia, particularly from Japan. The author provides multiple
case studies, including one of Shanti Volunteer organization and
their work in the refugee camps along the Thai-Cambodia border.
The paper argues that globalization and increased communications
technologies have facilitated cross-cultural networking and informa-
tion exchange between Buddhist organizations worldwide.
Nakashima, Ellen. “Progress and Struggle for Vietnam’s Catholics.”
The Washington Post. 23 Jun 2005. http://www.washingtonpost.com/
wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/22/AR2005062202182.html.
74
This article details the gains in freedom of worship (which are
partly due to the Vietnamese government’s 2004 Ordinance on
Religion) that some Catholics in Vietnam have enjoyed, particularly
compared to other faiths. There are, though, still challenges for
Catholics, the article notes; the Vietnamese government still does
not have diplomatic relations with the Holy See, and some Catholic
clergy continue to be persecuted and imprisoned for “unpatriotic”
activities.
“Overview of NGOs and Civil Society: Philippines.” Asian
Development Bank, 2007. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/
Civil-Society-Briefs/PHI/CSB-PHI.pdf.
This report provides an overview of the topography of NGOs and
civil society in the Philippines, their history, legal status, staff and
organizational capacity, as well as specific organizational involve-
ment with the Asian development Bank. The report highlights the
impressive capacity of civil society organizations in the Philippines,
as well as their promotion of social accountability.
Piper, Nicola, and Anders Uhlin. Transnational Activism in Asia:
Problems of Power and Democracy. New York/London: Routledge,
2004.
This book contains information about transnational organizations,
including religious organizations and their work in relief and devel-
opment in Asia. The authors specifically focus on how transnational
civil society groups and their activities are related to democracy at
the macro and micro levels.
Piscatori, James, and Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber. Transnational
Religion and Fading States. Westwood Press, 1997.
This book examines how the transnational nature of religious move-
ments leads to the formation of transnational civil society and a fad-
ing state sovereignty. The author, in contrast to Samuel Huntington’s
“Clash of Civilizations,” looks at local origins of conflict and the
potential of religious organizations to make peace as well as war, as
well as religious roles in adding an ethics, or meaning, to politics.
Phongpaichit, Pasuk. “Cultural factors that shape governance in
South-East Asia.” Essay written for UNESCO, May 1999. http://
pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~ppasuk/culturalgovernance.doc.
Accessed 27 October 2009.
For the purpose of this report, the essay examines the cultural
aspects that contribute to a population’s understanding of gover-
nance, both in the definition, and in practice. The author points to
Thailand’s Buddhist heritage as being influential in informing a Thai
understanding of governance.
Power, Samantha. “The Enforcer, A Christian lawyer’s global
crusade.” The New Yorker. 19 January 2009.
The article reports on the Christian organization, International
Justice Mission, and their activities to rescue victims of human traf-
ficking. The article brings to light the positive work the organization
does, its international network and linkages, collaboration with local
authorities, and the multiple controversies surrounding their work,
including the high profile media coverage.
Rehbein, Boike. Globalization, Culture, and Society in Laos. New
York, Routledge, 2007.
Chapter 9 of this book includes a brief discussion of animism in
Laos and its relationship to Buddhism, particularly at the village
level. It mentions different hybridizations between the two faiths, as
well as government antagonism of animism.
Sabharwal, Gita, and Than Thi Thien Huong. “Civil Society in
Vietnam.” Johannesburg: CIVICUS, Jul 2005. Web. http://www.
globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/176/32074.html.
The authors of this paper discusses the changing context for civil
society in Vietnam, the different types of organizations within
Vietnamese civil society, and the legal framework in which these
organizations operate, and how donors interact with Vietnamese
civil society.
The author examines Malaysia’s impressive economic growth and the
role of Islamic thought and practice in this growth. He concludes
that Islam has been an important factor in Malaysia’s political evolu-
tion, but that Islamic influence on economic development has been
marginal.
Winter, Tim, Peggy Teo, and T.C. Chang. Asia on Tour: Exploring
the rise in Asian Tourism. New York: Routledge. 2008.
The book focuses on the rise of tourism in Asia among Asians,
rather than Westerners. For the purposes of this report, it highlights
some of the heritage, culture, religion, and development that draw
particular international attention in Asia. The author examines
domestic and regional tourism, and how improvements in infra-
structures, increasing disposable incomes, liberalized economies, and
increased globalization, are enabling an increasing number of Asians
to travel as tourists.

“Sociolegal Status of Women in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,

Yuit, Gavin Chua Hearn. “Singapore’s Approach to
and Thailand.” Asian Development Bank. Manila: Asian
Counterterrorism: From Social Resilience to Public Imagination.”
Development Bank, 2002.
Singapore: IntSight, November 2009.
This volume situates the socio-legal status of Indonesian, Malaysian,
This paper discusses the government’s establishment of Inter-Racial
Philippine, and Thai women in the context of economic global-
and Religious Confidence Circles in Singapore as part of the
ization, the legal and institutional frameworks of the respective
government’s anti-terrorism strategy. The author cites this effort as
countries, and international treaties. It offers country-specific
a contributor to Singapore’s relative stability amid an array of low-
recommendations for legal reform.
intensity conflicts in Southeast Asia.

2010
“Vietnam: Religious Freedom Denied.” Human Rights Watch. New
York. 8 May 2008. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/05/07/

|
vietnam-religious-freedom-denied.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

In this article, Human Rights Watch discussed the restrictions on
religious freedom and human rights that occurred even as Vietnam
hosted the United Nations Day of Visak (the sacred Buddhist
holiday). Around this time, the Vietnamese government imprisoned
members of independent Buddhist groups. Human Rights Watch
calls on the Vietnamese government to release people imprisoned
for peaceful religious or political activities and end restrictions on
independent religious organizations who choose not to affiliate with
the officially authorized religious organizations under the control of
the government.

“UN Says Human Trafficking Appears To Be Worsening.” Radio

Free Europe News—Prauge: Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 Feb
2009. http://www.rferl.org/content/UN_Says_Human_Trafficking_
Appears_To_Be_Worsening_/1492561.html.
This article summarizes some of the findings of the 2009 UNODC
Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, and includes some com-
ments by UNODC chief Antonio Maria Costa about the report.
The situation of human trafficking seems to be worsening, even
though a majority of the countries surveyed in the report have
enacted laws against the practice. Additionally, more effective border
security does not appear to be a key factor in stemming the practice,
as much of the trafficking is intrastate, as opposed to interstate.

Wilson, Rodney. “Islam and Malaysia’s Economic Development.”

Journal of Islamic Studies 9:2 (1998): 259–276.

75
Endnotes
1. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs: http://
berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/ World Faiths Development
Dialogue: http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/wfdd.
2. This report focuses on the lower income countries of
Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam, and Burma (Myanmar). Coverage of
Timor-Leste and the South Pacific is less detailed. It also
explores work in several of the region’s wealthier countries, as
well as Europe and the United States, that have significant
transnational activities in Southeast Asia. It reflects some
information covering Asia, more broadly defined.
3. Hannah Beech, “Bangkok Protests End; Thais Mulle as a
Divided Nation,” Time Magazine, in partnership with CNN,
14 April, 2004, http://www.time.com/time/world/arti-
cle/0,8599,1891171,00.html (accessed 16 March 2010).
4. Interview with Dr. David Steinberg. Conducted by Michael
Bodakowski. 6 November 2009.
5. Engaged Buddhism, also referred to as socially engaged
Buddhism, originated about 25 years ago with the Vietnamese
monk Thich Nhat Hanh and is concerned with utilizing
Buddhist teachings to confront and act upon social, political,
and ecological problems.
6. “The International Network of Engaged Buddhists (INEB),
one of the largest international engaged Buddhist networks,
began in February 1989 in Thailand at a conference of 36
concerned ordained and lay people from 11 countries
organized by Sulak Sivaraksa, Maruyama Teruo, and other
thinkers and social activists Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
The network expanded through out years and included
members—individuals and organizations—from more than
20 countries from Asia, Europe, America and Australia. An
understanding of engaged Buddhism has emerged which
integrates the practice of Buddhism with social action for a
healthy, just, and peaceful world. A commitment to global
community based on the universal truths of wisdom and
compassion guides all of INEB’s activities. INEB’s areas of
concern have centered on peace, human rights, gender issues,
spirituality based development, diversity tolerance and
interfaith dialogue.” From the organization website—
http://www.inebnetwork.org/web/.
7. “Aceh Province Legislators Vote to Impose Stricter Sharia
Law.” Voice of America, 15 September 2009, http://www1.
voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-09-15-voa9-68709782.
html. (accessed 23 February 2010).
8. Jan Fontein and Marijke Klokke, Narrative Sculpture and
Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia—Studies in
Asian Art and Archaeology, (Boston: Koln Brill, 2000).
9. Tim Winter, Peggy Teo, and T.C. Chang, Asia on Tour:
Exploring the rise in Asian Tourism. (Routledge,
New York: 2009).
10. “Hindu and Buddhist Clergy Convene In Cambodia,” Hindu
Press International, 15 February 2009, http://www.hindu-
ismtoday.com/modules/xpress/2009/02/15/.
11. http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/topics/religion-and-
global-development?record_type=organizations.
12. With support from the Henry R. Luce Foundation, the Social
Science Research Council is engaged in a research project that
focuses specifically on religious roles in conflict, peacebuild-
ing, and development.
13. Katherine Marshall. “Interfaith Health-Care Reform,”
Georgetown/On Faith Washington Post Blog. 16 August 2009,
http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/georgetown/
009/08/faith_in_health_1.html (accessed 21 April 2010).
14. “Regional Review Buddhist Leadership Initiative,” UNICEF
EAPRO, July 2009, http://www.unicef.org/eapro/AW_
BLI_2Sep09.pdf. (accessed 26 March 2010).
15. “UN Says Human Trafficking Appears To Be Worsening.”
2010
Radio Free Europe, 13 February 2009, http://www.rferl.org/
content/UN_Says_Human_Trafficking_Appears_To_Be_
Worsening_/1492561.html (accessed 13 April 2010).
|
16. United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking
(UNIAP), http://www.no-trafficking.org/cambodia.html.
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
17. Allen Hertzke, “The Globalization of Religious Advocacy in
America,” E International Relations, 28 February 2010, http://
www.e-ir.info/?p=3318. (accessed 21 February, 2010).
18. Allen Hertzke, Freeing God’s Children: The Unlikely Alliance
for Global Human Rights. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,
USA, 2004), 2.
19. Samantha Power, “The Enforcer, A Christian lawyer’s global
crusade.” The New Yorker, 19 January 2009.
20. James Piscatori and Susanne Hoeber Piscatori, Transnational
Religion and Fading States. (Westwood Press, 1997).
21. Ibid.
22. “International Religious Freedom Report 2009—Indonesia,”
United States Department of State Bureau of Democracy,
Human Rights, and Labor, 26 October, 2009, http://www.
state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127271.htm. (accessed 18 March
2010).
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Hannah Beech, “Indonesia’s Aceh Passes Stoning Bill,”
Time Magazine, 15 September 2009, http://www.time.com/
time/world/article/0,8599,1923211,00.html (accessed
18 March 2010).
77
 27. Human Development Report 2009: Indonesia. United Nations
Development Programme, http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/
countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_IDN.html (accessed 15
April 2010).
28. “Overview—Basic Education For All,” UNICEF Indonesia
Webpage, http://www.unicef.org/indonesia/education.html
(accessed 15 April 2010).
29. “The World Bank and Education in Indonesia,” The World
Bank Country Page: Indonesia, http://web.worldbank.org/
WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/
EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentM
DK:21521167~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSit
ePK:226309,00.html (accessed 15 April 2010).
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
30. “Interfaith Dialogue: Program Description,” USAID:
Indonesia Webpage, http://indonesia.usaid.gov/en/cross_cut-
ting/inter_faith_dialogue/ (accessed 15 April 2010).
31. “Issue Brief: The Role of Religious Leaders and Communities
in Development Efforts in Asia and the Middle East,” United
States Agency for International Development, http://www.
usaid.gov/locations/asia/documents/Religion_AME_brief.pdf
(accessed 15 April 2010).
32. “Family and Community Health,” World Health
Organization—Indonesia Webpage. http://www.who.or.id/eng/
ourworks.asp?id=ow3 (accessed 15 April 2010).
33. “Interfaith Dialogue: Program Description,” USAID:
Indonesia Webpage. Web. http://indonesia.usaid.gov/en/
cross_cutting/inter_faith_dialogue/ (accessed 15 April 2010).
|
34. Jennifer Epley, “Development Issues and the Role of Religious
BERKLEY CENTER
Organizations in Indonesia,” Studies on Asia, Series II, vol. 1
no. 1 (Fall 2004), http://www.isp.msu.edu/studiesonasia/
s3_v1_n1/3_1_1Epley.pdf (accessed 29 March 2010).
35. Christopher Candland and Nurjanah Siti, “Women’s
Empowerment through Islamic Organisations: The Role of the
Indonesia’s Nahdlatul Ulama in Transforming the Government’s
Birth Control Programme into a Family Welfare Programme,”
February 2004, http://www.wellesley.edu/Polisci/Candland/
KBIndonesia.pdf.
36. “Listening to Muslim Communities—MCC Partners with
Muslim Communities Worldwide to Reduce Poverty,
Promote Economic Growth,” Millennium Challenge
Corporation Fact Sheet, 14 October 2009, http://www.mcc.
gov/mcc/bm.doc/factsheet-101409-listening-to-muslim-
communities.pdf (accessed 29 March 2010).
37. Modernist typically refers to those following Islamic practice
as it adhered to in the Arab world; traditionalists is a term
applied to those who tend to practice Islam as it traditionally
has been adhered to in Indonesia. The distinction, however, is
often difficult to discern, with some citing a tendency towards
convergence.
38. Nahdlatul Ulama website, http://www.nu.or.id/page.
php?lang=en.
39. From Workshop on Global Development and Institutions
Inspired by Faith. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. December
14–15, 2009.
78
40. https://www.csidonline.org/documents/pdf/6th_Annual_
Conference-RobinBush.pdf .
41. From Workshop on Global Development and Institutions
Inspired by Faith. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. December
14–15, 2009.
42. Chris Donnges, “Philippines Infrastructure for Rural
Productivity: Enhancement Tools for Identifying Rural
Infrastructure Investment Priorities,” Bangkok: International
Labor Office, 2006, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/
asro/bangkok/library/download/pub06-07.pdf (accessed 14
April 2010).
43. Karin Schelzig, Poverty in the Philippines: Income, Assets, and
Access, Asian Development Bank (Manila: 2005), http://www.
adb.org/Documents/Books/Poverty-in-the-Philippines/
Poverty-in-the-Philippines.pdf (accessed 14 April 2010).
44. Ibid.
45. “World Population Prospects,” Department of Economic and
Social Affairs Population Division, United Nations (New
York: 2009) Table A.1, http://www.un.org/esa/population/
publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf (accessed 14
April 2010).
46. Ronald E. Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study. GPO for
the Library of Congress, Washington, 1991, http://coun-
trystudies.us/philippines/34.htm (accessed 14 April, 2010).
47. Iglesia ni Cristo (INC) was founded in 1914, and maintains
significant political influence because of its growing member-
ship and resources. Its membership has since spread to
overseas Filipinos in over 60 countries in North America,
Asia, Europe, Australia, Oceania, and Africa. The church has a
membership of 2.3 percent of the population.
48. “Overview of NGOs and Civil Society: Philippines,” Civil
Society Briefs, Asian Development Bank, December 2007,
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Civil-Society-Briefs/
PHI/CSB-PHI.pdf (accessed 30 March 2010).
49. Cameron Lowry, “Civil Society Engagement in Asia: Six
Country Profiles,” East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii—Asia
Pacific Governance and Democracy Initiative, 14–16 July,
2008. http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/resources/
research/PDFs/Combined_country_reviews.pdf (accessed 30
March 2010).
50. For more information on the activities of the Socio-Pastoral
Insitute and Ummah Fi Salam, see in-depth interviews with
both organizations’ leaders in the WFDD/Berkley Center
interview series on faith and development. Socio-Pastoral—
http://repository.berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/Cambodia_
Consultation_Interview_Compilation.pdf (pg. 57), Ummah
Fi Salam—http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/
interviews/a-discussion-with-maguid-maruhom-executive-
director-ummah-fi-salam.
51. David Chandler, A History of Cambodia, Silkworm Books
(Chang Mai, Thailand: 2008), 17.
52. Ibid., 5.
53. Ibid., 15.
54. Ibid., 171.
55. Interview with Mr. Hamza. Conducted by Augustina Delaney
and Michael Scharff. 12 November 2009.
56. The Buddhist Leadership Initiative (BLI) is a regional strategy
for Buddhist involvement in the response to HIV and AIDS in
the Mekong Sub-region. Initiated by UNICEF’s East Asia and
the Pacific Regional Office (EAPRO) and Country Offices, the
BLI was introduced in five countries (Cambodia, China, Lao
PDR, Myanmar and Viet Nam) of the Greater Mekong
Sub-region between 1998 and 2004. The primary objective of
the BLI is to mobilize Buddhist monks and nuns to lead
through 1) Increasing access to care and support for adults and
children living with HIV and AIDS and children affected by
AIDS; 2) Increasing community acceptance of adults and
children living with HIV and AIDS; and 3) Building HIV
resilience in communities, particularly among youth. From
http://www.unicef.org/eapro/AW_BLI_2Sep09.pdf.
57. Bjorn Blengsli, “Muslim Metamorphosis: Islamic Education
and Politics in Contemporary Cambodia,” in Making Modern
Muslims: The Politics of Islamic Education in Southeast Asia, ed.
Robert Hefner (Hawaii University Press: 2009), 174–175.
58. Bjorn Blengsli, 176.
59. Interview with Elder Nelson and Elder Whitesides,
Conducted by Katherine Marshall, Michael Scharff and
Augustina Delaney, 20 August 2009.
60. CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/
the-world-factbook/geos/th.html.
61. Hector Sim, “Thailand Economy: Thailand GDP and Thai
Tourism Plummeting Thanks to Political Violence,” Economy
Watch, 16 April 2009. http://www.economywatch.com/
economy-business-and-finance-news/Thailand_Economy_
Thailand_GDP_and_Thai_Tourism_Plummeting_Thanks_
to_Political_Violence.html (accessed 23 October 2009).
62. “Thai unemployment to jump in 2009 -planning agency,”
Reuters India. 8 December 2009. http://in.reuters.com/article/
specialEvents4/idINBKK4598920081208 (accessed 23
October 2009).
63. Jesuit Refugee Service Thailand, http://www.wiserearth.org/
organization/view/d7701b2cbfd8d7815e07b7a78307b284
(accessed 16 November 2009).
64. Paul M Handley, The King Never Smiles: A Biography of
Thailand’s Bhumibol Adulyadej, (Yale University Press, 28 July,
2006), 76.
65. “International Religious Freedom Report 2009- Thailand,”
U.S Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human
Rights, and Labor, 26 October 2009, http://www.state.gov/g/
drl/rls/irf/2009/127289.htm (accessed 27 October, 2009).
66. Ibid.
67. Susan M Darlington, “The Ordination of a Tree: The
Buddhist Ecology Movement in Thailand,” University of
Pittsburgh Of the Commonwealth System of Higher
Education. Ethnology, vol. 37, no. 1. (Winter 1998): 1–15.
68. “Meeting Diary,” 291st Meeting of the Informal Northern Thai
Group, Tuesday, 14 August, 2007, http://www.intgcm.
thehostserver.com/diary2007_291st.html.
69. “Strategy Monitoring and Evaluation Framework, Buddhist
Leadership Initiative,” UNICEF EAPRO, January 2003, 11.
70. “Report on the Involvement of Faith-Based Organizations in
the Global Fund. The Global Fund to fight AIDS,
Tuberculosis, and Malaria,” http://www.theglobalfund.org/
documents/publications/other/FBOReport/GlobalFund_
FBO_Report_en.pdf.
71. “International Religious Freedom Report 2009- Thailand,”
U.S Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human
Rights, and Labor, 26 October 2009, http://www.state.gov/g/
drl/rls/irf/2009/127289.htm (accessed 2 December, 2009).
72. The ECVN was formed in 1927 and recognized in 1963,
while the larger SECV was recognized in 2001. However,
today these two still account for less than half of Protestant
congregations in Vietnam.
73. “Foreign Religious Organizations in Vietnam: Law and
Practice,” a Fund for Reconciliation & Development
Background Paper, September 2004.
74. Saw Yan Naing, “Suu Kyi’s Release?,” The Irrawaddy, 10
November 2009. http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_
id=17187 (accessed 10 November 2009).
75. Hannah Beech, “A Closer Look at Burma’s Ethnic
Minorities,” Time Magazine, 30 January 2009.
2010
76. CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/
the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html# (accessed 10 November,
2009).
77. Interview with Dr. David Steinberg, Conducted by Michael
|
Bodakowski, 6 November, 2009.
BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS
78. Ibid.
79. For detailed description of methodology and data, see Grim,
Brian J. and Finke, Roger. International Religion Indexes:
Government Regulation, Government Favoritism, and Social
Regulation of Religion in Interdisciplinary Journal of Research
on Religion. Volume 2. Article 1. 2006. http://www.
religjournal.com/pdf/ijrr02001.pdf.
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid.
82. “Built to Order: Myanmar’s New Capital Isolates and
Insulates Junta,” New York Times, 24 June 2008, http://www.
nytimes.com/2008/06/24/world/asia/24myanmar-sub.html
(accessed 14 November 2009).
83. For more information on the Cyclone Nargis Response, the
full Post-Nargis Recovery and Preparedness Plan can be found
at http://www.aseansec.org/CN-PONREPP.pdf.
84. Japan International Cooperation Agency, http://www.jica.
go.jp/english/countries/asia/.
85. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, was
established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, with the
signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by
the initial member countries, namely Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam
joined on 8 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Lao
PDR and Burma (Myanmar) on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia
79
 on 30 April 1999. The organization collaborates on
economic, political, and cultural issues across the region.
From http://www.aseansec.org/about_ASEAN.html. Accessed
9 March 2010.
86. “Asia in the Coming Years,” Event of the Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace with Ichiro Fujisaki—
Japanese Ambassador to the US, Wednesday, 17 December
2008, http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Event__
Transcript_%20Ambassador_%20Ichiro_%20Fujisaka.pdf
(accessed 18 November 2009).
87. “Japan: Reasserting Influence in the Mekong River Region,”
Stratfor Global Intelligence, http://www.stratfor.com/
analysis/20091106_japan_reasserting_influence_mekong_
G E O R G E TOW N U N I V E R S I T Y
river_region (accessed 18 November 2009).
88. Ranjana Mukhopadhyaya, “Transnational Networks of
Dharma and Development: Engaged Buddhism in the Era of
Globalization,” http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/crs/cshb/conference/
note/march09/Paper_Ranjana%20Mukhopadhyaya.pdf
(accessed 18 November 2009).
89. “Shinto at a Glance,” BBC Religions,”http://www.bbc.co.uk/
religion/religions/shinto/ataglance/glance.shtml (accessed 9
March 2010).
90. Interview with Gene Reeves, Consultant to Rissho Kosei-kai
and the Niwano Peace Foundation, Conducted by Katherine
Marshall, 25 November 2009.
91. K.W. Simon, “NGO Regulations in East and Southeast Asia:
A Comparative Perspective,” Thailand Law Forum, 2006,
|
http://members.tripod.com/asialaw/articles/ngo.html
BERKLEY CENTER
(accessed 2 November 2009).
92. Jonathan S. Watts, “A Brief Overview of Buddhist NGOs in
Japan,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 31/2, Nanzaon
Institute for Religion and Culture (2004): 417–428.
93. Interview with David Steinberg, Conducted by Michael
Bodakowski, 6 November 2009.
94. Ibid.
95. “World Vision Influences Korea Government on Child
Protection,” 4 September 2009, https://www.worldvision.
or.kr/eng/01about/news_view.asp?b_seq=8365&b_
category=eng_news (accessed 27 April 2010).
96. A comprehensive list of NGOs operating in Korea, including
many faith-inspired organizations can be found at: http://
www.devdir.org/files/South_Korea.PDF.
97. “US Department of State International Religious Freedom
Report 2009—Taiwan,” U.S Department of State. Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, http://www.state.
gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127269.htm (accessed 8 December,
2009).
98. “Building a “Harmonious Society” in China: Non-
Governmental and Faith-Based Organizations as Agents of
Social Change and Stability,” Center for Strategic and
International Studies in Cooperation with the Pew Forum on
Religious and Public Life, Conference on Monday, 26
September 2005.
80
99. Richard Madsen, Democracy’s Dharma: Religious Renaissance
and Political Development in Taiwan, University of California
Press, 2008.
100. Ibid, 136.
101. http://www.erenlai.com/media/downloads/Religious%20
Organizations.pdf.
102. “Religion in Taiwan,” in Taiwan Yearbook 2006, www.
Taiwan.com.au.
103. “US Department of State International Religious Freedom
Report 2009—Taiwan,” U.S Department of State. Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, http://www.state.
gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127269.htm (accessed 2 December,
2009).
104. “Chapter 21: Religion,” in The of China Yearbook 2009—
Taiwan, http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/
yearbook/ch21.html.
105. “Taiwan’s “Other” Miracle,” Taiwan Review, 1 January 2010,
http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=83031&CtNode
=1337&mp=1.
106. “Tzu Chi relief efforts in the Philippines and Indonesia,”
Relief Web, http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/
MYAI-7WS2UN?OpenDocument (accessed 30
November 2009).
107. “Malaysia Religion,” Global Security.org, http://www.
globalsecurity.org/military/world/malaysia/religion.htm
(accessed 19 April 2010).
108. Ibid.
109. Khadijah Khalid Md, “Malaysia’s Growing Economic
Relations with the Muslim World,” Kyoto Review of Southeast
Asia, Issue 5 (March 2004), http://kyotoreview.cseas.kyoto-u.
ac.jp/issue/issue4/index.html (accessed 19 April, 2010).
110. Nicola Piper and Uhlin Anders, eds. Transnational Activism in
Asia: Problems of Power and Democracy, (New York; London:
Routledge, 2004), 194.
111. The full conference report can be obtained at: http://www.
unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publica-
tions/2009/faith_based_org_forum.pdf.
112. According to the Pew Forum study: Global Restrictions on
Religion, Singapore ranks high in government restriction,
requiring all religious organizations to register with the
government under the Societies Act. http://pewforum.org/
docs/?DocID=492.
113. Lenore Lyons, “Transcending the Border: Transnational
Imperatives in Singapore’s Migrant Worker Rights
Movement,” Critical Asian Studies, vol 41, no 1,
(March 2009): 89–112.
114. Interview with Rob Kilpatrick of World Vision Australia by
Michael Bodakowski, 25 November 2009.
115. Figures from the Australian Council for Overseas
Development (ACFID) for 2009.
116. The Berkley Center reviews are available at the following
websites: Review on the United States—http://berkleycenter.
 georgetown.edu/events/symposium-on-faith-inspired-
organizations-and-global-development-policy-us-and-
international-perspectives. Review on Europe—http://
berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/publications/faith-inspired-
organizations-and-global-development-policy-a-background-
review-mapping-social-and-economic-development-work-in-
europe-and-africa.
117. “Bush brings faith to foreign aid as funding rises, Christian
groups deliver help — with a message—Part 1: Changing the
Rules—Exploring Faith.” in Boston Globe Special Report:
Exporting Faith, a four-Part Series, 8–11 October 2006, http://
www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/10/08/bush_
brings_faith_to_foreign_aid/ (accessed 21 April 2010).
118. “A New Era of Partnerships: Report of Recommendations to
the President,” President’s Advisory Council on Faith-Based
and Neighborhood Partnerships, March 2010. http://www.
whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ofbnp-council-
final-report.pdf (accessed 21 April 2010).
119. Ibid.
120. USAID 2009 Regional Budget—East Asia and the Pacific.
http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2009/101439.pdf

2010
(accessed 30 November 2009).
121. Faith Inspired Organizations and Global Development Policy: A
background review “Mapping” social and economic development

|
work in Europe and Africa, Berkley Center for Religion, Peace,
and World Affairs, (Georgetown University, 2009), 9.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

122. Jytte Klausen, “The Re-Politicization of Religion in Europe:
The Next Ten Years,” Perspectives on Politics, American
Political Science Association vol. 3, no. 3 (September 2005),
554–557.

81
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