FUEL CELL INVERTER

INTERFACE GROUP
SENIOR DESIGN
FALL 02-SPRING 03
DR. RICHIE

TEAM 16
BRIAN QUARTERMAN
DAVID NEWSOM
HECTOR VARGAS

SPONSORED BY DR. ISSA BATARSEH

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................2

Executive Summary............................................................................................4
Introduction .........................................................................................................6
Competition Vision and Goals ...........................................................................6
Significance .......................................................................................................7
Our Vision and Goals ........................................................................................7
Our Project ........................................................................................................7
Group’s Responsibilities Diagram .....................................................................8
Inverter Specifications .......................................................................................9
Project’s DSP ....................................................................................................12
Introduction .....................................................................................................12
DSP Background.............................................................................................12
Digital Signal Processing.................................................................................13
ADC & DAC.....................................................................................................13
DSP vs. Microprocessor..................................................................................14
DSP Language ................................................................................................15
DSP Fault Protections .....................................................................................17
DSP Filter ........................................................................................................17
DSP Communications with Project..................................................................20
Communication with Interface .........................................................................21
DSP Fault Protections .....................................................................................24
Interface Design ................................................................................................25
Introduction .....................................................................................................25
Interface Auxiliary Power Source ....................................................................29
Battery Safety..................................................................................................32
DC-DC Topology .............................................................................................33
DSP.................................................................................................................33
Voltage and Current Flow................................................................................36
Calculations.....................................................................................................36
Schematics of Design......................................................................................41
Components ....................................................................................................42
Layout Design .................................................................................................45
Serial Connection ............................................................................................47
Design Results ................................................................................................47
Inverter...............................................................................................................49
Introduction .....................................................................................................49
Half-Bridge Inverter Circuit ..............................................................................51
Previous Designs Using the Full-Bridge Inverter .............................................65
Project’s Inverter Design..................................................................................67
Introduction .....................................................................................................67
Simulation .......................................................................................................72

Page 2
 Simulation Results...........................................................................................72
Fuel Cell.............................................................................................................80
Introduction .....................................................................................................80
What is a Fuel Cell? ........................................................................................81
Basic Behavior and Components ....................................................................81
What Makes Fuel Cells Favorable...................................................................82
Their Performance...........................................................................................84
Key Variables affecting their performance.......................................................86
Materials and Design Approaches...................................................................87
Reactant Gas Composition and Utilization ......................................................88
Overview: ........................................................................................................88
Fuel Cell Summary..........................................................................................90
Design Issues / Troubleshooting Guide .........................................................92
Introduction .....................................................................................................92
Power Stage ................................................................................................92
Driver Ground: IXDD414..............................................................................93
Controller Power Supply: IR2110.................................................................93
Switching Conditions ...................................................................................94
Labeled Inductor Value................................................................................95
Summary & Conclusion ...................................................................................98
Administrative .................................................................................................100
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................100
Fall Semester ................................................................................................100
Spring Semester............................................................................................101
Budgeting and Parts Acquisition....................................................................103
References ......................................................................................................105
Appendix Table ...............................................................................................107

Page 3
 Executive Summary

The United States Department of Energy and United States Department of

Defense presented the International 2003 Future Energy Challenge competition.
The purpose of the competition is to create a DC-AC inverter system. The
following documentation describes the specifications and the hardware
developed.

The objective of this competition is to produce a cost-effective, manufacturable,

innovative DC-AC fuel cell inverter system to be used in homes and businesses
around the world. This, in turn, would reduce the electrical consumption from
traditional utilities and provide power to newly connected homes in developing
countries. An additional benefit to the use of fuel cells as a power source is that
they provide an ultra-clean power source, benefiting not only the user, but also
the environment of the world.

The goal of the competition is to produce an inverter system which produces

power at a targeted cost have less than $40 US/kW for a 10 kW system. The
power source is a fuel cell that is provided by the Department of Energy (DOE)
for the purposes of this competition, which is built by Fuel Cell Technologies.
This 5 kW solid-oxide fuel cell, supplemented with a 5 kW battery in order to
meet extended-duration demands for power in excess of 5 kW, as well as short-
term transient power loads. This yields the stated 10 kW rating. The emphasis
is placed on efficiency because this will affect the final cost and size of the
complete system.

The competitions creator’s vision is to encourage the development of domestic

energy sources by competing designs, which employ fuel cell technology. The
designs should aid in progress toward the advancement of this technology as
well as improving the engineering education for the students involved.

The University of Central Florida Engineering School, along with Issa Batarseh,
Associate Professor, gathered three teams of Senior Design students to handle
the three major portions of the system. These teams were assigned the areas of
DSP, inverter design, and inverter interface. The attached document outlines the
research and the design for all groups, majority being the inverter interface.

Research in the area of digital signal processing (DSP) is amazing. DSP has
been around since 1960’s but not many controllers have ever made more
improvement then any other controller. Now DSP controllers are being built to
have the same abilities as a microcontroller along with its current abilities. A
DSP controller have parallel communication capabilities for both transmitting and
receiving, along with its high level computations of algorithms makes its
usefulness in any high performance project possible. Controller unit inside the

Page 4
DSP give it the ability to transfer signals from analog to digital (ADC) or digital to
analog (DAC). This ability to do ADC and DAC make it possible to have two
different signals on a project and computation of each mathematical problem.
DSP has the ability to do certain filtering techniques, which has been done
through circuits before. This cuts back on building cost and the cutting back in
production size, not having to layout a circuit.

Research in the area of the inverter entails two types of inverter design, the half-
bridge and full-bridge inverter. Both inverters are employed to convert a DC
source voltage to an AC output voltage. The benefits of the half-bridge inverter
include simple topology, compact design, ease of control, and low cost.
However, the output voltage is limited due to these factors. The full-bride inverter
requires a slightly more involved topology and more elaborate control system.
The benefits of the full-bridge inverter lay in output control. A waveform is
produced which is closer to the desired AC waveform.

Research in the area of the interface yielded many options to steady the input
voltage to the inverter system. Options include the placement of an
ultracapacitor in line with the input voltage, a series of batteries placed in the
same manor, and an active filter and battery system as a precursor to the
inverter. The use of the ultracapacitor produces a severe oscillation after
transient loads, rendering it insufficient for this project. Placing batteries in line
with the inverter provides acceptable steadying of the input voltage in the short
term, but damage to the batteries occurs over time. The use of an active filter
and battery is much more complex than the other options explored, but it
provides the most desirable input voltage to the inverter, while protecting the
battery from damage in extensive use.

The final design proposal includes the use of digital signal processor controller, a
SPMW full-bridge link inverter in combination with a high frequency transformer
and cycloconverter, and an active filter and battery. In the current project
description, DSP is to be connected to the interface, being the other portion of
project was dropped along with the competition. The interface unit and DSP
controller has the ability to have fault protections and other routines. The active
filter and battery combination was chosen due to its ability to provide the required
steady input voltage to the inverter while protecting the battery over long periods
of time.

Keeping the efficiency ratio the same and cost down on our design is a priority
still after the competition was dropped because the lack of funding for testing
equipment and other related materials. The final design of the interface system
was tested in the Power Electronics Lab at the University of Central Florida and
is currently producing a power output of 100 watts.

Page 5
 Introduction

Competition Vision and Goals

The Department of Energy and all the other sponsors have a vision
associated with the success of the 2003 Future Energy Challenge. The vision is
to encourage the development of new technologies that will minimize the cost of
inverters to be used in domestic energy systems; also, to incorporate practicality
and affordability into the competition process; show technical progress towards
the goals pre-established by the competition; and to improve engineering
education and promote learning through innovative team-based engineering
solutions to complicated technical problems.

The same way the organizers and sponsors of the Future Energy
Challenge have a vision, they also have some goals they want met in order for
the competition to be considered a success. Their goals are for the teams
participating to build an inverter with the following characteristics: that have a
manufacturing cost of less than forty dollars per kilowatt per unit; that achieve
maximum efficiency; achieve minimal size and weight requirements; and will
minimize cooling requirements.

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Significance

The importance of the project lies on the need for clean, inexpensive, and
reliable energy source. If not for the need of this type of energy source in our
nation, then also to provide efficient, cost-effective electricity for homes in
developing nations. Providing electricity of this sort for under developed nations
implies involving low-cost local energy sources, and stresses how important it is
to have innovations that would allow small amounts of power to make great
impact on standards of living.

Fuel cell technology provides just what is needed in terms of clean and
reliable energy source. Although fuel cells provide clean and reliable energy, they
are not cost-efficient. It is an expensive technology, and for years researchers
and developers have tried to make the technology more cost-efficient. The idea
is that in the future, household electricity could be provided by means of fuel cell
technology. The teams would not have to provide the fuel cell itself, just the
system that would be responsible to change the energy that the fuel cell puts out
from DC voltage to AC voltage, the one capable of being handled in our homes.

Our Vision and Goals

Our goals and vision as a senior design project were kept in line with
certain aspects of the inverter design. Our group’s main goal was to carry over
certain specifications that the competition required, even though University of
Central Florida dropped out of the competition due to the unavailability of
equipment to test the circuits. This research been completed, will lead to future
development and encouragement in other challenges.

Our Project

The project set before us was to create three different groups: DSP,
Inverter, and Interface. The Interface group, our research area, was to find a
way of producing a steady state DC source from an unsteady DC steady system.

Page 7
Group’s Responsibilities Diagram

inverter
control

DSP Document
communication
Group Search and
with computer
priciple
by RS232
understanding

interface

Document Simulation
Theoretical
Search (Corporate
analysis and
Inverter Two with
proptype
Group I solutions simulation
building
comaprision group)

Paper reading Simulation

Theoretical
understanding (Corporation System
analysis and Packaging
Inverter of the with the integration
proptype
Group II operation simulation
building
principle group)

Document
Search and Mathematical Pspice
priciple Modeling realization
understanding

Simulation
Group Interface
simulation

Inverter

(Reprinted with permission from Songquan Deng)

Page 8
Inverter Specifications

The design concept should aim to have a 100 W residential power

generation system. Since there is a slow dynamic response from a fuel cell, there
is a 48-volt battery pack that will serve as supplemental energy source to supply
transient loads. There are other specifications that our Interface group kept in
accordance with the 2003 Future Energy Challenge, along with some changes
they made to meet the budget requirement.

Design items and their specifications as stated on the Future Energy Challenge
website:

1. Manufacturing cost: less than $40/ kW, which would be $4.00 for the
100-Watt design in mass production.

2. Complete package size, this includes (DSP, Inverter, and Interface

circuits): volume less than 88.5 L

3. Complete package weight: mass less than 30 kg, not taking the fuel cell
into account. (66 lbs.)

4. Output( nominal) power capability: 50-75 W continuous

Output (overload) power capability: 100 W overload for one minute
half from the cell, half from battery.

5. Output voltage from inverter: 120 volts-nominal or 240 volts for split-
phase.

6. Output frequency: Around 60 Hz.

7. Output voltage regulation quality: Output voltage tolerance no wider than

±6% over the allowed line voltage and temperature range.

8. Input source, the solid oxide fuel cell: 22-41 DC volts, 24 DC volts-
nominal, no more than 275 amps from the cell.

9. Maximum input current ripple: 3% rms of rated current.

10. Battery auxiliary power: 48 volts DC nominal +10%-20%, with nominal

rating of 1 work hour. Battery can be used as a provisional energy
source for control power. Charging and charge management must be
such that the overall charge is unchanged at the end of a 24 hour test
sequence.

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11. Overall energy efficiency: Should be higher than 90%, it should go up to
peak power and lowest power with hardly any efficiency degradation.

12. Protection: The inverter should be protected for: going over the current,
over the voltage, against short circuit, over the temperature, and under
voltage. There should not be any damage caused in case of output short
circuit either. If at any moment the input voltage goes below the
minimum, then the inverter should shut down.

13. Safety: There should not be live electrical elements exposed when the
unit is fully configured. The system is projected for safe, everyday use in
a home or small business by non-technical customers.

14. Grid and source interaction: There should be no grid and source
interaction. The inverter is proposed as a stand-alone unit for remote
power or backup power.

15. Communication interface: Control communication between fuel cell and

inverter through RS232—Digital signal processing group will be in
charge. Any software to indicate the inverter’s internal data should be
provided by the team.

16. Storage temperature range: −20 to 85 °C.

17. Operating ambient temperature range: 0 to 40 °C.

18. Cooling: Air cooled

19. Shipping environment: Can be shipped by air or freight truck.

20. Acoustic noise: Should not be any louder than a home refrigerator; less
than 50 decibels, measured 1.5 meters from the unit.

21. Lifetime of the unit: The unit should function for at least 16 years while
receiving routine maintenance and while operated at a preferred ambient
temperature range of 20-40 degrees Celsius.

22. Technical report: The report should include design, simulation,

experimental results, lifetime analysis, and cost study.

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There are also some design specifications associated with the communication to
the fuel cell controller through the RS 232 link. There are required signals.

The signals are as follows:

1. DC Fuel Cell Voltage

2. DC Fuel Cell Current
3. DC Battery Voltage
4. DC Battery Current
5. DC link voltage
6. AC voltage
7. AC current
8. KVA output total from inverter
9. kW real output power from inverter
10. Run
11. Inverter fault, or can also be PCU fault
12. Slew rate- in order to control the fast step load changes, energy is first
drawn from the batteries. An adjustable slew rate will be transmitted
from the Fuel Cell controls to the inverter. This rate will calculate the
rate at which the inverter transmits the load from the batteries back to
the Fuel Cell (Amps / Sec). The slew rate is needed because the Fuel
Cell needs a period of time to adjust both the Fuel and Air Flow rates
as the Fuel Cell output current increases. The rate of change of Fuel
Cell Output Current < slew rate.

System Diagnostic on LEDs should read: Run or Fault. The operators should be
AC line breaker and DC fuse links. There should be some discrete “time to live”
control signals going to the controller from the cell. Those control signals are:

1. Enable Inverter: this tells the Aux bus to send the power to output.
2. Enable Grid Connect Mode
3. Enable Stand Alone Mode
4. Enable Battery Charging
5. Enable Battery Equalize Charging

Software protocol should be vendor specific for the prototype.

Page 11
 Project’s DSP

Introduction

To understand Digital Signal Processing, which is just a technique that

was produced to transmit and receive a digital signal. DSP stands for Digital
Signal Processing, in that it improves the precision and consistency of the digital
interaction processing. Any DSP circuit is technologically constructed to perform
a processing to make a distinction between different noises. Not in a noise that
we would hear, as in someone yelling but a signal (figure 3.20).

All noises, analog or

digital, can come from many
different external things, such
as appliances. Every
appliance, especially things that
run thru wireless features have
some sort of noise. Noises can
also be caused by a lighting
storm, which can affect
communications. When using
wireless communications to
process information, a noise Figure 3.20 Diagram of Noise in lines
can cause information lost.
Engineers and other digital communication have been working on the issue to
resolve this problem. One solution that has been released is to minimize the
signal bandwidth. The less bandwidth a signal can utilize for communications,
the more reliable processing of information can be produced. The other problem
is dealing with the downfall of using a smaller bandwidth. This downfall is the
speed of transmitting the information across the line. Other lines, such as fiber
optics technology, are far less subject to signal noises.

DSP Background

When computer first came about back in the 1960’s, DSP was used in
mostly sonar and other governmental agencies. The knowledge and
understanding didn’t come about later when the boom of personal computers
happened in the late 1970’s. New applications of DSP boosted to high levels
and the new technological revolution begun. In the 1980’s, DSP was mainly
taught as a graduate level course, but over time the course has now become a
curriculum in the undergraduate level. If you have knowledge, research or other,

Page 12
of DSP as an engineer or scientist, you career can be promoted. Now in a lot of
high technical companies having this knowledge is almost required.

The author, Steven W. Smith states that typical issues you will find in
learning DSP are the challenging equations, obscure mathematical symbols and
unfamiliar terminology. This is all of one big nightmare. In our group’s
independent research, we wanted to learn the basic of DSP, which Smith’s book
on the “Guide to Digital Signal Processing” gave us an outline for.

Digital Signal Processing

Digital signal processing has a wide verity of applications its good for.
Some include its ability for numerical analysis, decision theory, probability and
statistics. Not only does DSP have the capability to overcome all the above
features, but also analog and digital processing has a major effect of its greater
abilities.

Normal methods try to produce a low level of noise for information

transmitted and received can be processed in the more accurate manner.
Solution to the noise level in a line is digital signal processing. Digital is more
effective then analog because the well defined signals, instead of using a
waveform. A method to lower the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio) was done by
increasing the signal power and receiving signal. The only issue, with every up,
there is a downfall. The downfall on DSP is the signals that are not strong
enough to override that of the noise, the noise takes over. A noise does not
attack, but if the DSP can’t find some sort of stability in the information being
received, then no signal is received. This is not good, because the information
being transmitted may be important, but at least the signals coming across
should be acceptable.

ADC & DAC

Received signals can be in different formats. To have the ability to

convert these formats upon receiving them is greatly considered necessary for
communications. Many different components have different way of
communicating with other components, so DSP helps control this process. Two
formats the DSP has standards for is analog to digital (ADC) and digital to analog
converters (DAC).

Before discussing the conversion process of ADC and DAC, lets talk
about what a signal is for DSP. An analog signal is gathered by a measure of a
voltage across time, which is known as a continuous signal. This is then put
through an ADC which changes the unit of data, giving it a new form, which is

Page 13
discussed later, but described at discrete signal or digitized signal. To
understand more clearly, digitized signal are related to computer communications
while continuous signal relates to nature or man.

Analog to digital is a conversion process that is taking an analog signal

and changing it to a digital format without changing any content. Analog signals
are an unbounded number of values that can be represented in many different
waveforms. An example waveform is the sine wave. The conversion process to
an analog-to-digital is done by internal computations. This is then converted to
an output power, which is in powers of two. Example of powers of two is two,
four, eight, and so on. The easiest digital processing is binary, which consist of
ones and zeros. These two states are states ON or OFF.

Digital to analog state is conversion process in the reverse direction then

ADC. DAC is usually in the format of two states, or some set process. An
example of a DAC is a modem in a computer. A computer creates a digital
signal, which is converted into an analog signal so a transmission over a twisted
pair is possible. A twisted pair referred to here is a lines used in telephone
communications. That is why the world can dial into a computer around the
world, because twisted pair lines are almost everywhere.

To a human, digital communication is not something is easily read. Being

it consists of ones and zeros, and a long transmission may have loads of data
coming across, DAC coverts this information with no readability issues. These
ones and zeros can make up anytime from voice, pictures, to a music file. This is
quite amazing, in that no communications such as my words can be places over
a one or zero, just like an on or off switch.

The DSP has the ability to not convert data if needed. If the data or signal
is already in digital format then the DSP acts independently, not needing the
analog to digital or digital to analog converter. By not using the ADC or DAC,
lower noise level is produced, therefore minimizing number of signal errors.

DSP vs. Microprocessor

To give a brief overview of the difference in a microprocessor and a DSP

controller is the design in performance. DSP can use numerous amounts of
numerical values to process rigorous & repetitive tasks. On the other hand,
microprocessors and most other processors are not developed to transmit these
types of task but more designed for control-oriented applications.

Page 14
Applications that show the performance of a DSP are presented by its:

• ability for high-performance, usually having two or more multipliers.

• focus on addressing modes, which help assist the modifications of points
and other bit modifications.
• ability to address memory more then once in one instruction cycle.
• control over execution statements, this includes ability for loop control, not
needing to recall each time. Includes updating the current counter.
• to have irregular instruction sets. This includes the ability to do parallel
computations along with data locations modifications.

The hardest part is not finding a processor but find a processor that will be
best suited for the needs of completing a task for the project. If your need the
ability of both a microprocessor and DSP, some newer microprocessors, such as
GPP/ MCU now carry DSP features.

DSP Language

Programming in digital signal processing language is been increasing

easier. When programming for DSP first came about, it was done in some sort of
assembly language. This was more difficult then today, were it may take one line
of today’s programming language to complete a task of five to ten command lines
in assembly. Other language used, besides assembly is C and BASIC. BASIC
programming being the most widely used language, for those programmers that
hardly write in any language.

The language is not the key topic on choice but precision. If precision is
needed, certain languages cut or do weird round off computations. Other key
issues are the bit formations and processing speeds of any type of computation.
An example of a computation may be adding two digits together. The addition of
1 and 0.00000001 would come out to be 1, when really we would like for the
answer to show 1.00000001. Therefore, before doing any computations on a
computer, make sure an understanding of how digits are manipulated before
doing meaningless amount of programming. This will save both time and money.

When programming in DSP, it can be divided into levels of sophistications.

To give an outline of the three, which are Assembly, Compiled and Application
Specific, see table (table 3.20) below.

Page 15
 General Size in Other
Registers bits Registers
Assembly AX, BX, CX, DX 16 SI, DI, SP, Direct
Ex. AX 1234 BP, CS, DS, communication
SS, ES, IP with hardware
Compiled Variables, such 32 Any variable, Easier
as A=1234 which can be transportation,
in alpha easier to
numerical understand
point with internal
knowledge
Application Just like 32 Any amount, Built in
Specific Compiled, but usually done features.
supplied in C, for high Package of
application with level routines/
routines/ languages algorithms for
algorithms processing.

Table 3.20 Levels of Sophistications

Using an application specific programming language doesn’t always

means its own independent language, but pre-defined routines and algorithms
may be supplied. Other tools, I/O support, or debugging applications to help you
overcome your objectives. Using an application for the manufacturer can also
include more intensive packages for testing the spectral analysis,
instrumentations, and the digital filter simulations.

Issue with using a compiler or application specific platform is the

programmer who built each of these. If you think about it, each routine that was
built was discovered in a process of having a problem in the first place. So this
means, do you think every problem has been discovered and the problem that
you face now is something discovered. If it is discovered, do you think the
programmer did it correctly? Wow, a lot to think about, therefore; using assembly
language may be the correct path for languages. Just remember the basic, that
each high level programming language has drawbacks on the memory usage,
speed, and numerical precision.

Page 16
DSP Fault Protections

The digital signal-processing group can supply a setup of fault protections so

nothing harmful is done to the interface and load in case of a malfunction. Such
fault protections as listed in block diagram (figure 3.21), show a fuel cell tripping.

Receive Fuel Disable Fuel Switch

Cell Trip Cell and external
Signal switch to notification to
backup power red

Wait for Run shut Wait for time to

battery to fall down of elapse, shut
at low power inverter and down DSP
point load Controller

Figure 3.21 Block Diagram of F.C. Fault Trip Routine

This beginning routine shows that a fuel cell, for some reason, has a fault
and trip the circuit. This sends a signal to the DSP controller for shut down of the
fuel cell. To run this, the power is switch over to the battery backup power so the
inverter can continue to try and supply power. If the battery falls below a preset
level, then the controllers goes into shut down mode, first stopping the power
consumption. After the inverter has been stopped, the controller leaves on fuel
cell fault warning light on and shuts down the controller. Other fault protections
would include an inverter fault and voltage fault routines. Many other types of
protection may be set forth to help protect the fuel cell and any external fault
issues.

DSP Filter

Most digital signal processing has some sort of filtering processing. This
is used for two main reasoning, one being the separation of signals that have
been combined. The second is the restoration of a signal that is been distorted.
Filters can come in both analog and or digital, but the digital filtration of signals is
far superior then an analog signal.

Page 17
 When you go to restore something, weather it is a house, car or some
signal, its something we use as a process to make some idea work again. An
example of restoration may be an audio file, running thru a restoration process
should clean up the quality to play actual recording.

Start Finish
Analog DSP D to A Analog
A to D
Filter Controller Converter Filter

Figure 3.21a Block diagram of a DSP system

The block
diagram in figure
3.21a shows the
filtration process of
a b a DSP system.
This particular
system is for
Figure 3.21b Waveform (a) before analog filter processing and (b) after
analog, which is
filtration processing. stated to be the
more unreliable
filter, but still gets
the job done. If you
see the block diagram, it shows the starting point to have an analog filter, which
tries to get rid of most noise issues. After the filtering process, an analog to
digital conversion is completed, which has been described above. The rest of
the process you can read above, but even in conversions, noise can be added
into signal, therefore; another analog filter is on the output side. The start
process is known as the anti-alias filter while the output or finish is known as the
reconstruction filter. Review the half simulated graphs in figure 3.21b, which
show the input and output of the DSP block system. This graph show the
readability of the waveform has smoothened out, looking like a functioning
waveform with no noise.

Page 18
 Figure 3.22a Reprinted per non-commercial permission use by Steven Smith

Filters can be a greatly help the by adding in killing out a lot of unwanted
noise. Shown in figure 3.22a, we describe a filter known as Window-Sinc. This
type of filtration is use to separating multiplexed signals or noise reductions.
Cost of each component and time to build PCB boards may take a little more
then doing a program. You ask, how is it possible for a circuit, such as figure
3.22a to be a program? By converting it to a digitized signal, the simple circuit
above has just been obsolete. Below is a simple program that does the same
thing as circuit shown in figure 3.22a. This program has been configured to
appraise a simple signal of 10 kHz.

100 'LOW-PASS WINDOWED-SINC FILTER

110 'This program filters 5000 samples with a 101 point windowed-sinc
120 'filter, resulting in 4900 samples of filtered data.
130 '
140 ' 'INITIALIZE AND DEFINE THE ARRAYS USED
150 DIM X[4999] 'X[ ] holds the input signal
160 DIM Y[4999] 'Y[ ] holds the output signal
170 DIM H[100] 'H[ ] holds the filter kernel
180 '
190 PI = 3.14159265
200 FC = 0.1 'The cutoff frequency (0.1 of the sampling rate)
210 M% = 100 'The filter kernel length
220 '
230 GOSUB XXXX 'Subroutine to load X[ ] with the input signal
240 '
250 ' 'CALCULATE THE FILTER KERNEL
260 FOR I% = 0 TO 100
270 IF (I%-M%/2) = 0 THEN H[I%] = 2*PI*FC
280 IF (I%-M%/2) <> 0 THEN H[I%] = SIN(2*PI*FC * (I%-M%/2)) / (I%-M%/2)
290 H[I%] = H[I%] * (0.54 - 0.46*COS(2*PI*I%/M%) )
300 NEXT I%
310 '
320 'FILTER THE SIGNAL BY CONVOLUTION
330 FOR J% = 100 TO 4999
340 Y[J%] = 0
350 FOR I% = 0 TO 100

Page 19
360 Y[J%] = Y[J%] + X[J%-I%] * H[I%]
370 NEXT I%
380 NEXT J%
390 '
400 END

Reprinted per non-commercial permission use by Steven Smith

So if a simple program like the above can do the same thing as the circuit
in figure 3.22a, why would we use a circuit? Cutting back on cost and having
higher efficiency is a major portion to the competition rules. This same program
can be view in appendix C – table 16-1 which shows a different efficiency setting.
Other routines are supplied for use in appendix C as well.

DSP Communications with Project

In the Future Energy Challenge for 2003, requirement stated earlier in this
report show the basic outline on communications for DSP. Just by reviewing the
requirements, you can guess some of the minor functions of the DSP.

In the process of starting the review of different components, the DSP and
Interface group, along with graduate students produced a basic setup. The block
figure shown (figure 3.23) below gives a general overview on a small amount of
communications needed.

D riv in g
S o lid C irc u it
O x id e In v e rte r
F u e l C e ll
S a m p lin g

In te rfa c e
&
B a tte ry

D riv in g
S a m p lin g
C irc u it

O u tp u t S a m p lin g
( V o lta g e & C u rre n t)
DSP
H 2 flo w ra te c o n tro l
C o n tro lle r
F u e l c e ll p o w e r D riv e S ig n a l
a v a ila b e l s ig n a l

Figure 3.23 Block diagram of DSP general controller setup

Reprinted with permission from Songquan Deng

Page 20
 The interface design team dealt with the steady state portion, but to do so
they need something to control the analog signals. This is where the DSP
controller came into action. The switching control in the DC-DC must be timed
correctly and in accordance with the duty cycle. For further explanation on the
DC-DC process, see the interfaces layout and design.

Besides creating a communication on the DC-DC switching, a process on

the backup power system must be implemented. If you view figure 3.40, you will
see the interface and battery portion of the project. The signal driving from the
DSP controller to the interface must communicate the accuracy of when the fuel
cell being ready or not. DSP must do the following:

• Create a voltage average from the fuel cells power being supplied.
• Comparing sample of what the VI characteristics of what the fuel cell
should be. This is stated in the fuel cell portion of the report.
• Sample the output voltage coming from the interface compared to the
voltage requested.
• Be prepared to switch over the battery power source when fuel cell is in a
transient state or not able to meet the requirements of the load.

These are just some of the communications that the controller must process,
along with mathematical computations.

Communication with Interface

The DSP controller group created a protocol with the DSP unit, on the
functions they had ready to work. After discussion and group meetings, the
design teams decided to communicate with the interface circuit through a serial
port. Being there are many different controlling ideas and future ideas, this would
still give room for additions. Why do we need a communication port like a serial
port? The senior design academic advisor states the projects and teams need to
be separated but can incorporate for communication purposes to control and
send signals. This was good for the project described but for high level of
production of such a unit, putting the units together would lower the cost.

The interface current design conditions only used five of the lines. These
lines are described in the diagram. Each of the lines shown below show that
lines were producing or receiving what kind of signal.

Page 21
 Pin1-Signal for switch one Pin6-Low level test point
Pin3-Signal for switch two
Pin5-Ground Pin9-High level test point

Figure 3.24 – DSP Controller Unit

Using an RS-232 cable, the Fuel Cell Energy Computation suggested all
of the following ideal communications. All of the communications were reviewed
but only some were added to the current design, as stated above. We included
this for the idea of future enhancements and design productions.

• DC Fuel Cell Voltage • AC Voltage

• DC Fuel Cell Current • AC Current
• DC Battery Voltage • KVA Output Total from Inverter
• DC Battery Current • KW Output Real Power from
• DC Link Voltage Inverter
• Run
• Inverter Faults

Other diagnostics might include things with the LED’s on the DSP controller unit.
As shown, two LED’s were placed in the bottom right of the figure 3.24.

Page 22
To get a bigger picture of the communications between the DSP controller unit
and interface unit, see the diagram (figure3.24). shows how the TMS320C240

Figure 3.24a – DSP & Interface Communication Setup

evaluation board is hooked up to the interface unit. This only is a brief overview,
because as reviewed in the interface design, the DSP doesn’t send signals
directly to the mosfet switches, but first going through a drive (IXDD414).

Page 23
DSP Fault Protections

The digital signal-processing group can supply a setup of fault protections so

nothing harmful is done to the interface and load in case of a malfunction. Such
fault protections as listed in block diagram (figure 3.25), show a fuel cell tripping.

Receive Fuel Disable Fuel Switch

Cell Trip Cell and external
Signal switch to notification to
backup power red

Wait for Run shut Wait for time to

battery to fall down of elapse, shut
at low power inverter and down DSP
point load Controller

Figure 3.25 Block Diagram of F.C. Fault Trip Routine

This beginning routine shows that a fuel cell, for some reason, has a fault
and trip the circuit. This sends a signal to the DSP controller for shut down of the
fuel cell. To run this, the power is switch over to the battery backup power so the
inverter can continue to try and supply power. If the battery falls below a preset
level, then the controllers goes into shut down mode, first stopping the power
consumption. After the inverter has been stopped, the controller leaves on fuel
cell fault warning light on and shuts down the controller. Other fault protections
would include an inverter fault and voltage fault routines. Many other types of
protection may be set forth to help protect the fuel cell and any external fault
issues.

Page 24
 Interface Design
Introduction

Interface of the fuel cell inverter project was separated from the inverter
group because no University of Central Florida topology has been created or
published, to our knowledge, in the past. We have learned great background
details in all the sections of our overall project and did majority of the research
through old Future Energy Challenge reports from 2001.

The Interface group is to stabilize the power being consumed from the
inverter or load (Fig.3.40). Our group has decided to use a topology that uses a
battery for its auxiliary power source. The main power source being consumed is
from the fuel cell, when a steady state has been established. Fuel cells are still
unreliable to hold a steady current flow, which is why establishing an auxiliary
power source is needed.

Fuel +
Cell - Inverter
24v

Filter

+ -

Figure 3.40 General Outlined View of the Interface Module

This auxiliary power source is to steady the voltage and current, when the slow
dynamics of the fuel cell are unable to. A solution that was presented, even after
researching different DC-DC converters, was the buck-boost converter.

For the interface module, an understanding of the characteristics of the

fuel cell had to be learned, which was the portion of the power being supplied to
the interface. The main characteristics of the fuel cell are described in the fuel
cell research portion of this report. To give a general overview of the fuel cell, it
produces power of a non-steady state voltage, approximately 25 volts nominal.
This power supplied must be controlled to make our steady state voltage be
accomplished. The interface group was set to research different topologies to
control this voltage, protecting the fuel cell, inverter and the load. Reverse
current into the fuel cell is not permitted and can cause damage if a current is
leaked back in a reverse direction. Other prevented protection is the interface

Page 25
module. Having stability from the fuel cell is unlikely, therefore; an interface
uninterruptible power supply module must help maintain power stability. This
protects the overall inverter and its load.

Protection that the interface has control over is its ability to have an
uninterruptible supply of power. This isn’t for the fear of power loss by the fuel
cell, but more for the unsteady state of power supplied. Fault protection, such as
power loss by fuel cell is discussed in the DSP portion. The interface group has
started to set up time frames, which has seem to be the average in most past
fuel cell inverter projects. These frames give, as an idea, of how long protection
is needed to keep from losing full power. A brief outline of time frames for the
back up power source to work is giving in frames of seconds. Described below is
an outline of these frames, but digital signal processing group will have the final
say and control over how protection and times are done. Our suggest for these
time frames are listed as:

• Start up of fuel cell and Inverter, supplying for 90 seconds.

• Short term transient state, supply for 10 seconds.
• Long term steady state, supply for 60 seconds.

During the start up of a fuel cell, there is a time frame of about one minute where
the fuel cell must meet up to the power required. A current reference (Iref) from
the DSP controller unit (see figure 3.40a) would show this to compare against the
actual current (Iav) being supplied.

Iav

+ Iref

+
FUEL 24 Nominal Inverter
CELL
-

Controller
NOM
Unit
Charge/Discharge
Filter
-
Ibatt
+

+ -

Vref Figure 3.40a Controller Outline View of the Interface Module

Page 26
 Along with supplying uninterruptible power from some source, an interface
module must re-supply to that same source, recharging for future use. The
module must have fast response times, to make uninterruptible power possible.

Along with lines of uninterruptible power supplied, the interface controls a

non-steady state voltage by using a filter. This type of filtering started the review
of different DC-to-DC converters along with a filter. There are many different
types of converters that have been produced to meet specific needs.

The first converter discussed has the ability to obtain a lower output
voltage from an average input voltage. This type converter is known as a buck
converter (fig. 3.41a) or a step down converter. This would be necessary when
the source is supplying more power then needed. Next reviewed is a boost
converter (fig. 3.41b), which is known as a step up converter. This gives a higher
voltage supplied then the actual input.

D
L +
L +
+ +
Vin Vin -
- C Vo C Vo
D - -

Figure 3.41a Buck Converter w/ diode implementation Figure 3.41b Boost Converter w/ diode implementation

Our research showed how both topologies would be helpful to our design.
By explaining how a simple switching circuit works, we can show you how a
converter helps out the stability of our design.

If you take a switching circuit (fig. 3.41c) were it runs over a time period T
and the switch S is turning on and off, the voltage output would have some
stability as shown in figure 3.41d.

S
S
ON OFF ON
+
+
Vin R
- Vo
- Vin

Figure 3.41c Simple Switching Circuit Vo=DVin

Figure 3.41d Simple Switching Circuit Waveforms

Page 27
 If you combine both these topologies together, the basic outline gives a
buck-boost converter. An actual buck boost converter has a different topology
then that we reviewed. Our buck boost converter topology was for a different
type of project, using two different power sources, one being a load, while the
other supplies some source of power. A regular buck-boost converter topology
maintains the over and under voltage supplied by the ideal fuel cell or power
source. A basic buck-boost converter setup (fig. 3.41e) gives voltage in stages,
which is less in the buck stage and more in the boost stage.

D This type of topology is

something the interface group
+
+ reviewed and researched. The buck-
Vin -
L boost converter makes up when the
C Vo power lost goes below a set tolerance
- level and above. This is a perfect type
of general topology, because the
power can go positive or negative.
Figure 3.41e Buck-Boost Circuit with diode implementation

The reviewed requirements set forth by the competition rules and the US
Department of Energy (DOE) show the fuel cell will supply twenty-nine volts
(nominal), with a range of twenty-two to forty-one volts DC. Along with standards
on the voltage, the supplied amps will be 275 maximum from the fuel cell. This
does not attempt to include or be the auxiliary power being supplied to the
inverter. The standards for the auxiliary power for the inverter by the DOE are
stated to be forty-eight volts (nominal) with a +10% to –20% with a nominal of
500 watts per hour. The auxiliary power being supplied by the DOE at the
competition is not for the interface module but for the extra load testing above
five kilowatts. Being this was the challenge we begun to research for, we tried to
keep every specification possible, with our current equipment supplied by the
University of Central Florida.

An active filter, which is present in a DC-to-DC converter, must be

supplied. For our project, we were looking into building a DC to DC for our
specifications required by our senior design project. Use of a converter to reach
this standard nominal voltage can be bought at standard DC-to-DC conversions.
This would have been the easiest known solution and less work but defeated our
purpose to have a DC-to-DC converter built. Pre-built DC-to-DC converters
(table 3.40) are priced as a reference point, both for our project budget area.

Page 28
 Manufacturer Input Power Output Power Pricing
Lambda 24 volts nominal
18 to 36 volts $ 189.79
Electronics 4.2 Ampere
Table 3.40 Chart of priced solutions for DC/DC Converters

Other topologies are available for review, such as the cuk, forth order, and
bi-polar output voltage converters. None of which seem to present the correct
nominal voltage requirement needed for supplied power. Our current
specifications for the interface module of the inverter are specified in a later
section.

Interface Auxiliary Power Source

The fuel cell would be supplying the main abundant power after the
completion of the start up process has been completed. This process takes
approximately one minute or less, which we are including a time frame of about
ninety seconds.

The auxiliary power source that the interface group is using for it project is
the simplest and least expensive. The battery, yes… it has the ability to hold a
charge over many days and can be recharged. Being the battery would have a
continuous recharging capability and doesn’t keep track of when last charged, we
need a material that has no memory. Why would a battery have a memory? Not
that we want a battery to have a memory, just certain material have this already.
Therefore, by purchasing a battery that does not have a memory, when it is
recharged, it is completed to the highest level. This gives the ability to recharge
the battery all the time and never have to worry about lost of batteries ability to
recharge fully. Solution to this is descried in the table 3.41. This shows that the
Ni-MH or Li-Ion would be better suited, how ever it is more expensive then a
basic battery.

The easiest way to create a ideal

solution for meeting the requirement of
twenty-four power source from the battery is
by putting the battery in series of two twelve
volts as described below (figure 3.41f).

Figure 3.41f Diagram of (a) series

of two batteries verse (b) a
parallel circuit version.

Now to create a fast response to add in extra current needed to the

converter at the time the load request such power usage is something the

Page 29
inverter interface group has completed a circuit for. On circuit switching we have
noticed a creation in not allowing the switch S1 and S2 to be off at the same
time. Other topologies use a fast turn off and slow turn on delay stage.

The power for the interface, as briefly discussed earlier, is to have the
capacity to take on a load change. This includes from the start up point to the
final shut down of the inverter. Certain aspects must be looked at, which include:

• Start up of fuel cell, supplying for 90 seconds.

• Short-term transient state, supplying for 10 seconds.
• Long term steady state, supplying for 60 seconds.

Other aspects of the interface extra power include:

• Twenty-four volts (nominal)

• Supply controller power before and at end of cycle

The difference in the extra power verse the main power is the source. We
know that the main power that was going to be supplied was the solid-oxide fuel
cell, which is then converted to a state of twenty-four volts. For our purpose, the
main power source is going to be a DC power generator. The extra power can
be made up in different topologies or hardware.

One type of hardware or chemical reaction is the battery. A battery is

made up of many different chemicals, which make the length of power being
supplied or the quality of the years performed. Table below show the outline of
the different chemical make up of batteries.
Battery Type Abbreviation Typical Use Characteristics Advantages
Sealed Lead Emergency Holds charge
SLA Inexpensive
Acid Power up to 3 years
Appliances,
Nickel Fast, even Inexpensive,
Ni-Cd toys, most
Cadmium discharge available
popular
Same as Ni- No memory,
Cd plus cell 1.2V – 1200 to unused
Nickel Metal
Ni-MH phones, 1500 mAh; runs capacity
Hydride
portable 2.5 to 4 hours remains
computers usable
Double
Stable and charge
Same as Ni-
Lithium Ion Li-Ion Safe, highest capacity of
MH
energy capacity Ni-Cd, slow
discharge
Table 3.41 Show the different characteristics of a battery.

Page 30
 Other batteries not listed in the above table (table 3.41) are Zinc-Air,
Flooded Lead Acid, and Alkaline. This topic is important because the US
Department of Energy wants to have a system that will last over a period of years
and be low maintenance.

This one ideal solution to meet the requirements of forty-eight volts extra
power to create a steady voltage to the inverter is done by using different
topologies. A battery of twelve volts in series, times by four, creates the
requirement of forty-eight volts. This extra power source is to power the control
unit of the modules besides just creating stability in the power. The control unit is
started up by the extra power because the fuel cell is not in a steady state to
perform duties.

The characteristic for general batteries suggested for the projected are
listed in table (table 3.42) below.

Manufacturer Voltage Ampere/ Hour

(Ah)
NP Series (1)
12 V 38.0
NP38-12
NP Series (2)
12 V 65.0
NP65-12
NPX Series (1)
12 V 35.0
NPX-35
NPX Series (2)
12 V 80.0
NPX-80B-HYC
Table 3.42 Suggested battery types for topology.

To meet the minimum requirements of maintaining the power needing to

be supplied, we called around looking for a battery that would carry a current for
one hour of about five amps. An Intrastate battery was found that meets the
requirements of twelve volts, times four, with five amp hours. The cost for this
type of battery ran around ninety-eight dollars.

Another solution to the auxiliary power is a capacitor. A capacitor is a

device that stores energy for use when a surge of power loss or unsteady state.
It fast response is very useful and is used in small electronics such as memory.
When used in such a small volume, it has to be updated hundredths of times in a
second to keep its current state. The larger the capacity and the chemical
velocity used give it great power. The chemical used is called dielectric, which
has a low and moderate make up. A low dielectric includes a dry gas of pure
helium and nitrogen, along with being in a perfect vacuum. This type of chemical

Page 31
makeup gives the most effectiveness to the material but less effective of a
conductor. A much higher on conductance would use chemical such as
aluminum oxide. The chemical dielectric is insulated between two conducting
plates, which transform the chemical into an electrostatic field.

All capacitors standard unit rating is farad (F). The unit farad is the
standard units of one second to the fourth power ampere squared per kilogram
per meter squared (S^4 * A^2 * kg^-1 * m^-2).

Manufacturer Farad Volts Price

BOSS Cap 60 10 F 20 V/ 24 V Surge $ 379.99

Table 3.43 Suggested battery types for topology.

For service years and quality, capacitors are better then a regular battery.
The capacitor is safe, in that no hazardous chemical make up. The standard of
life expectancy is higher for a battery, but the cost of all this makes a major down
fall. The table (table 3.43) shows an ideal capacitor that are suggested for use
for the project but cost being a major factor for the Department of Energy, we are
planning on using a battery.

Battery Safety

Just like in cars, most have a standard twelve-volt battery hooked up to

the ignition and alternator. This is so the car can be started, but why doesn’t the
battery run down? An alternator is used to charge a battery up while the car is in
use, but is used as a buffer, just like in the fuel cell design. The fuel cell is the
recharge, just like the alternator of the system, when it has the extra power to
give out. Safety is a big issue, when charging a battery, the wires are still
hooked up the same way, but material used must be able to accept the current
drawn back in to recharge. In our design, we just control when the battery is
getting charge or discharge but the buck-boost converter. Biggest safety is to
never cross wire a battery nor pull a battery off while a system is running. The
inverter controller and auxiliary power source come from this extra supply. If it
isn’t present when needed, failure of the system will take place and everything on
the load end would stop running. If you need to replace a set of batteries, place
another set of new batteries in series, but in parallel with the older set. Attach
the new set some how and then pulling off the older. Don’t change out, not
having any auxiliary power source, could cause some major problems.

Page 32
DC-DC Topology

To explain the buck-boost converter using the topology our design group
came up with, it has the ability to increase or decrease voltage being supplied,
creating an average output voltage. This topology is known as the interface of

LO
S

Battery
Fuel
Cell
S 22-41V

Figure 3.42 –DC-to-DC Topology Converter F

Line Out
our project (figure 3.42), were the conversion is generated just like a DC-to-DC
converter. Certain things control a circuit like this, for a general over view
according to our purpose; we used these settings or setup.

• Buck Mode: switch one S

(off) and switch two (on) ON OFF ON
• Boost Mode: switch one
(on) and switch two (off)
Figure 3.42a – Switch turning ON and OFF

When referring to a switch being ON, it does not mean constantly. As shown in
figure 3.4, any of the switches are being turned ON and OFF, just like a pulse.

DSP

The digital signal process controller is a solution that was present through
the process of researching different types of controllers. Another reason this
controller was used is because of its availability to the power electronic lab at
UCF. This controller is to supply a reference to compare to average current
being output by the high and low side sample points.

Page 33
 Another type of controller, besides DSP controller, is the hysteretic
controller we reviewed from another project. The condition of the switching
process was about the same except using a inductor as a reference point. When
the current across the inductor increases, the switching process is set at S1 on
and S2 is off. This would happen if the current across the inductor falls below the
Iref - I∆. Then when you want the reverse operation, decrease the current across
the inductor, setting the S1 off and S2 to on will accomplish this. This state is
when the current across the inductor exceeds Iref + I∆. Implementation of this
type of topology is shown in the figure below (figure 3.43).

IL201
+Ι∆
2 −

S Q

+ Charge

Iref −
R Q’ Discharge

−Ι∆
2

Figure 3.43 Hysteretic Circuit Controller

The points located at two different locations on figure 3.43a, low side
reference point is located at the top of the figure off the fuel cell. The other
reference point, high side, is located at the bottom middle of the figure. It gives
the average of the current available from the battery. The reference current
supplied by the digital signal-processing group compares the samples giving by
these points and makes the appropriate changes. This type of controller setup
seems to have its straightforward setup, making an ease to use.

Page 34
 ia v

i re f
pow er
a v a ila b le
s ig n a l

i fc

F u e l C e ll Load

DSP

V o lta g e co n tro lle r w ith

d e la y p re d ic tio n

c h a rg e
B i-d ire ctio n a l
filte r d isc h a rg e

i b a tte ry
-
+

B a tte ry 4 8 V

V re f fo r b a tte ry

Figure 3.43a -The block diagram of the interface and controller units

The reference points are the controlling for the switching of the active
filter. The DSP controller has the ability to send signals to the interface drivers,
to control the switching process. When switch one is on, switch two is off, the
interface is in boost mode. When in boost mode, the fuel cell is supplying the
power to the load. The load being, at this point, the external source being
powered. If the fuel cell has enough power being supplied to the external load,
then the batteries are being charged at this point, unless not needed. In buck
mode, the battery is supplying power to the external load. This is because the
fuel cell may not be in a steady state, may be low, or be in a start up phase.

Along with running reference signal points and other switching controls,
the digital signal-processor has to be prepared to protect the system. This
includes reverse current into the fuel cell. If a current flow back into the fuel cell,
the fuel cell would either damage or cause major faults. Faults?

Our research shows us that the fault protection could be very important
when dealing with fuel cells. Any component in the circuit could go back into a
fault condition causing a repeated issue or malfunction. To have the ability to
figure out where an issue is coming from, routines should be created to check the
system status. If a fault occurs then a flag will be raised. The flag can be

Page 35
implemented into a light system, where a green light states the status being good
or red fro when the flag is raised, showing a fault has occurred. The DSP group
has started to implement the light system into their design, using two LEDs, both
being green.

Voltage and Current Flow

L
S

Batter
Fuel
Cell
S 22-

Figure 3.43b –DC-to-DC Topology Converter F

Line Out

When the current direction is from left to right, the interface is producing
extra power source from the battery to send more power to the load. The load in
this case is (figure 3.43b) the fuel cell. The actual load source we used in the
testing procedures is operated load machine. You can set the load to what ever
you need, per amps and voltage. This mode of operation is buck.

When the current is flowing from right to left, the fuel cell is supplying the
source power needed. The current is going to flow thru switch two and diode at
switch one when there is extra current to be supplied. This is when the fuel cell
recharges the battery at the same time supplies the correct amount to the load.

Now, with this type of topology, the inverter will always have a nominal
voltage of twenty-four volts on average.

Calculations

Our calculations of the circuit design we started to work with come from
background information on buck and boost converters. To give us an idea on the
components we needed to use, we separated the circuit into two stages, one
being the buck and other being the boost.

Page 36
 To figure out the different calculations, we first had to start off with a
bottom line or specifications that would meet our requirement. The following
specifications we used to begin the process of using each of the calculations.

• Input Voltage (Fuel Cell) = 24 v DC

• Input Voltage (Battery) = 48 v DC
• Output Power = 100 watts
• Ripple current is 5% of minimum current
• Capacitor voltage ripple = 5%
• All other values we gathered by the calculations presented.

The calculations over the buck converter depended on the type of circuit
to deal with. There are different components and layouts that can make up a
buck converter. Figure 3.44a shows the circuit of a buck converter using a diode.

Figure 3.44a – Buck Converter

The calculations, as shown in the following, led us to the components that would
help us get close to the correct values needed. The reason I say this, when
dealing with any circuit, you have to create a level of tolerance and resistance
inside a circuit.

The duty cycle of the circuit is , which is the time in when the system is
operated. Usually the duty cycle is present in a format of a ratio or percentage.
On the circuit, you want to have the lowest duty cycle as possible, this is because
the higher a duty cycle, the shorter the life span.

Page 37
 The ideal characteristics of the duty
cycle are show on the figure 3.44b
graph. As you can see, when the
duty cycle is risen from zero to one,
the ratio of the voltage output over
the voltage input is compared.

Figure 3.44b – Duty Cycle Ratio Graph

For the average output of the current:

The current across the inductor has a minimum and maximum.

If the inductor value used falls below zero on the current, the mode would go into
a discontinuous conductance mode (dcm). Otherwise, if the current value
, then the converter operates in a continuous conductance mode (ccm).

To find the value of the dcm, we use:

The lowest or critical value found here, need to use a higher value so there can a
continuous conductance mode in the circuit.

To follow, the expressed the ratio of the output voltage by finding the change of
the voltage across the capacitor divided by the output voltage. The formula used

to figure out the capacitor rating, can be translated from: as long as

the ratio percentage is assumed or known.

Power, just like for any circuit, is usually easily found out by using .

Translations of each of these equations from the specifications we presented

earlier, you can find out the values needed for each component.

Page 38
 The calculation for the following figure is for the boost converter (figure
3.44c). This is just like the buck converter, excepts layout of components are
done differently. Here, the inductor is on the opposite end, just like the figures
shown earlier with the fuel cell.

Figure 3.44c – Boost Converter

So the voltage going in to the circuit is just like the fuel cell supplying the power.
The load would be the battery; in this case the Vo is the battery. At this point the
boost converter is charging the battery and is supplying the correct power
needed for the load. As like buck converter, the calculations led us to the
components values or minimum value.

The duty cycle for the boost converter is:

If you work out the circuit, you will see that the average current at the diode is the
same as the average output current. Use the formula to figure out either way.

Since we have the current across the diode, we need to be able to figure out the
current across the Inductor, this is the minimum and maximum values.

To find the minimum and critical point, we can set the , therefore the
value above, in a positive value, would keep continuous conduction mode.

Page 39
The voltage ripple for the capacitor:

For each of the calculations above, an excel sheet to input the assumed values
in was done. This made it easier if we needed to re-assume our original values.
The values that were most important were the resisters, inductor, and capacitors
that we got from the calculations. These values the calculations came up with
didn’t mean the value was available, therefore we had to assume some values in
the final analyst.

The values that were produced from the calculations are:

Buck Converter Specifications

Duty Cycle 50% Resister 5.76Ω
*Fuel Cell (In) 24v Inductor 47.6uH
Battery (In) 48v Capacitor 0.29uF
Output Power 100w
Capacitor Ripple 5%

Boost Converter Specifications

Duty Cycle 50% Resister 23.1Ω
Fuel Cell (In) 24v Inductor 48uH
*Battery (In) 48v Capacitor 14.5uF
Output Power 100w
Capacitor Ripple 5%

In the tables above there is a * next to the description of the load. The load being
the output at that particular mode, either buck or boost. To get the calculations
correct, you must make sure that the correct value is in the right locations, other
wise the duty cycle will be incorrect.
Another calculation is the voltage
divider. This calculation is to find the
Vout = V1* IR2 resistance ratio needed for resistor
R1 I(R1+R2) values. Suck as, when you have the
high side (battery) being tested, you
have a Vin of 48 volts. The output
NO depends on the expected, which for
LOAD DSP is between zero and five volts. In
R2
Vout this case, 48 volts is nominal, so 2.5
volts output would be reasonable.
Figure 3.44d shows a voltage divider
Figure 3.44d – Voltage Divider diagram, Vout not being a load, but the
test point.

Page 40
Schematics of Design

As shown in figure 3.45a, the buck converter is at CCM critical point. Per
specifications, we changed the values to meet our wanted output. By using
Pspice capture simulator,
the buck converter mode
could be simulated,
showing the output. For
the output, using all our
specifications, we were
looking to get results of a
nominal voltage amount.
The final result for the
circuit design was just as
the assumed results
Figure 3.45a – Buck Mode (Pspice)
should have been.

After running the simulations of the buck converter, the design of the boost
(figure 3.45b) was almost completed. Changes made were the location of the
load and power
source, along with the
function generator.
During the simulation,
the function generator
for a boost mode is
connected to switch
two. This while
switch one is
grounded, off, or
open. This design
created the correct
Figure 3.45b – Boost Mode (Pspice)
output to the resistor
on the left, which is acting as the load or battery. The output voltage, per all the
specifications is approximately forty-eight volts.

After confirming all the simulations and correct values for each of the
components, the design was calling for a control to have the correct switching
process. Along with the other components, we must pick a switch to meet the
requirements. Using data sheet and references on mosfets and IGBTs, we
decided to go with a mosfet switch.

Page 41
Components

The first step before choosing the correct component to use in our design
was the calculating the right or approximate values to be used. The calculations
presented earlier, which they go over the minor components descriptions (see
calculations).

The first component that has been briefly described earlier is switch, which
we have done some research on. The biggest thing reviewed for this type
project is the switch time. Because it is so important to have a fast switching
process, so the converter can
be uninterruptible power
supply. For this design, the
IRFP 140 mosfet switch was
chosen to meet our needs. If
you look at high switching
process and low resistance on
the gate, this helps in
needless signal lost.

Figure 3.45 – c) (top) shows the size of the mosfets

compared to a quarter for scaling. d) (left side) diagram
G showing the view of the gate, source, and drain. f) (bottom)
shows the size of the IR2110 controller, along with the seat
for the chip.
S

The component that we chose to

control the mosfet was an IC controller.
This controller is used just for the
purpose of sending a high and low
signal. The high signal switching one
and low signal switching the other,
switch two mosfet. The IR2110
controller was picked for our design for
its:

• High speed, high voltage drivers for mosfets

• Float Channel, operational to +500v
• Signal time’s delay (includes rise/fall) 120 on, 94 ns off (typ.)

Page 42
 Figure 3.45f – IR2110 Controller Setup

The data sheet, given the connections needed to complete the hook up of the
IR2110, described the component. We have included this data description
(figure 3.45f) because of the importance of the correct layout to our project.

IR2110 – Controller Specifications

Lo – Low side gate drive VDD – Logic Supply
Com – Low side return HIN – Logic input for Ho
Vcc – Low side supply SD – Logic input for shut down
Vs – High side floating supply return LIN – Logic low input for Lo
VB – High side floating supply Vss – Logic Ground
Ho – High side gate drive output

So DSP controller can

communicate to the interface board
correctly an additional component had to
be added. The IR2110 requires a higher
voltage then DSP can handle, same with
the mosfets, so we used a driver. This
drive, IXDD414, is to produce a higher
output voltage from the low input voltage
received from DSP controller signals.
Figure 3.45g – IXDD414 Driver

Page 43
 The IXDD414 is a driver component, used for driving mosfets and IGBTs,
along with DC-to-DC converters. The specifications for the driver are:

IXDD414 – Driver Specifications

Vcc – Logic Power GND - Ground
IN – Signal Line In Out – Signal Out, boosted voltage
EN – Enable line (High if enable)

The importance to this component is the actual hook up, where it is easy
but for the drive to begin working, the enable pin must be enabled with some
source of power/ signal. This signal, when broken to the EN pin, will stop the
driver from continue its work. This could be something to review for short circuit
or fault conditions in the future. For now, we set this pin to a constant on, so the
driver is able to communicate. For our design, just like the IR2110, we used an
eight-pin seat, therefore if anything should happen to the chip, it can be easily
replaced.

8 HO 7

9 V DD VB 6

10 HIN Vs 5
D
IXDD414 11 SD 4

In: 5v Out: 11.9v 12

13
LIN

Vss
VCC

COM
3

14 Lo 1 G

IR2110 S
In: +10v Out: 12v
IRFP 140
In: 12v (up to 20 allowed)

Figure 3.45h – Conversion Across Controllers

So to better understand the translation between all the different controllers

to the mosfet switches, figure 3.45h. This translation between the controller
signal voltages is just an example. Some of the controllers could handle more, or
possibly have to handle less.

Page 44
Layout Design

To begin the process of getting ready to mill a PCB board, we first had to
complete a layout design of the full schematic of all the components. The values
of the components do not have to be correct, just the way they are connected.
Polarity issues could cause a major issue after milling a board if the components
aren’t connected correctly. For most of the components we used, Pspice carried
the correct corresponding one. The controller and drivers, they had to be relayed
out and placed into a library because Pspice didn’t have the pint correct. This
process did not take long after the first one was completed. Our schematic with
all its components first looked like figure 3.45i.

Figure 3.45i – Schematic of Final Design

After completing the schematic, when then transferred the design over to
Pspice Layout Plus program, here is were the layout (figure 3.45j) of the PCB is
done. Per specifications we still wanted to make our design as small and
compact as possible, this is so the future production of such board can be done
at a low production cost. So a four by four inch piece of copper PCB board was

Page 45
cut and milled according to out lay out design, which gave us the final product
(figure 3.45k).

Figure 3.45j – Final Layout Design from Pspice Layout Plus

Top Design Bottom Design

Figure 3.45k – Final Design of PCB Board

Page 46
Serial Connection

To connect and send signal between the different components, such as

the DSP controller and the interface controller, we had to think of some sort of
communication line. The interface team and DSP team decided that the
communication between the two could be done with a single serial cable. A RS-
232 cable holds up to nine different lines.

The interface current design conditions only used five of the lines. These
lines are described in the diagram below.

Pin1-Signal for switch one Pin6-Low level test point

Pin3-Signal for switch two
Pin5-Ground Pin9-High level test point

Design Results

The final simulations of the interface design show the results the interface
circuit. To give a brief description, when the circuit was in buck mode, the battery

Figure 3.46a – Buck Mode (final results) In: 48 volts

Page 47
side (high side) was giving power to the load. The battery is a power supply of
DC voltage, supplying the desired test. The load being simulated load of a
certain amount of current being drawn.

The first snap shot of the oscilloscope shows the interface in buck mode
(figure 3.46a). As seen, the output voltage is approximately twenty-three volts,
while the input voltage is 48 volts.

The next oscilloscope screen shot shows the circuit in boost mode (figure
3.46b). The input value is being 24 volts, while the output is approximately 48
volts. This shows exactly what the interface board is supposed to do. At this
point, the load is the battery while the source is from the fuel cell.

Figure 3.46a – Boost Mode (final results) In: 24 volts

Page 48
 Inverter
Introduction

Static inverters, or DC-to-AC inverters, employ fixed DC sources to output

symmetrical AC voltages which may be of fixed or variable magnitude or
frequency. These output voltages can be single-phase or three-phase according
to design. Inverters provide power from the DC source to an AC load, which may
be passive or active, through the use of SCR’s or gate driven semiconductors.
Such semiconductors include GTO’s, IGBT’s, and MOSFET’s. Because of
increased power and switching speeds, along with modern control technology,
inverters can now be used in a broad range of output voltage and frequency,
while harmonic distortion is reduced. DC-to-AC inverters are useful when a load
requires AC voltage and the only power source available, or practical for the
application, is a fixed DC source. Examples of such systems include
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), power supplies in aircraft, and motor-
drives.

output
isolation
Dc-Ac conversion transformer post filter Ac output

voltage-source L
Inverter circuit +
O
DC νo A
- D

Driving
Circuit

ac voltage
referance Voltage
Comparator
νc control

Fig. 3.31 Block Diagram of Typical

Power Electronic Circuit With DC-
AC Inverter (Reprinted permission
of Issa Batarseh)

Page 49
 Figure 3.31 is an example of a typical DC-AC inverter circuit as used in
power electronic applications. This diagram shows the voltage source, inverter,
transformer, output filter, and feedback circuit. The output filter is added in order
to smooth the AC voltage before it reaches the load. The feedback circuit is used
to compare the AC output voltage with a reference signal. This is done to be
sure that the inverter is producing an acceptable output.

The types of switches used in the inverter and their arrangement are a
determining factor in the control method which will be used. The goal of the
control method is to convert the DC source to a controllable AC output. While it
may be desired that the output be a purely sinusoidal waveform, the inversion
process will also add high frequency harmonics. Because of this, high frequency
switching is used. This reduces, but does not completely remove, these
harmonics.

Two common inverter types are the half-bride and full-bridge. These two
inverters are shown respectively in Figure 3.32.

S1
+

+
V dc νo
-
- S2

(a)

S1 S2
+

V dc νo
-
S4 S3
-

(b)

Fig. 3.32 Single-phase inverter

arrangem ents,
(a) H alf-bridge inverter
(b) Full-bridge inverter.
(Reprinted w ith perm ission of Issa Batarseh)

Page 50
Half-Bridge Inverter Circuit

Shown in Figure 3.33 is a half-bridge inverter with an inductive-resistive load, as

well as its equivalent circuit and output waveform.

V dc S1

R iO L

- νo +
V dc S2

(a )

iL a
ν in
+
R
+ V dc
ν in
0 t νo
T /2 T
-V dc L

-
(b ) a'

νo

0
t
T /2 T

iL
I L ( T /2 )
t1
t
IL(0 ) Q1
Q2
D1 D2

(c )

F ig . 3 .3 3 (a ) H a lf-b r id g e w ith in d u c tiv e -r e s is tiv e lo a d .

(b ) E q u iv a le n t c ir c u it a n d ( c ) S te a d y s ta te w a v e fo r m s .
(R e p r in te d w ith p e r m is s io n o f Is s a B a ta r s e h )

Page 51
Switches S1 and S2 operate complementarily at a 50% duty cycle with a
switching frequency of f. This provides the load with a square voltage waveform
vin (t ) and an amplitude of Vdc . Therefore:

+ Vdc 0 ≤ t < T 2
vin (t ) =  
− Vdc T 2 ≤ t < T

The switches may be conventional SCR’s, IGBT’s, GTO’s, BJT’s, or MOSFET’s.

Note that, due to the direction of iL, the switches are required to be bi-directional.
Figure 3.34 shows a half-bridge inverter with IGBT type switches.

iD 1
V dc Q1 D1

R iO L

- νo +
iD 2
V dc
Q2 D2

F ig . 3 .3 4 M O S F E T
Im p le m e n ta tio n fo r S 1 a n d S 2 in
th e H a lf-b rid g e in ve rte r o f F ig .
3 .3 3 (a ) (R e p rin te d w ith
p e rm iss io n o f Iss a B a ta rse h )

Under steady state conditions, for 0 < t < t1 , the current in the inductor is negative.
This means that while S1 is on the current flows through the body diode portion
of the switch. When t = t1 , the current becomes positive and flows through the
transistor, Q1. When t = T 2 , S2 is turned on. At this point, the current direction
is positive, which causes the body diode, D2, to turn on. D2 remains on until
t = T 2 + t1 when the transistor, Q2, begins conducting.

Page 52
 From Fig. 3.33 (c) it can be seen that:

i L (0) = − i L (T 2 )
i L (0) = i L (T )

When 0 ≤ t < T / 2 , S1 is on and S2 is off. Thus, v in (t ) = +Vdc giving:

v in (t ) = +Vdc

Given that the initial value of the inductor is I L (0) , i L (t ) is then:

Vdc − t τ Vdc L
iL (t ) = ( I L (0) − )e + , where τ =
R R R

And, because I L (T / 2) = − I L (0) , initial condition at t=0 is:

−T
V 1 − e 2τ
I L (0) = − dc
R 1 + e −T 2τ

In much the same manor, the second half of the cycle leads to the following i L ( t )
expression. With the initial condition of t = T 2 = - I L (0) , i L ( t ) for t > T 2 is given
by:
Vdc −(t −T 2) τ Vdc
iL (t ) = −( I L (0) − )e −
R R

Vdc − t τ Vdc L
This equation is equal to iL (t ) = ( I L (0) − )e + , where τ = , when T 2 ≤ t < T .
R R R
Average power delivered to the load is found by:
T
1
T ∫0
Po , ave = iL (t )vo (t )dt

T 2
, where I L (0) is given above.
2V   Vdc  − t τ Vdc 
= dc
T ∫0
 −  I L (0) +
  R  e + R  dt
 

As i L changes polarity during the first interval at t = t 1 , the polarity of the load
current is reversed. Thus, it commutes from D1 to Q1. In much the same
respect, the current commutes from D2 to Q2 at t = t1 + T 2 . To calculate the time
at which i L ( t ) =0, which is t = t 1 , the i L (t ) found above is set to zero at t = t1 . This
gives:
2
t1 = τ ln −T
1 + e 2τ

Page 53
This value of t 1 allows the average and rms values in the switches and diodes to
be found. Figure 3.35 will help with these calculations.
iL
i L1

I o1
T
t
t1 T/2

θ
ω νo
+V dc ν o1
V o1

-V dc

Fig. 3.35 (a) Output voltage and current

waveform s

I Q ,ave

π θ
2π

I D ,ave

θ
π 2π

Fig. 3.35 (b) Shows the average transistor

and diode current waveform s
(Reprinted with perm ission of Issa
Batarseh)

Page 54
Using Figure 3.35 (a) to write the fundamental component of vo (t ) and i L (t )
gives:

2Vdc
vo1 (t ) = Vo1 sin ωt , where Vo1 =
π

iL1 (t ) = I o1 sin(ω t + θ )

where I o1 is the peak current and θ is the phase angle. These are given by:

2Vdc  ωL 
 and Z = R + (ωL )
2
I o1 = , θ = tan −1  2

πZ  R 

The rms values of the diode and transistor currents can now be found using the
fundamental component equations above. They are as follows:

θ
1 2
2π ∫0
I D ,rms = i L1 (t )dt

θ
1
I D , rms = ∫I sin 2 ω tdω t
2
o1
2π 0

 sin 2θ θ sin θ cosθ

2
I  I o1
= o1
 − 2 +θ  = 2 −
4π   π 2π

π
1
I Q ,rms = ∫
2π θ
I o21 sin 2 ωtdωt

I o21 I θ sin θ cosθ

= (π + cosθ sin θ − θ ) = o1 1 − +
4π 2 π π

The average values of the diode and transistor currents may also be found.
They are given by:

θ
1 I
I D ,ave = ∫
2π 0
I o1 sin ω td ωt =
2
o1 (1 − cosθ )
π

I
I = o1 (1 + cos θ )
Q, ave 2π

Page 55
The average power delivered to the load may now be written as:

Vo1 2V dc
Po ,ave = Vo1.rms I o1,rms cosθ , where Vo1, rms = =
2 π
I o1
I o1, rms =
2

which yields:

2Vdc2
Po ,ave = 2 cosθ
π Z

The ripple voltage in the inverter is given by:

Vo ,ripple = Vo2,rms − Vo2,ave

And it can finally be shown that, in an inductive-resistive load, the input ripple
current is found to be:

8ω o2θ
I in , ripple = I in , rms 1 − , where, ω o = 2π T
π2

Full-Bridge Inverter Circuit

A more complex and diverse inverter is that of the full-bridge design.

Figure 3.36 shows the most basic form of the full-bridge inverter along with its
switching sequence.
iin

S2 S1
R iO
V dc
- νo +
S3 S4

Fig. 3.36 (a) Full-bridge inverter under a purely resistive load

Page 56
 switch switch open
closed

S1

S2
(b)

S3

S4
νo
Vdc
π
ωt (c)
2π
-Vdc
2α

νo1(t)

ωt (d)
π 2π

Fig. 3.36 (b) Switching sequence with α -phase shift, (c) output voltage, (d) fundamental
component for vo (t ) (Reprinted with permission of Issa Batarseh)

The switching sequence shown in Figure 3.36 (b) is used to control the output
voltage sent to the load. This sequence is realized by shifting a standard 50%

Page 57
duty cycle sequence to the left by the shown phase angle, α , for switches S1
and S4. The switching sequence for S2 and S3 are shifted to the right by the
same phase angle, α . This yields a fundamental output voltage of:

1 α
vo1 (t ) = Vdc − (sin ωt − θ )
2 π

The rms value is then given by:

1 α
Vdc −
4 2π

This shows that the rms value may now be adjusted using the value of the
phase-shift. This switching sequence yields three states of output voltage
delivered to the load. These values are +Vdc, 0, and -Vdc. Inverters producing
such outputs are called tri-state inverters. With a purely resistive load, SCR’s
may be employed with unidirectional current flow due to instantaneous reversal
of load current as v o reverses. If an inductive load exists, a diode in parallel with
each SCR must be added. With four modes of operation in place (shown in
Figure 3.37), the average power at the load is given by:

 V 2 o,rms  1 α
  , where Vo ,rms = Vdc −
 R  4 2π

Page 58
 S2 S1 S2 S1
R iO R iO
Vdc Vdc
- νo + - νo +
S3 S4 S3 S4

Mode1 Mode2

S2 S1 S2 S1
R iO R iO
Vdc Vdc
- νo + - νo +
S3 S4 S3 S4

Mode3 Mode4
Fig. 3.37 The four Modes of operation
(Reprinted with permission of Issa Batarseh)

In practical applications, loads generally consist of inductive-resistive

loads, as opposed to the purely resistive or inductive loads. Figure 3.38 provides
an example of an inductive-resistive load fed by a full-bridge inverter.

iin

Q2 D2 Q1 D1
L iO R
Vdc
- νo +

Q3 D3 Q4 D4

Fig. 3.38 Full Bridge Inverter under R-L load

Page 59
 Figure 3.39 shows the current and voltage waveforms produced when the
switches in the full-bridge inverter in Figure 3.38 are operated at a 50% duty
cycle with a two-state output.

Using the Fourier series technique, we are able to obtain the expression
for average power absorbed by the load.

I o2,rms = I 12,rms + I 22,rms + …. + I n2,rms

In
where I n ,rms = and I n is the nth harmonic peak current of i o (t )
2
Vo2,rms = Vdc

The output voltage, being a square wave with a 50% duty cycle, allows for its
Fourier series to be expressed as:

4Vdc  sin 3ωt sin 5ωt sin nωt 

vo (t ) =  sin ωt + + +. . .+ 
π  3 5 n 

It then follows that:

 
4Vdc  sinωt sin3ωt sin5ωt sinnωt 
io (t) = + + +. . . +
π  R2 + (ωL)2 3 R + (3ωL) 5 R + (5ωL)
2 2 2 2 2 2 
n R + (nωL) 


The nth current component rms value is given by:

2 2Vdc
I n ,rms = ,where Z n = R 2 + (nωL) 2
nπ Z n

Page 60
 νo

V dc

- V dc

io

T /2 + t1
0 t
t1 T /2 T

i in

t
t1 T /2 T

S 1 ,S 3 S 2 ,S 4
Q1 Q2 Q1
D3 Q 1,Q D4 Q 2,Q
3 4 D3

F ig . 3 . 3 9 ( a ) W a v e f o r m u n d e r 5 0 % d u t y

νo
io1

ωt
π 2π
θ

F ig . 3 . 3 9 ( b ) ( R e p r in t e d w it h
p e r m is s io n o f I s s a B a t a r s e h )

Page 61
Assuming that the major portion of Po ,ava is received by the load at the
fundamental frequency, the average output power is given by:

8Vdc 2 R
Po , ave = cos θ
π 2 R 2 + (ω L )
2

Approximating the load current by assuming that L R 〉〉 T 2 allows for the

load current to be represented by its first harmonic. As seen in Figure 3.39 (b),
the inductor current is represented by its fundamental component. An
approximation of the load current can be given as:
ωL
io ,1 ≈ I o1 sin (ω t − θ ) ,where θ = tan −1
R
Vo1 4Vdc
I o1 = and Vo1 =
(ω L ) 2
+ R2 π

The average power delivered to the load can now be given by:

Pave = I o ,1rmsVo ,1rms cosθ

I o ,1Vo ,1
cosθ =
2
The previously describe calculations describe a full-bridge inverter
operated at a 50% duty cycle and no α overlap. As with the half-bridge inverter,
this does not allow for output control. Figure 3.310 shows a common output
voltage when α control is employed and the switching sequence found in Figure
3.36 (b) follows.
vo=vs
Vdc

α π+α
ωt
π−α π 2π
-Vdc
S1
S1,S3 S3,S4 S2,S4 S1,S2
S2

Fig. 3.310 Output voltage using switching sequence given in Fig. 3.36
(Reprinted with permission of Issa Batarseh)

Page 62
In order to find the Fourier analysis representation of vo (t ) and i o (t ) , a
generalized impedance load may be used, as seen in Figure 3.311.

∞
4Vdc
vo (t ) = ∑V
n =1, 3, 5
n sin nω t ,where Vn =
nπ
cos nα

∞
Vn 4Vdc
i o (t ) = ∑I
n =1, 3, 5
n sin( nω t − θ n ) ,where I n =
Zn
=
nπ Z n
cos nα

io

vo ZLoad

Fig. 3.311 Generalized Load Representation

(Reprinted with permission of Issa Batarseh)

The rms output voltage if found by:

2α
Vo, rms = V dc 1 −
π

and the rms voltage value for each harmonic, in terms of the nth harmonic, is:

∞
4Vdc 1
Von2 ,rms = ∑
2π n =1,3,5 n
2
cos 2 nα

For each harmonic, the rms current value is:

∞
I on, rms = ∑I
n =1, 3, 5...
2
n , rms

Page 63
and the nth harmonic rms current is given by:

4Vdc
I n ,rms = cos nα
2nπ Z n

while the fundamental output rms current is:

4Vdc
cos α ,where Z 1 = R 2 + (ω o L )
2
I o1,rms =
2π Z 1

The THD’s of the voltage and current can now be found by:

2
 Vo ,rms 
THDv =   −1

 Vo1,rms 

π 1 α
= −
2 cos α 2 π

2
I 
THDi =  o , rms  − 1
I
 o1, rms 
2
 ∞ Z1 cos α 
=  ∑ −1
 n =1,3,5... n Z cos nα 
 n 

The average power at the load is given by:

T
1
Po ,ave = ∫ io v o dt
T 0

while the average power for the nth harmonic is:

Pon, ave. = I on, rmsVon, rms cos θ n

leading to a total average power of:

∞
Po , ave. = ∑I
n =1, 3, 5...
on , rms Von, rms cos θ n

Page 64
Previous Designs Using the Full-Bridge Inverter

There are many existing designs of DC-AC inverter systems, but they
produce insufficient output or do not fit the requirements for the 2003 Future
Energy Challenge. Two of such designs follow.

Figure 3.312 shows a conventional DC-AC inverter. It employs a SPMW

inverter, a line-frequency transformer, and an LC output filter.

Fig. 3.312 Conventional sinusoidal output inverter

(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

This conventional inverter exists in some high power commercial products.

The use of a low frequency transformer occupies a great deal of space as well as
incurring high cost. It also produces a 60 Hz waveform with a great deal of line
frequency noise. These factors are all undesirable for this project.

Figure 3.313 shows an improved DC-AC inverter. This topology uses a

high frequency inverter, high frequency transformer, rectifier, SPWM inverter,
and an LC output filter.

Page 65
 Fig. 3.313 Improved sinusoidal output inverter
(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

This topology exists in many low power applications. The use of a

compact transformer solves some of the problems of the conventional inverter.
However, this brings about a new set of problems. Multiple stages are added in
the process to produce the necessary output. This leads to a reduction in total
efficiency of the system due to redundant power conversion stages.

Upon reviewing the existing topologies, it was obvious that a new design
was necessary to fulfill the requirements of the 2003 Future Energy Challenge.

Page 66
 Project’s Inverter Design
Introduction

The design requirements of low cost, compact design, and high efficiency
forced the creation of a refined topology. Figure 5.1 shows the final design using
a full-bridge inverter on the primary side with a cycloconverter on the secondary
side. This topology effectively provides DC-AC-AC power conversion.

S5 S6
S1 S3 L
T1
Vdc
L
C1 O
A
S7 S8 D
S2 S4

High High
Frequency Frequency Cycloconverter Output Filter
Inverter Transformer

Fig. 5.1 High frequency link inverter

(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

This topology employs the principle of high frequency link inverting. This
allows for the use of a smaller, lighter, less expensive, high frequency
transformer. It also reduces the amount of power conversion stages, decreasing
the power losses in the system. Along with these benefits, high frequency
operation leads to less acoustic noise in the output.

Phase-shift control is used to enable zero voltage switching (ZVS) in the

high frequency inverter. ZVS reduces switching losses on the primary side of the
system. These switches run at high frequency, allowing the use of a compact
high frequency transformer. The cycloconverter is employed to demodulate the
high frequency pulse series produced by the high frequency transformer. This
yields a unipolar SPWM pulse series. Finally, the output filter converts the
unipolar SPWM pulse to a sinusoidal waveform.

Page 67
 Figure 5.2 shows the MathCAD generated spectrum of the waveform
delivered to the high frequency transformer. It can be seen that the waveform is
free of low frequencies.
Har
mo
nics 280
Am
plit 200
ude
(V) V1(n)

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
60 n⋅fo 8.16×103
Frequency(Hz)

Fig. 5.2 MathCAD generated waveform spectrum

(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

The following equation is the theoretical Fourier series.

k
2Vdc θ (i )   θ (i )   θ (i ) 
V (n) = ∑ (−1) i ( ) sin(n w )sin n(θ w (i ) + w ) − sin n(θ i (i ) + w + π ) 
i =1 nπ 2   2   2 

Figure 5.3 shows the inverter in more detail, including the control scheme.
Note that the active filter, which provides a steady input voltage to the inverter, is
not included in this design. In its place, for purposes of analysis, is a capacitor,
which aids in keeping the voltage into the inverter more stable. The addition of
the active filter in place of the input capacitor will further enhance the final output.

Page 68
 S1 S3 HF S5 S6
Cin Transformer L

Vin
L
O
C A
S2 S4 D

S7 S8

UC3875 Ver
Phase Shift
Controller Vtri Cyclo converter
Controller IL

PI Vout
Controller Gain
Fig. 5.3 High frequency link inverter (Reprinted with permission of Songquan
Deng) Vsin

Figure 5.4 outlines the operation principle of the inverter system as a whole,
detailing switch position. Durations three and four are not illustrated because
they follow the same principle as durations one and two. In durations one and
three, positive output voltage and current are supplied to the load. In durations
two and four, negative output voltage and positive output current are supplied to
the load.

Page 69
 Output
Output
Voltage
Vo Current
Io
t
p 2
p

TR t
S
1
t
S
2

S t
3

S t
4

t
S
5 t

Fig. 5.4 (a) Operation principle of the inverter

S
6
t
S
7
t
S
8
t

Page 70
Duratio Duration Duration Duration
nI II III IV
 H H H
S1 S3 S5 S6 S1 S3 S5 S6 S1 S3 S5 S6
Transforme
F Transforme
F Transforme
F
r r r
+
Vd + +
Vd Vd -
c- + c- c-
+
0 +
S2 S4 S2 S4 S2 S4
S7 S8 - S7 S8 S7 S8
-
State
State State
1
2 3

H
S1 S3 S5 S6 H H
Transforme
F S1 S3 S5 S6 S1 S3 S5 S6
Transforme
F Transforme
F
r
+
Vd r r
+ +
c- Vd Vd +
+ c- c- +
S2 S4 0 -
S2 S4 S2 S4
S7 S8
- S7 S8 S7 S8 -
State
4 State State
5 6

Fig. 5.4 (b) Duration 1

H H S5 S6
S1 S3 S5 S6 S1 S3
Transforme
F Transforme
F
r r
+ +
Vd Vd
c- c-

S2 S4 S2 S4 0
S7 S8 S7 S8

State State
1 2

H
S1 S3 S5 S6 H
Transforme
F S1 S3 S5 S6
Transforme
F
r
+
Vd r
- +
Vd
c-
c-
+
S2 S4 0
S2 S4
S7 S8
S7 S8
State
State

Page 71
 Fig. 5.4 (c) Duration II
(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

Simulation

Prior to its construction, the circuit was simulated (OrCAD 9.1) using the
full-bridge inverter, high frequency transformer, cycloconverter, and output filter.
Control of the circuit was handled by a PI controller and logic unit. In order to
feed back the reactive power, both output voltage and current were sampled.
The PI controller was used in order to improve the system’s dynamic response.
While basic SPWM operation was simulated, the phase shift control was not
achieved due to software limitations.

Simulation Results

Figure 5.6 details the simulation results of output voltage and current, the
waveform transmitted by the high frequency transformer, and its spectrum. Note
that, for simulation purposes, a carrier frequency of 30 kHz was used. This
frequency was retained in the final design. With that said, it is seen that half of
the carrier frequency is contained in the waveform for transmission. This was the
desired frequency, as seen in the theoretical analysis.

Fig. 5.6 (a) Output voltage and current

Page 72
 Fig. 5.6 (b) Waveform transmitted by high frequency transformer

Fig. 5.6 (c) Spectrum of waveform through transformer

(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

Figure 5.7 shows the drive signal of the switches on the primary and
secondary sides. Due to the inability to phase-shift in the simulation, basic
modulation was used to generate the full-bride’s drive signal. However, the
control scheme of the cycloconverter was realized. The first and second graphs
show the full-bridge control signal. Graphs three through six show the

Page 73
cycloconverter control signal. The full-bridge graphs are clearly high frequency,
while the cycloconverter graphs show only small portions of high frequency. This
small amount of high frequency operation leads to lower switching losses as
compared to other methods.

Fig. 5.7 Switch drive signal (Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

Voltage across the switches was measured in Figure 5.8. The absence of
large spikes proved this control scheme to be acceptable for our design.

Page 74
 Fig. 5.8 Voltage across the switches
(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

The UC3875 phase-shift controller was used to test the full-bridge inverter.
In Figure 5.9 the upper signal shows the drive signal for S1. The lower signal
shows the drive signal for S4. The middle signal shows the difference between
S1 and S4. This shows the changing phase difference between the two
switches. A positive output was realized when S1 and S4 were on and a
negative output was realized when S2 and S3 were on. Otherwise, there was
zero output.

Page 75
 Fig. 5.10 Full-bridge phase-shift control signal
(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

Measuring the waveform at the secondary side of the transformer showed a step
between the alternating pulses. During the process of current free wheeling, the
voltage dropped across the switches and body diodes, causing these steps.
However, there was no problem causing magnetic saturation due to the
symmetry about the X-axis. This is shown in Figure 5.11.

Page 76
 Fig. 5.11 High frequency transformer waveform
(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

Figure 5.12 shows the conversion of the unipolar SPWM pulse to a

sinusoidal waveform after passing through the output filter. Figure 5.12 (a) is
clearly the unipolar SPWM pulse prior to filtering. The true unipolar SPWM pulse
has thousands of pulses in each period, but the limitations of the sampling
frequency of the scope used to measure these pulses lead to the amount of
pulses shown. Figure 5.12 (b) clearly shows the benefit of the output filter, which
achieves the desired waveform.

Page 77
 Fig. 9.12 (a) Unipolar SPWM waveform
(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

Fig. 9.12 (b) Sinusoidal output waveform

(Reprinted with permission of Songquan Deng)

Page 78
 The simulation clearly showed that the final design should yield the
predicted values. These values were attained without the use of proper phase-
shifting and the active filter to keep the input to the inverter at an acceptable
level. With the addition of these factors, the entire system was expected to
produce remarkable results.

As previously mentioned, the University of Central Florida was forced to

pull out of the Future Energy challenge due to a lack of funding and proper
equipment. The original plan was to build a one kilowatt inverter in the hopes that
a functional one kilowatt inverter would be chosen the winner of the competition
over nonfunctional ten kilowatt inverters. The administration of the Future Energy
Challenge ruled this to be unacceptable.

As such, the Inverter design group opted to separate themselves from the
DSP and Interface groups and produce the project on their own. This decision
forced the Inverter group to design a separate control circuit to control switching.
The resulting design was functional at the time of their final presentation,
producing fifteen watts on the output side. While not the proposed one hundred
watt system, this was considered a success by the Inverter group considering the
circumstances.

Page 79
 Fuel Cell
Introduction

We had been invited to be a part of an international student competition

with the goals of innovating, conserving, and using electrical energy in the most
effective manner. In 2001, the United States Department of Energy, along with
the National Association of State Energy Officials, the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, and the Department of Defense organized what came to
be known as the first Future Energy Challenge competition. It took place with the
objective of building a low-cost inverter prototype that would support fuel cell
power systems. The competition was open to North American schools with
accredited engineering programs. The 2001 Future Energy Challenge had as its
focal point the rising field of distributed electricity generation systems, and was
extremely interested in finding a way to improve the design and reduce the cost
of dc to ac inverters and interface systems to be used in the distributed
generation systems. The 2001 competition’s objectives were to design systems
that would reduce the cost of commercial systems by some 50% and speedup
the utilization of distributed generation systems in homes and buildings. In 2003,
the 2nd Future Energy Challenge will take place, and it will be an international
competition in which universities and colleges with accredited engineering
programs will participate. The 2003 competition has different objectives, to
introduce engineering design advances that can show reductions in the use of
residential electricity and show the way for the best use of electricity in homes in
developing nations.

Our project consisted of developing a low-cost power processing system

that could support the commercialization of a solid-oxide fuel cell power
generation system to provide non-utility and ultra-clean residential electricity.
This task was quite complicated and time consuming so the work load for the
development of the fuel cell inverter was divided into four groups. The different
groups were responsible for the different parts of the inverter system. The groups
were divided in this manner: DSP, Inverter, Interface, and Fuel cell modeling and
simulation. Unfortunately, about a month before this semester was over, the Fuel
cell Modeling and Simulation group decided to no longer be a part of our team,
the team that would represent the University of Central Florida at the 2003 Future
Energy Challenge. Our group was faced with the task of interfacing the DSP,
Inverter, and the fuel cell. After the unfortunate incident involving the Simulation
group another major event took place, the University withdrew itself from the
competition, leaving three Senior Design groups not knowing what would
happen. What happened was that all three groups would still be working together
in the construction of an inverter, but one at a much lower scale. As if that was
not enough, the Inverter group decided to go their own route, and in the end the
DSP and our group worked in conjunction with one another.

Page 80
What is a Fuel Cell?

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy of a

reaction into electrical energy. The basic arrangement of a fuel cell consists of an
electrolyte layer in contact with a porous anode and cathode on either side of it.

Reproduced by Fuel Cell Inverter Interface Group

Basic Behavior and Components

In any typical fuel cell, gaseous fuel cells are supplied continuously to the
anode compartment, which is the negative electrode; and an oxidant, such as
oxygen from the air is supplied continuously to the cathode compartment, the
positive end. When this gaseous fuels and oxygen are interacting with the anode
and cathode respectively, electrochemical reactions take place at the electrodes
producing electric current. Even though many of the components and
characteristics of a fuel cell are similar to that of a battery, it is different in various
aspects. The battery happens to be an energy storage device. On the other
hand, the fuel cell is a device that converts energy and has the capacity to
produce electrical energy for as long as the fuel and oxidant are being supplied
to the electrodes. In a battery, the energy is determined by the amount of
chemical reactants saved within the battery. Once the reactants are consumed
within a battery, the battery is dead, or discharged, and it stops producing
energy. The fuel cell exhibits a different kind of behavior when it is no longer
useful. The fuel cell happens to die when corrosion takes place or when a
malfunction of any of its components occurs.

Page 81
 In fuel cells, for the most part, the type of ions and transport direction can
vary, influencing the site of the production of water and removal. The ion can be
either positive or negative. The fuel or oxidant gases travel past the surface of
the anode or cathode in the opposite direction of the electrolyte and generate
electrical energy. This generation of electrical energy is achieved by the
electrochemical oxidation of fuel and the electrochemical reduction of an oxidant,
which are usually hydrogen and oxygen respectively. Researchers have argued
that theoretically any substance capable of chemical oxidation that can be
supplied in a continuous matter as a fluid can be burned as the fuel at the anode
of a fuel cell. In the same manner, any fluid that can be reduced at a sufficient
rate can be used as an oxidant. In present day fuel cells, gaseous hydrogen has
become the fuel of choice, and the most common oxidant is gaseous oxygen.
The reason being is that hydrogen has high reactivity, the ability to be produced
from hydrocarbons, and high energy density when stored cryogenically for
applications within closed environments, as space.

Fuel cells have a porous electrode region; in said region a three-phase

interface is established among the reactants, the electrolyte, and the catalyst.
This interface is crucial for the electrochemical performance of fuel cells,
particularly for those that work with liquid electrolytes. In fuel cells with liquid
electrolytes, the reactant gases diffuse through a thin electrolyte film that drench
portions of the porous electrode and have electrochemical reactions on their
respective electrode surface. There must be a balance among the electrode,
electrolyte, and gaseous phases in the porous electrode configuration. In order to
keep the costs down and obtaining a higher and more stable electrochemical
performance, some fuel cell developers have been trying to reduce the thickness
of cell components and improving the electrode configuration.

The electrolyte’s main purpose is to transport dissolved reactants to the

electrode, its second purpose is to conduct ionic charge between the electrodes,
and by doing so it completes the cell electric circuit. Thirdly, it serves as a wall to
keep the fuel and oxidant gas from directly mixing.

Porous electrodes provide the surface location where the ionization and
de-ionization of gas and liquids can take place; they also conduct ions into or out
of the three-phase interface after they are formed; serve to provide a wall that
separates the bulk gas phase and the electrolyte.

What Makes Fuel Cells Favorable

Our air is polluted; millions of Americans breathe unhealthy air. Not only
the air we breathe, but global warming is forcing not only the United States, other
nations as well, to reconsider their energy resources. As American energy
demand continues to raise, research, development, and manufacture of clean

Page 82
and renewable energy systems is needed. Fuel cells have certain characteristics
that make them beneficial as energy conversion devices. The two major benefits
and the ones that have been influencing the interest of fuel cells for terrestrial
technology are their high efficiency and low environmental disturbance. So by the
use of fuel cells we have an energy technology that can eliminate both air
pollution and the need for foreign oil imports. Other characteristics that make fuel
cells and fuel cell plants favorable are: that they have direct energy conversion,
no combustion involved; that there are no moving parts in the energy converter;
and fuel cells are quiet. Fuel cells also have negative characteristics associated
with them, among those stand out the fact that market entry cost is high: $1,400
per kilowatt, US Dept. Energy looking to lower production to $600 – 800 per
kilowatt, and that fuel cell technology is not well known to the power industry as
of yet. The fact that fuel cell technology is expensive brought us to participate in
this project. This project had as its sole purpose the task of building a fuel cell
inverter that may be inexpensive enough to be used in households all over our
nation, and many other nations as well. The benefits of fuel cells far exceed their
disadvantages, so they were deemed negligible for the purpose of our research
and project.

Were we to take part in the Competition, a solid oxide fuel cell would have
been used, so it is imperative to speak on this type of cells to further the
understanding of our research and project. Solid oxide fuel cells are deemed as a
practical high temperature fuel cell technology. What makes them different for the
rest is that there is no liquid electrolyte, so there is no material corrosion and the
problems associated with managing liquid electrolytes. Their operating
temperatures of more than 600 degrees Celsius allow internal reforming, rapid
kinetics with non-precious materials, and the heat is produces as a byproduct is
high quality and can be used for cogeneration. The high operating temperatures
make it a challenge to find low cost materials for the development of ceramic
configurations.

Since all of this fuel cell’s components are solid, it creates no restrictions
on how the fuel cell should be configured. This freedom of configuration makes it
uncomplicated to shape the cell according to its design and/or application issues.
Currently, there are two configurations for solid oxide fuel cells, tubular and flat
plate SOFCs. Tubular cells have been under development by Siemens
Westinghouse and there are working units with a capacity of 100 kW. Flat plate
fuel cells are at a much earlier stage in their development status.

Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons can be used as fuels in SOFCs. One

type of hydrocarbon that can be used as fuel is methane. However because of
the high operating temperatures of today’s SOFCs the materials used in the fuel
cell components are limited by chemical stability: in oxidizing and reducing
environments, of contacting materials, conductivity, and thermo-mechanical
compatibility. Since they would be limited to meeting so many criteria, fuel cell
developers have taken the liberty of developing cells with compositions of oxide

Page 83
and other materials that operate at no such high temperatures, but those in the
range of 650 degrees Celsius.

Today, solid oxide fuel cells developers use thin film concepts where films
of electrode, electrolyte, and interconnect material are placed one on another
and fused together to form a fuel cell configuration. The developing techniques
vary depending on the type of fuel cell configuration and whoever designs and
develops the cell. The tubular Siemens Westinghouse SOFC design uses a
design technique called “electrochemical vapor deposition” (EVP). EVP consists
of producing thin layers of oxides appropriate for the electrolyte, anode, and
interconnection. Siemens also produces another technique of design where the
appropriate metal chloride vapor is injected on one side of the tubular surface,
and hydrogen and oxygen injected on the other side.

Their Performance

Before manufacturers develop fuel cell systems, large and complex

computers are used to model the behavior of fuel cells based on their physical
dimensions, materials, transport phenomena, and electrochemistry. Since the
computer modeling of fuel cells is time consuming, there have been other
approaches taken in modeling their behavior. The one that has been proven to
be most efficient is the development of certain equations based on
thermodynamic modeling which would describe fuel cell performance as
temperature, pressure, and gas constituents are changed. Thermodynamic
modeling cuts down on the number of tests needed to define the constants
needed within the equation.

Fuel cells work properly when a reasonable current is drawn, but other
factors also contribute to the decrease of their performance; these factors are the
fuel cells’ irreversible losses. The irreversible losses are called polarization.
There are three types of polarization: activation polarization, ohmic polarization,
and concentration polarization. Polarizations in cells produce a cell voltage, one
that is unwanted.

Activation polarization occurs when the rate of an electrochemical reaction

at an electrode surface is controlled by slow electrode kinetics. So activation
polarization is directly associated to the rates at which the electrochemical
reactions within a fuel cell occur. Electrochemical and chemical reactions within
fuel cells have to overcome the activation barriers that are proposed by those
agents that react within them. The following equation, derived for thermodynamic
modeling, is used to analyze the activation polarization in fuel cells. The following
equation only applies to fuel cells with an activation polarization greater than 50
mV, but no greater than 100mV.

Page 84
 h act = RT ln i
αn io

Alpha (α) is the electron transfer coefficient of the reaction at the electrode
being addressed, and io is the exchange current density.

Ohmic Polarization occurs when there is resistance to the flow of ions in

the electrolyte and to the flow of electrons through the electrode materials.
Decreasing the electrode separation and enhancing the ionic conductivity of the
electrolyte is the way to reduce the ohmic losses that take place through the
electrolyte. Ohmic losses are expressed by the following formula:

hohm = iR

In the previous formula i is the current flowing through the cell, and R is
the total cell resistance, which includes electronic, ionic, and contact resistance.

Concentration Polarization occurs when one of the reactants is burnt up at

the electrode by the electrochemical reaction and there is a loss of potential
energy. The burning up of a reactant at the electrode happens when the
surrounding material cannot maintain the initial concentration of the bulk fluid.
Concentration polarization can be caused by many of the processes inside the
electrodes. Sometimes there is slow diffusion in the electrode pores; other times,
there is a slow move of the reactants or products to and from the electrochemical
reaction.

h conc = RT ln 1-i
n iL

iL is the limiting current

Activation and Concentration Polarization can take place at both the

cathode and anode electrodes in fuel cells. By summing the activation and
concentration polarizations we have the formula for total polarization. When
polarization takes place, its effect to the cell is the shifting of the potential energy
of the electrode to a new value. The new value is the Velectrode.

Velectrode = Eelectrode +  helectrode 

And the variation for the formula is the following, it varies by the where the
cell voltage is calculated, at the anode and at the cathode.
At the anode:

Page 85
 Vanode = Eanode +  hanode 

At the cathode:

Vcathode = Ecathode – hcathode 

The cell voltage is reduced in a fuel cell by increasing the anode’s

potential energy and decreasing the cathode’s. The cell voltage is determined by
the contribution of the potential energy at the anode and cathode and ohmic
polarization, summed up in this formula:

Vcell = Vcathode – Vanode – iR

Summing up the polarization and the cell voltage formulas we get the following
one formula:

Vcell = ∆Ee –  hcathode  –  hanode  – iR

In the above formula: ∆Ee = Ecathode – Eanode. The formula is intended to show
that current flow in a fuel cell has as a result a decrease in the cell voltage
because of losses caused by the electrode and ohmic polarizations. Fuel cell
developers try to reduce polarization so that the cell voltage approaches the
change in potential energy. In order for the cell voltage to approach the change in
potential energy, modifications to fuel cell design must be made. Some
modifications that can be implemented are improvement in electrode structures,
thinner cell components, more conductivity electrolyte, and others. It is also
possible to improve fuel cell performance by adjusting the operating conditions,
like higher gas pressure and higher temperature. But when a fuel cell is operated
at a higher temperature or pressure some things can give because there is a
compromise between getting a higher performance from the cell and dealing with
the problems that may rise with the stability and durability of the cell and its
components at the more severe operating conditions.

Key Variables affecting their performance

Fuel cell performance is directly affected by their operating variables.

These variables are temperature, pressure, gas, composition, current density,
reactant utilization along with other factors such as impurities and cell life. The
variables mentioned influence the ideal cell potential and how much voltage is
lost from polarization. By changing the temperature and pressure one can expect

Page 86
to have either beneficial or negative impact on the performance of the fuel cell
and its components. For example: changing some operating conditions can lower
the cost of the cell while it raises the cost of the system. Something has to be
compromised in the operating parameters for the design of fuel cells to meet
certain application requirements, achieve lowest system cost, and reach good
enough cell life. The operating conditions are directly affected by the system
requirements defined like: power level, voltage, and system weight. To satisfy the
system requirements one must select a fuel cell operating point, the cell voltage
and current density associated to that voltage, and adjust the conditions until the
system requirements are met. Some examples of how the variables relate to one
another in meeting system requirements are the following. A design point at a
high current density allows a smaller cell size at lower manufacturing cost to be
used in a fuel cell stack but the system has lower efficiency results, a lower cell
voltage and higher operating cost. This sort of operating point would be the one
chosen for vehicle applications that need light weight and small volume. The fuel
cells that can operate at a lower current density are the ones of choice for power
plant operation. Cells like these have low current density, higher voltage, higher
efficiency, and lower operating cost; but with the higher efficiency there is a
higher parasitic power to compress the reactants and the fuel cell stack pressure
container and piping have to be made to support the greater pressure, also
adding cost.

Materials and Design Approaches

The major issue for improving solid oxide fuel cells is the development of
materials that would keep up good performance while resisting the high operating
temperatures at which they are exposed. Another issue that comes in play for the
fabrication of fuel cell technology is cost reduction of cell components and how to
simplify the process of manufacture. With this in mind there are several key
issues strictly related to the previously mentioned issues: the materials and
relevant designs used in SOFCs have to operate at high temperatures to obtain
the performance according to their high resistances; there are high mechanical
stresses in planar designs that come about from differential thermal expansion
coefficients of bordering component materials; the integrity of the design of some
of the components are altered by the high temperatures needed to obtain high
density; and these high temperatures are needed in the fabrication of ceramic
components. All these issues make solid oxide fuel cells and their technology
extremely pricey. Different approaches have been taken to lessen the materials
and design concerns present. The approaches are the following: research is
taking place to address material and design improvements that would permit
operation within the high temperatures of today’s cell technology; and the
possibility of lowering the cell operating temperature and the fabricating
temperatures in order to bring down the cost and enhancing their performance.
Lowering the temperatures anywhere from 600 to 800 degrees Celsius would
mean the substitution of metals to ceramics in the cathode and the interconnect,
which in turn would provide for a lower production cost.

Page 87
Reactant Gas Composition and Utilization

Since SOFCs function at high temperature, they have the capacity of

internally reforming fuel gases without the use of a definite reforming catalyst,
they only need the anode. SOFCs do not need to recycle carbon dioxide from the
used up fuel stream to the inlet oxidant because they only use dioxide at the
cathode.

Oxidant: Solid oxide fuel cells’ performance improves with pure dioxide
instead of air as the oxidant. The cell voltage with pure dioxide and air increases
as the current density increases.

Fuel: The oxygen/ carbon atom ration and hydrogen/carbon atom ratio
define the fuel composition. When hydrogen is present in the fuel, two results
come about: the potential energy is higher, and the oxygen/carbon ratio
associated with the complete oxidation extends to higher values. Such effect
occurs because the equilibrium composition obtained by the water gas shift
reaction produces hydroxide. The addition of hydrogen to the fuel gas will give
way to a higher open circuit potential in solid oxide fuel cells. The fuel gas
composition has a huge effect on the cell voltage of the cells. Carbon oxygen is a
useful fuel for SOFCs. With fuel gases with only a low concentration of hydroxide
and carbon oxide, there is significant amount of concentration polarization and
the performance is lower. There is a decrease in cell voltage with an increase in
the fuel usage at constant current density.

Overview:

We have discussed what fuel cells are, their behavior, and the type of fuel
cell we would have had to use, solid oxide fuel cell. Even though fuel cells
produce electricity, fuel cell power systems require the incorporation of other
components in addition to the fuel cell stack, because the fuel cell stack as a
stand-alone unit only produces dc power and use only processed fuel. The other
reasons for the fuel cell system to be put together is to allow operation of the cell
with conventional fuels, to tie into the power grid, and to use the available heat to
achieve high efficiency. Fuel cell systems consist of a fuel processor, fuel cell
power section (stack), power conditioner, and a bottoming cycle that is where the
rejected heat is collected and recycled for other uses.

There is more in the design of a fuel cell system than making the best use
of the fuel cell section in respect to efficiency or cost. There is also the need to
minimize the cost of electricity within the limitation of the application
requirements. This requires that the fundamental processes of the cell be
integrated into an efficient cell plant with low monetary costs. The objectives of
the system can sometimes bring issues at time of manufacture so occasionally

Page 88
the design of the system becomes compromised and manufacturers reach a
“happy medium” when developing them. This is not all that must be considered,
the design is also influenced by other goals: desired fuel, emission levels, and
the use of the rejected heat, desired output, system weight, and tolerance for
risk.

Fuel processing depends on the technology and the raw fuel. Solid oxide
fuel cell technology utilizes carbon oxide through the water gas shift reaction;
they also use methane. The contamination limits within a cell are also specific to
the technology of the cell; for example, it will not be the same for both: solid oxide
fuel cells and the other fuel cells that are made. Different fuels get processed
differently. Hydrogen needs to be produced from other fuels and processed
according to the system requirements. Natural gas is processed by first removing
the sulfur found in them. After the sulfur is removed, it is usually converted into
hydroxide and carbon oxide in a steam-reforming reactor. Liquid fuel is
processed by the use of partial oxidation reformers. Coal processing is done by
gasification through heat. There are three types of coal gasification processes:
moving-bed, fluidized-bed, and entrained-bed. All three types entail the partial
oxidation of the coal. Gasifiers produce contaminants that need to be removed
before entering the fuel cell anode. The contaminant levels depend on both fuel
composition and the gasifier that is being used. The sulfur impurities and other
contaminants can be removed by way of one of two: hot or cold cleanup
systems. Cold gas cleanup has been proved efficient for years; hot cleanup is
still in development and would most likely be a combination of the two systems,
not just hot cleanup.

The heat not used in the fuel processing and fuel cell subsystems can be
used to provide additional electricity, steam, or hot water. How the unused heat is
employed depends on the need of the end user and the specifics of the process.
The earth’s atmosphere over many years has become an issue with US
Department of Energy to preserve the air quality. With global warming and other
toxic air products killing the earths land resources away and air quality,
organizations are trying to find ways to slow down this process. US Department
of Energy is trying to complete it outlook in making safer energy sources for our
world today.

Fuel cell research has been implemented as competitions around the

world to help producer a safer and more reliable energy source. Fuel cells have
a high rating in energy conversion device because of its high efficiency and low
environmental disturbance. They produce DC energy from electrochemical
reactions within themselves, so all we need to do is convert the energy produced
into energy we can use in a house.

The conversion of energy the fuel cell produces is done by a fuel cell
inverter, which takes the DC energy and turns it into an AC voltage. The fuel cell
technology has proven to be more expensive than conventional energy and

Page 89
electricity, but even though fuel cell technology is quite expensive and new, we
must go forth in the research. Continuous research can show how the
technology can be improved to achieve great levels of efficiency and a low
market cost at the same time. Competitions like the 2003 International Future
Energy Challenge give us incentives in going forward with the investigation of
fuel cells, their behavior, and the improvements we can make in the development
of fuel cell systems.

Even though the University has chosen to not participate in the 2003
Future Energy Challenge, we found it necessary to explore all these aspects of
fuel cells and their implementations. It was crucial for this study on fuel cells to be
maintained in our final documentation because it was from our involvement in the
Future Energy Challenge that our Senior Design project came to be.

Fuel Cell Summary

The earth’s atmosphere over many years has become an issue with US
Department of Energy to preserve the air quality. With global warming and other
toxic air products killing the earths land resources away and air quality,
organizations are trying to find ways to slow down this process. US Department
of Energy is trying to complete it outlook in making safer energy sources for our
world today.

Fuel cell research has been implemented as competitions around the

world to help producer a safer and more reliable energy source. Fuel cells have
a high rating in energy conversion device because of its high efficiency and low
environmental disturbance. They produce DC energy from electrochemical
reactions within themselves, so all we need to do is convert the energy produced
into energy we can use in a house.

The conversion of energy the fuel cell produces is done by a fuel cell
inverter, which takes the DC energy and turns it into an AC voltage. The fuel cell
technology has proven to be more expensive than conventional energy and
electricity, but even though fuel cell technology is quite expensive and new, we
must go forth in the research. Continuous research can show how the
technology can be improved to achieve great levels of efficiency and a low
market cost at the same time. Competitions like the 2003 International Future
Energy Challenge give us incentives in going forward with the investigation of
fuel cells, their behavior, and the improvements we can make in fuel cell systems
development.

Page 90
 For the Future Energy Challenge this year, the fuel cell being provided at
the competition is a solid-oxide fuel cell. Even though we did not participate in the
Energy Challenge, our specifications of building the interface were geared
towards those for the Competition. Solid oxide fuel cells are practical, high
temperature fuel cells. The difference from the other fuel cells is there’s no liquid
electrolyte, so there is no material corrosion and the problems associated with
managing liquid electrolytes. All of this fuel cell’s components are solid; it creates
no restrictions on how the fuel cell should be configured. This freedom of
configuration makes it simple to shape the cell according to its design and or its
application issues.

In the last months there has been more talk of the benefits of cleaner and
more efficient energy. Car manufacturers have spent millions of dollars on
research and are expecting to release a fuel cell powered automobile within the
next five years. As if this was not sufficient, President George Bush approved a
budget of 1 billion dollars for the research of fuel cell technology. Fuel cell
technology will not only be used for household purposes in the future but will
become our power source for cellular phones, portable computers, and just about
every device that we utilize now. Fuel cells are part of our research today so that
tomorrow they can be our reality.

Page 91
 Design Issues / Troubleshooting Guide

Introduction

In every design there is always some trouble spots. These areas can be
something another user made be having with an individual design. The interface
circuit board presented in this paper had some issues and trouble spots that are
going to be pointed out. This portion of the document is intended to make future
add on and production of the interface board easier.

Power Stage

During the production of our layout, we wanted to create a small

board, to be compact. This way, when production of the circuit board is
done, the least amount of empty space lowers cost on production.

After completing the layout design and checking all the components
connects and polarity we noticed that the high side power source
connection was
close to a copper
line. This caused
some issues
because the size of
the hole needed at
this location was
unable to be drilled.
If the drill were just
off a little it would
have shorted to
another line. The
interface board
team decided at this
point to continue
with the current
PCB board. To
Figure 4.1 – Power Stage Connection (High Side)
correct this issue,
the team moved the
drilling over to an open area. This area did not connect to the copper line,
so the team created a copper jumper on bottom layer between the new
location and the old.

Page 92
Driver Ground: IXDD414

During the process of checking the signals coming from the

IXDD414, when our team connected a function generator to the input
signals, some noise was produced. This noise was coming from the
output and input on one of the drivers while it was receiving an input
signal. This seemed to
be abnormal; being the
first connection is directly
to the driver. Our circuit
has two drivers (figure
4.2); one for each switch
and only one had greater
noise. We first thought
the possibility of the
driver being bad;
therefore we change it
out, which was an easy
Figure 4.2 – IXDD414 Ground Line Resistance
process due to the
controller seats.

The driver did not seem to be the issue, so we then rechecked for
any shorts. After some review, we noticed a small resistance in ground
connection, so placed a new connection directly to ground. Upon
completing this, the noise was reduced to match the goods driver output.

Controller Power Supply: IR2110

When running
test on our milled
PCB board, both
powered and not
powered, we found
that the IR2110
controller (figure 4.3)
was not getting any
low side voltage
power. This is the
power to be supplied
Figure 4.3 – Power to IR2110
on the low side
output when there is
Pin 3 – Vcc No power
applied

Page 93
a low side signal. Since there was no power being supplied to Vcc, the
signal was not being transmitted on the low end of the controller.

Other conditions and voltage readings were done on the rest of the
controller. Conditions for all other signals and grounds, along with power
conditions were correct, so the team decided to run a jumper from logic
supply voltage to the Vcc pin. This condition for our purpose posed the
Vcc and VDD to have twelve volts. Now when sending a signal to the low
side in, the low side output produced a signal, just the conditions needed
to control our switches.

Switching Conditions

Every household has a switch, to turn on and off lights or other

appliances. For the interface, the switch we used had to be fast acting,
being able to produce the simulated results. Among other things, the
switches used must have a way of controlling current. To complete the
current control task, the switches used have them built in, allowing only
current to flow in one direction.

The first set of switches used in the production and testing of the
interface board was IRF9520 (figure 4.4).
Notice the direction of the diode, current
only allowed flowing from the drain to
source. In the testing, our team found this
out much later after testing the switch
signal, noticing the current conditions
being wrong.
After reading
over other
Figure 4.4 – IRF9520
mosfet switches
data sheets, we
ran across the IRFP 140. This mosfet, as
shown in figure 4.4b, notice the diode and the
Figure 4.4b – IRFP 140 direction that the current will allow flow from
source to drain.

Page 94
Labeled Inductor Value

In the interface design the use of an inductor was used to smooth

out the current switching conditions. Most of the time an inductor is used
in series or parallel with capacitors to provide smooth signal and current
lines.

In production of our interface board, our interface was proposed to

use an inductor value of 66 micro Henry. This was give to use at no cost
and was above our simulated and calculated value, which was needed to
be in CCM (for more information read interface design). In figure 4.5a,
you will notice the produced signal at the mosfet switch per the simulated
r
e
s
u
l
t
s

o
n

c
o
m Figure 4.5a – Mosfet voltage during simulation w/ 66uH
p
u
t
e
r
.

T
h
e

t
e
a
m

Figure 4.5b – Actual Results at Mosfet switch using 66uH inductor

Page 95
compared the values to the actual value (figure 4.5b) the team received.

The interface design team decided to purchase a inductor because

of time constraints and equipment available to test inductor values.
Before purchasing any inductor, the interface design team ran some more
simulations to find out a range of values able to complete our task. The
team then purchased a 100uH inductor; this had fast availability, therefore
worked out. As simulated in figure 4.5c, the value of 100 uH was
produced. This value worked fine and kept the mode in CC. As you will
see the actual value have the same ideal results as figure 4.5d.

Figure 4.5c – Simulated Value of 100uH

Figure 4.5d – Actual value at Mosfet switch using a 100uH inductor

Page 96
 The value of the inductor being an issued took some time to figure
out; being the first inductor used must have been missed labeled.
Running simulation on the computer showed the 66uH inductor could
have been more like 6.6uH. The design team knows all other components
were working correctly, so the only thing that was un-testable with the
equipment in the lab was the inductor.

Page 97
 Summary & Conclusion

The United States Department of Energy and the United States

Department of Defense are holding a competition for the international collegiate
community called The International 2003 Future Energy Challenge. The goal of
the competition was to build a cost-effective, manufacturable, innovative DC-AC
fuel cell inverter system to be used in homes and businesses around the world.
Our team was formed under the specification of the competition, however; due to
lack of needed equipment, our senior design project was dropped for competing.
After much delegating, the Interface and DSP groups decided to continue with
the project in an ideal way to produce a lower power DC-DC system.

The specifications for this inverter system are quite extensive, the group
running this end of the project decided to drop out of interfacing with the interface
unit and DSP. The specifications of the system include, but are not limited to, the
complete package size of the system being less than 88.5 dm3 , weighing less
than 30 kg, with a current limit of 110% of the maximum rated value. These
specifications along with some others were kept to keep our design in line with
future competitions.

Research in the area of digital signal-processing (DSP) how spread

through out the world. Since 1960, DSP has made more improvement then any
other controller. The future of the digital controllers is being researched and
developed to have the same abilities as that of a microcontroller, but with higher
performance capabilities. All the current abilities that the DSP controller carries
will continue to expand over the coming years, creating a more vast and widely
used controller for all sorts of projects.

DSP controllers have parallel communication capabilities for both

transmitting and receiving, along with its high level computations of algorithms.
This makes a DSP controller useful in high performance projects. A converter
unit inside the DSP controller gives it the ability to transfer signals from analog to
digital (ADC) or digital to analog (DAC). ADC and DAC give possibilities to
create voice communication into digital format for editing or taking a digital
communication and transfer it over a analog network, such as telephone twisted
pairs. This type of communication is used in transformation of waveforms into
digital formats for our fuel cell inverter design and other communication needs.

DSP has other abilities to do filtering techniques. Most filtering has been
done through circuits in the past, but now a DSP controller using a simple routine
can complete filtration process. Programming a filtrations process is more cost
effective and being in a digital format, reliability and accuracy is great preformed.
This cuts back on building cost and the cutting back in production size, not
having to layout a circuit.

Page 98
 Research of inverter types outlines two inverter designs, the half-bridge
and full-bridge inverter. Both inverters are employed to convert a DC source
voltage to an AC output voltage. The half-bridge inverter provides the benefits of
simple topology, compact design, ease of control, and low cost. However, the
control of the output voltage is limited due to the afore mentioned factors. The
full-bride inverter requires a slightly more involved topology and more elaborate
control system. The benefits of the full-bridge inverter lay in output voltage
control. The produced waveform is closer to the desired AC waveform. Even
though the inverter group decided to complete there portion of the project on
there own, we still included some research completed by our design team.

Research of interface options yielded multiple means of steadying the

input voltage to the inverter system. Options covered include the placement of
an ultracapacitor in line with the input voltage, a series of batteries placed in the
same manor, and an active filter and battery system as a precursor to the
inverter. Placement of batteries in line with the inverter provides acceptable
steadying of the input voltage in the short term, but damage to the batteries
occurs over time. The use of an active filter and battery increases the complexity
of the system, but provides the most desirable input voltage to the inverter, while
protecting the battery from damage from over charging.

The proposed final design employs digital signal processing controller and
the interface unit. The interface unit consists of an active filter and battery. The
DSP communicates all it’s predefined routines to the interface to give a process
of switching the interface unit to the buck or boost mode. Another plus of using a
DSP controller is the less use of circuits for every routine being carried out; this
controller will help save space, time, and money. Not only are these good
qualities to have for a unit, but its vast ability to complete complicated algorithms.

The active filter and battery combination was selected for its ability to
provide the requisite steady input voltage to the inverter while protecting the
battery over long periods of operation. All simulations of the final interface
design, along with the use of the DSP controller are included in the final
documentation.

Page 99
 Administrative
Acknowledgements

Our project was conducted under the sponsorship of Dr. Issa Batarseh
and under the mentorship of Songquan Deng and Shilpa Kaluvala, both
Graduate students. Dr. Issa Batarseh is an Associate Professor in the School of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at University of Central Florida. Dr.
Batarseh received his Ph.D., M.S., and B.S. degrees in Electrical Engineering
from the University of Illinois. His research interest has been in the area power
electronics, with a special focus on DC-to-DC power supply design, correction of
power factor, and the dynamic modeling of converters. He participated in the
2001 Future Energy Challenge competition with a team of students from the
University of Central Florida and won 3rd place. We planned on going back for
the 2003 Competition and also placing; however, during the very beginning of the
semester, the University had to withdraw to the competition given that the Power
Electronics Lab did not have the necessary equipment or the funding to conduct
such a large research and fulfill the requirements of the Competition.

This following diagram shows the milestones of our first semester.

Inverter Build
Theoretical
System Inverter
Analysis
Simulation Prototype
System Meet the
Incoporation Specifications
Hardware&
Fuel Cell Simulation
Software
Modeling Verification
Realization

Fall Semester:

It is important to discuss our progress since the beginning of Senior

Design through the end. It turned out that the task we were faced with, building a
Fuel Cell Inverter for the 2003 Future Energy Challenge was a complex one, and
it would take more than one group in order to achieve it. As a result of the
complexity of our project, four groups were formed. They were the Fuel Cell
Simulation group, DSP, Inverter, and Interface. From the goals of the first
semester, theoretical analysis and inverter system simulation were reached. We
conducted a theoretical analysis on fuel cells, dc-dc power inverters, dc-ac
inverters, and uninterrupted power supplies. Another major event took place
towards the end of the semester, the Simulation group dropped out, and there
were three groups left. These three groups now had a different goal to reach, to
meet the requirements of the Energy Challenge and work hand in hand with one
another, so as the fall semester closed; these were the groups’ responsibilities,
those shown in the following diagram.

Page 100
 in v e r t e r
c o n tro l

D S P D ocum ent
c o m m u n ic a t io n
G ro u p S e a rc h a n d
w ith c o m p u te r
p r ic ip le
by R S 232
u n d e r s ta n d in g

D ocum ent T h e o r e tic a l

S e a rc h a n a ly s is a n d
In te rfa c e T w o S im u la tio n p ro p ty p e
G ro u p s o lu tio n s b u ild in g
c o m p a r is o n

T h e o r e tic a l
P a p e r r e a d in g a n a ly s is a n d S y s te m
u n d e r s ta n d in g P a c k a g in g
In v e rte r p ro p ty p e in t e g r a tio n
G ro u p o f th e S im u la tio n b u ild in g
o p e r a tio n
p r in c ip le

In v e rte r

Spring Semester:

During this semester, there were many changes that took place. Early on
in the semester, the University of Central Florida withdrew itself from the
competition due to funding and space size issues to conduct the research and
meet the design specifications.

We were left wondering around to see what would happen, but our sponsor and
mentors thought that it would be best for us to continue with the research and
build an inverter that would handle 100 watts, and we were in charge of building
the interface between the DSP, the fuel cell, and the inverter. The inverter group,
early on in the semester, decided to work by themselves, leaving the DSP group
and us corroborating with each other. Ultimately, we completed our design and
finished the semester with a working circuit, a combination buck-boost converter
that communicates with the DSP. The DSP in turn controls the switching
sequence in our circuit. Our interface operates as we wanted it to; we met all

Page 101
 our specifications, being able to handle 48V input from the battery, 24V input
from the load, and 100W maximum power. The following diagram describes the
two group’s responsibilities without the inverter group.

D S P D o cu m ent
c o m m u n ic a tio n
G ro u p S e a rc h a n d
w it h c o m p u t e r
p r ic ip le
by R S 23 2
u n d e r s ta n d in g

D o cu m en t T h e o r e tic a l
In te rfa c e S e a rc h S im u la t io n a n a ly s is a n d
G ro u p T w o p ro p ty p e
s o lu tio n s b u ild in g
c o m p a r is o n

S y s te m
P a c k a g in g
in t e g r a t io n

Interface and DSP group with Nat and Songquan Deng.

Page 102
Budgeting and Parts Acquisition:

When we first decided to take part in this project, we did not have a pre-
established budget. We were under the impression that all parts would be
provided to us by Dr. Batarseh, our mentors, and the Power Electronics Lab, but
it was not so. The following tables express our true budget.

Description Model #/ Size Qty Price each Total

Capacitor(s)* Small Caps. 3 $0.20 $0.60
Capacitor* 15uF 1 $0.70 $0.70
Capacitor* 100uF 1 $2.10 $2.10
Diode* 1 $0.15 $0.15
Resistor* 8.3 Ohm 2 $0.03 $0.06
Resistor* DSP test points 1 $0.20 $0.20
Inductor 100uH 1 $2.00 $2.00
Mosfet IRFP140 2 $2.50 $5.00
Socket 14 pin 1 $0.20 $0.20
Driver (Hi/Lo) IR2110 1 $3.95 $3.95
Socket 8 pin 2 $0.15 $0.30
Mosfet Driver IXDD414-PI 2 $2.37 $4.74
Terminals (+/-) 3 $2.95 $8.85
Con point (7 pin)* 1 $0.40 $0.40
PCB Board 4” x 4” 1 $1.00 $1.00
Wire (12 Gauge) 12’ 1 $4.95 $4.95
Banana Leads 2 $4.99 $9.98
Banana Plugs 1 $2.49 $2.49
Power Socket Male connector 1 $0.75 $0.75
Air Screen 4”x4” 1 $1.00 $1.00
Box 1 $5.00 $5.00
Serial Data Conn 9 pin male 1 $1.00 $1.00
PCB Rubber Seat 8 set 1 $4.00 $4.00
Pieces
Hardware Screws 1 $1.00 $1.00

The table above shows the components we used on our board, and their
respective prices. This was $60.42, minus $8.68 which was provided to us by the
Power Electronics Lab, which makes the cost to us be $51.74. We are very
pleased with the way our Senior Design experience turned out and grateful that

Page 103
we could partake in such a learning experience. Our project will not die with us,
because the research we conducted will be built upon, and the Power Electronics
Lab and the graduate students will ensure that our interface will be used for even
more research.

This picture represents our home away from home.

Page 104
 References

“Analog-to-Digital or Digital-to-Analog.” 1999. Online. What Is. Internet.

Available: www.whatis.com

Battery, DC-DC, Capacitor. Newark Electronics, 2002. Online. Available:

www.newark.com

Batarseh, Issa. Fuel Cell Based Inverter Design, University of Central Florida;
Florida: Orlando, 2002
---. DC-AC Inverters. Book yet to be published, University of Central Florida;
Florida: Orlando, 2002

Brancato, David. “Digital Signal Processing.” 2002. Online. What Is. Internet.
Available: www.whatis.com

C2Energy Systems Corp. Website. Fuel Cells. Online.

Available: www.c2esc.com

Deng, Songquan and Joy Mazumdar. Proposal 2003 Future Energy Challenge
Inverter Design For Solid Oxide Fuel Cell, University of Central Florida; Florida:
Orlando, 2002

Hirschenhofer, J.H., et al. Fuel Cell Handbook:

Parsons Corporation. Reading, PA 1998

Mazumdar, Joy, et al. Inverter Design For 2001 Future Energy Challenge,
University of Central Florida; Florida: Orlando, 2001

Nergaard, Troy, et al. Design Considerations for a 48V Fuel Cell to Spilt Single
Phase Inverter System with Ultracapacitor Energy Storage, Center for Power
Electronics System; Virginia: Backsburg, 2002.

Smith, Steven W., The Scientist and Engineer’s Guide to Digital Signal
Processing, California Technical Publishing, California, 1997.

Page 105
The International 2003 Future Energy Challenge. Online.
Available: www.energychallenge.com

University of South Carolina Team Report, Fuel Cell Converter Design,

University of South Carolina; South Carolina, 2001

Williston, Kenton, Corley, Chuck. “FAQ on Digital Signal Processing.” 2002.

Online. BDTI. Internet. Available: www.bdti.com/faq/dsp_faq.html

Page 106
Appendix Table

Page 107