BRUSHLESS DC TORQUE MOTORS QUALITY LEVEL INDEXES FOR SERVO DRIVE
APPLICATIONS
Alexander G. Mikerov, Senior member
Abstract: The paper is devoted to motors static and
dynamic qualitative characteristics required to compare
and select brushless DC torque motors of different models
and manufacturers for control systems and servo drives.
By analyzing of 16 torque motors from 6 manufacturers it
is shown that the most informative energetic index is the
static torque quality factor measuring a developing torque
per units of consumer power and the motor mass. Two
dynamic indexes also discussed: mechanical and electrical
time constants reflecting a torque motor structure.
Selection of one of these indexes as the main factor
depends of a drive application and design (gear or
gearless).
Index Terms: Torque motor, brushless DC motor,
permanent magnet synchronous motor, servo drive, motor
selection.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the field of controlled drives brushless DC motors
(BDCM) or permanent magnet synchronous motors
(PMSM) have a lot of benefits against their competitors
- frequency controlled induction motors due to smaller
weight, dimensions, better dynamic performance and
more simple electronic part. Such motors have linear
speed vs torque and speed vs control voltage
characteristics similar to classic brushed DC motors
however they have no brush-commutator assembly and
hence are much better for heavy environment and a
clean room technology.
Torque motors are a sort of common electrical
motors with two main distinctions:
• small operating speed,
• absence of a frame, shaft and bearings
(frameless design).
Hence torque motors are assumed to be incorporated in
any controlled plant or machine without any gear or
other mechanical transmission (direct drive). It delete
backlashes, resiliencies, kinematics errors and other
mechanical problems which reduce a drive mechanical
resonance frequencies, aggravate the problem of
stability and as a result reduce the control drive
accuracy and bandwidth. Of course such frameless
motor may be incorporated in any frame with a shaft
and bearings by a customer and hence such design may
be employed not only in a direct drive but also in a
common gear drive. It extends application field of
torque motors.
First Russian (Soviet) line DBM of commercial
brushless and frameless torque motors was launched
from 1984 at the Mashinoapparat Company in Moscow.
It was designed under guidance of Mark Minkin and Dr.
978-1-4244-3861-7/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE
Yuriy Belenkiy [1 – 3]. All these torque motors have
slot or slotless stator, distributed 2 or 3 phase winding,
multipole rotor with central hole and embedded
samarium cobalt magnets.
Now a lot of modern brushless torque motors are
commercially available from different well known
manufacturers: Inland (Kollmorgen), Axsys, Moog.
ETEL, Parker, etc. [4 – 8] To compare and select such
motors some different qualitative characteristics
(indexes) are known [3]. They may be divided by two
main groups:
• Static or energy indexes which demonstrate a
motor energy conversion efficiency;
• Dynamic indexes indicating motor speed of
response.
In this paper all these indexes are evaluated with
reference to closed control systems and servo drives.
As an illustration of different manufacturers brushless
torque motors three dimension groups of such motors
are considered. These indexes analysis permits to find
out main trends in modern brushless torque motors
development.
II. STATIC TORQUE MOTORS INDEXES
The main value for every torque motor is a starting
torque TS . In different handbooks one can find a
similar values as peak torque, stall torque, continuous
torque, torque with low speed and so on. The ratio of a
torque to related armature current is called a torque
sensitivity or torque constant KT (in Russian literature
a torque coefficient CM):
T
KT = S , (1)
is
where TS - staring torque in any mode and iS –starting
current in this mode.
For any torque motor KT is independent of a
selected mode and applied armature voltage however it
depends of the winding parameters. To compare torque
motors with different winding parameters and supplied
voltages it is useful to employ a motor constant [9, 10]:
TS KT
KM = = , (2)
Ps R
where
PS = iS2 R (3)
is the power consumed by the armature to produce such
827
torque, R – armature resistance. Hence it is a torque The coil resistance
developed by the motor for a consumed power unit.
l N
Indexes mentioned above KT and KM may be found in R=ρ w , (8)
handbooks of all torque motor manufacturers and in Aw
some papers [9, 10] the machine constant is
recommended as the main index for a different torque where - wire resistivity; lw , Aw - length and cross
motors comparison. However from our point of view sectional area of an average turn.
this index not fully indicates the technical level of every Let us assume for simplicity that the slot fill factor
torque motor. equal to 1, hence Aw = As / N where As – slot cross
Really the starting torque of a synchronous motor sectional area and
with permanent magnets under magnetic fields
harmonic distribution is equal [11]:
lw N 2
R=ρ (9)
TS = Fs Φ r sin θm , (4) As

where Fs - stator magnetomotive force (MMF), r - Assume also that the rotor magnetic flux is
rotor magnetic flux, m - magnetic angle between stator proportional to the motor rotor and stator pack length l
and rotor fluxes. (Fig.1):
Let us assume that the motor electronic system with
a rotor position sensor provides the magnetic angle l
Φ r = Φ r0 (10)
Θ m = π / 2 . Then l0

TS = Fs Φ r = iS NΦ r = K T iS , (5) Here r0 , l0 – magnetic flux and rotor pack length of

any base motor with the same diameter.
Then (7) may be represented as following:
where N – number of the winding turns with the starting
current iS.
Hence 2l
K M = k0 l, (11)
lw
KT = NΦ r (6) where the constant of proportionality

In accordance with (6) equation (2) may be rewritten as Φ r0 As

k0 = (12)
N l0 2ρ
KM = Φr (7)
R
Table 1 and Fig.2 illustrates this finding by a series of
RBE0151X Inland torque motors with the same
Let us consider a simple phase winding for two- outside diameter 60.3 mm and different rotor length.
Here a KS, index will be discussed bellow
1
Table 1
2 RBE0151X torque motor series static indexes

RBE Rotor Mass, KM, KS,

Do 3
model length, mm kg Nm/ W Nm/kg W

01510 5.7 0.18 0.045 0.25

01511 12.7 0.30 0.082 0.27

h
01512 19.0 0.40 0.105 0.26

Fig. 1 – Torque motor phase winding. 01513 25.4 0,51 0.128 0.25
1 – stator, 2 – rotor, 3 - winding
phase torque motor as any coil in a slot as it is shown in 01514 33.0 0.64 0.156 0.24
Fig.1, where D0 – outside diameter, l – rotor (and stator) 01515 38.1 0.73 0.170 0.23
pack length. 01516 50.8 0.95 0.202 0.21

828
One can see that the motor constant KM value is mass.
This dependence is not a straight line because according
to (11) the ratio 2l / lw tends to 1 with the
KM KS
KM
0.2
0.3
0.15
KS
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 m, kg
Fig. 2 – RBE0151X torque motor series
static indexes
motor length increasing and hence the motor constant
will be proportionate to l . Therefore a torque motor
with higher dimensions and weight has a higher value of
the motor constant due to more space for winding and
rotor permanent magnets.
To take into account a motor weight in the paper
[12] a different index was proposed and called a static
torque quality factor
TS KT
KS = = , (13)
m Ps m R
where m - full torque motor mass including stator and
rotor.
These factor values for the same Inland motors are
shown in the Table 1. One can see that when the motor
constant is increasing approximately 4.5 fold the static
torque quality factor changes only +/ 14%. Therefore
it may be used as a static torque motor index reflecting a
torque motor technical level.
However it will be shown later that even within the
bounds of any torque motor line the static torque quality
factor slightly increases with a mass. Hence to evaluate
a technical level it is better to compare torque motors of
similar size and weight.
It was mentioned that in (13) total motor stator and
rotor mass should be taking into consideration.
However sometimes this index may be calculated only
for active materials such as stator iron core and winding
plus rotor iron core and magnets. In this case different
fastenings and auxiliary details are excluded from the
consideration. It is obvious that such way better reflects
a motor designer skill. May be just fastenings and other
construction details (including in the total motor mass)
explains some static torque quality factor increasing
with the mass mentioned above. Really for a big motor
construction details share as a rule is less then for a
small motor.
However really it is very difficult to find such
information concerning motor active materials in any
manufacturer datasheets. Nevertheless it is necessary
to be careful in using any manufacturer information
about static torque quality factor.
III. TORQUE MOTORS DYNAMIC INDEXES
Main motor dynamic indexes are:
• mechanical time constant m,
• electrical time constant e.
For any electrical motor with linear speed versus
torque characteristic mechanical time constant may be
determined as
J rR J Ω
τm = = r NL (14)
KT K E TS
Here Jr – rotor moment of inertia, KE – back EMF
constant or voltage constant, NL – no-load speed.
For a motor without any load mechanical time constant
is a time of the motor speedup from zero to 63% of the
no-load speed. For servodrives and speed controlled
drives the less mechanical time constant is the more
drive accuracy and bandwidth may be obtained.
When a motor is connected with any load its
mechanical time constant is increasing in accordance
with the next ratio
J + JL
τm .L = τm r , (15)
Jr
where JL – the load moment of inertia reduced to the
motor shaft.
Hence this dynamic index is more important for a
gear drive because for a direct drive this time const in
accordance with (15) may be hundred times more then
the motor mechanical time constant due to a great load
moment of inertia connected to the motor shaft.
Electrical time constant is the armature winding
time constant. It is equal to
τe = L / R , (16)
where L – is armature (terminal) inductance.
During a motor start-up the electrical time constant
determines the time of the armature current increasing
from zero to 63% of a starting current value.
It should be mentioned that for any electrical motor
with fixed dimensions its winding electrical time
constant doesn’t depend of the winding parameters
such as a number of turns and a wire gage. Really let us
consider any phase winding as any simple coil shown
829
in Fig.1. For it the inductance is: P* = T * Ω * (21)

L = N 2 / Rm , (17) Motor speed and power versus torque curves are

shown in Fig. 3 for two cases: curves 1 for a negligibly
where Rm- motor reluctance. small electrical time constant and curves 2 for a
Hence substituting (17) and (9) into (16) one can sufficient electrical time constant.
obtain:
Vc
τe = , (18)
ρRmlw2 * P*
1.0 0.25
0.25
where Vc - winding copper volume. 1
The last equation demonstrates that for a constant
reluctance and middle turn length only the winding 0.8
copper volume defines the electrical time constant. This
0.15
finding may be easily checked for example by the RBE 0.6
motors line where every motor has three winding
versions A, B and  (Table 2) [4].
0.4
Table 2
Electrical time constants for RBE02110 motor 2
0.05
0.2
Winding A B C
Resistance, Ohm 1.27 8.05 0.48
Inductance, mH 1,70 10,0 0.60
Electrical time constant, ms 1,34 1,24 1,25 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 T*

Electrical time constant belongs to the so-called Fig. 3 – Speed and power versus torque
small drive time constant  that determine the drive
bandwidth. For a cascade servodrive control with
One can see that for zero electrical time constant
module optimum the next rule is used [13]:
speed versus torque curve is linear and its maximum
shaft power Pmax * = 0.25 (for T*= 0.5) is more then for
ωcut = 1 /( 2τμ ) . (19)
the case 2 of sufficient electrical time constant.
The maximum shaft power deficit may be
Here ωcut is the drive cut-off frequency. calculated for *= 0.5 as following.
Hence a small motor electrical time constant permits For τe 〉 0 :
to design the drive with the broader bandwidth and
0. 5 0.25
hence the higher accuracy. In practice cut-of frequency T* = , P* = (22)
of many electromechanical servodrives doesn’t exceed 1 + 0.25ϕe
2
1 + 0.25ϕe2
10 Hz. Hence from (19) for such drives torque motors
should have electrical time constant less then 8 ms. Hence the maximum shaft power deficit
Really majority of commercially available torque
motors meet this requirement (see, for example, tables 3
0 ) − Pmax
* *
– 5 bellow). Pmax( 0.25ϕe2
δPmax
*
= = , (23)
The second important point that should be *
Pmax( 0) 1 + 0.25ϕe2
considered during torque motors assessment is
electrical time constant impact on speed versus torque * ( 0 ) = 0.25 - maximum power for  = 0.
where Pmax e
curves. For a brushless DC motor such curve per units is
determined as following [14] This function (23) is shown in Fig. 4. One can see
that for
e= e 1 the deficit of maximum shaft power
is less then 20%. Hence the electrical time constant
1 − Ω*
T =
*
, (20) impact on a torque motor shaft power is important only
1 + (ϕe Ω* ) 2 for high-speed motors.
Generally speaking an electrical time constant
increasing can reduce a torque motor maximum shaft
where T * = T / TS and Ω* = Ω / Ω NL - per unit motor power and decrease the speed versus torque curve
torque and speed, ϕe = ωτe , ω = pΩ - angular speed, p linearity. However really it is noticeably for high-speed
- number of the motor poles pair. motors.
Output motor shaft power per units Besides it should be mentioned that speed versus
torque curve non-linearity can influence a closed loop

830
control system behavior and aggravate the problem of
stability due to variability of motor mechanical time
constant. For a servodrive with a position feedback such
effect may be negligible small because here the
P*max
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 1 2 3 e,, rad
Fig. 4 – Shaft power deficit for e > 0
mechanical time const is determined in the starting
torque region where the speed versus torque curve is
close to linear (see Fig. 3). Of course it is interesting to
explore this influence more detailed however it is also
noticeable only for high-speed motors, which are not
typical for torque motors.
Besides now different methods are proposed to
compensate an electrical time constant impact on speed
versus torque curves. The well-known method is a
motor current feedback employed in a cascade
servodrive control [13]. Motor phase currents feedback
also incorporates in the AC motors vector control [15].
More simple way used in small electrical machines and
drives is static correction circuitry or program shown
in Fig. 5 [18]. Here a permanent magnet synchronous
motor incorporates a motor position sensor (encoder),
power amplifier and a coordinate transformer. The
motor is controlled in d, q axes by applying a control
(input) voltage uq and correction voltage ud . The last
voltage is formed by a static correction unit from
control and rotor position signals. Static correction
algorithm represented for example in [11, 16 - 18] may
be introduced in a microcontroller. It provides current
vector direct axis component id = 0 under all motor
speed and hence a linear speed versus torque curve.
A high mechanical time constant also may be
compensated by a speed feedback employed in the
cascade servodrive control mentioned above. But such
feedback powerless to increase a low motor starting
acceleration caused by the high mechanical time
constant.
Therefore from our point of view choosing a
mechanical or electrical time constant as a torque
motor major dynamic index depends of the motor
application and speed. Concerning static torque motors
indexes the most informative seems to be the static
torque quality factor.
IV. MODERN TORQUE MOTORS
COMPARATIVE PARAMETERS
Comparative parameters of three groups of modern
torque motors are shown in tables 3 – 5 [2, 4 - 8]. All
motors are united according to three overall
dimensions as following:
• Small motors with outside diameter 38 – 60
mm and weight 0.16 – 0.31 kg (Table 3);
• Medium motors with outside diameter 95 -

Supply
Microcontroller
Synchronous motor
Input u1
uq
u2 N
Coordinate Power
ud transformer Amplifier S
u3

Static
Correction

Position
Encoder

Fig. 5 – PMSM with the static correction

831
 115 mm and weight 0.48 – 1.55 kg (Table
4);
• Large motors with outside diameter 152 -254
mm and weight 7 – 9.4 kg (Table 5).
Number of phases is not shown in Tables because
torque motor static and dynamic indexes don’t depend
of this number.
The first column includes DBM motors mentioned
above which demonstrate the 80th years of the last
century technical level. All tables show that modern
torque motors exceed DBM motors in static torque
quality factor 1.7 – 2.5 times as much.
Inside every group of modern motors the static
torque quality factor is changing very few with regard to
an average value: 12% for small motors, 3% for
medium motors and 10% for large ones while the
machine constant is changing 1.5 – 3 times.
Tables 3-5 demonstrate as a rule some static torque
quality factor increasing with the mass. As it was
mentioned above for a big motor construction details
share as a rule is less then for a small motor. Besides in
such motors more thick wire is used and hence an
insulation share is also less.
As a whole for all modern torque motors under
consideration the machine constant increases more
then 80 times while the static torque quality factor
varies only 15% reflecting any average technical level.
It is obvious that the static torque quality factor
analysis is an important tool for any torque motor line
assessment.
Some valuable information about different
manufacturer ways to achieve a high static torque
quality factor may be obtained from a dynamic indexes
(time constants) analysis. For example relative small
electrical time constant and high mechanical time
constant may testify in favor of high relative magnet
volume caused the rotor flux increasing. In contrast
relatively small mechanical time constant and high
electrical time constant may demonstrate that in such
motors the stator flux was increased by a high stator
copper volume.

Table 3. Small torque motors

Manufacturer Mashino-apparat Inland, Axsys Moog Parker
(Russia) (USA) (USA) (USA) (USA)
Model DBM50-0.04-6-2 RBE01211-A 2375J-055-04 DB1500-G4 K044150-FY
6
Outside diameter, mm 50 49 60 38 44
Inside diameter, mm 12.0 9.6 23.9 12.7 14
Mass, kg 0.18 0.20 0.16 0.20 0.31
Peak torque. N*m 0.17 0.81 0.43 0.39 1.51
Torque sensitivity, N*m/A 0.038 0.041 0.071 0.084 0.28
Motor constant, N*m/W0.5 0.016 0.050 0.032 0.044 0.080
Static torque quality
factor,N*m/(kg*W0.5) 0.086 0.250 0.202 0.222 0.257
Mechanical time constant, 25.0 3.3 10.0 17.7 0.7
ms
Electrical time constant, 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.2 1.05
ms
Number of poles, 2p 8 8 8 8 6

Table 4. Medium torque motors

Manufacturer Mashinoapparat Inland, Axsys Moog Parker
(Russia) (USA) (USA) (USA) (USA)
Model DBM100-0.4-0.75- RBE02111-A 3730H-071-12 DB4530-A K375-150-GY
2 5
Outside diameter, mm 100 95 95 115 95
Inside diameter, mm 48.0 16.0 44.0 25.4 38.1
Mass, kg 0.70 1.0 0.55 0.48 1.55
Peak torque. N*m 0.88 4.57 1.33 1.37 12.6
Torque sensitivity, 0.30 0.305 0.47 1.78 0.41
N*m/A
Motor constant, 0.099 0.237 0.135 0.114 0.357
N*m/W0.5

832
 Static torque quality
factor,N*m/(kg*W0.5) 0.141 0.237 0.236 0.238 0.232
Mechanical time 24.0 2.4 4.9 4.2 0.7
constant, ms
Electrical time 0.6 1.9 0.4 0.4 2.7
constant, ms
Number of poles, 2p 8 12 14 20 12

Table 5. Large torque motors

Manufacturer Mashino- Inland Axsys Moog Parker ETEL
apparat (USA) (USA) (USA) (USA) (Switzer-
(Russia) land)
Model DBM185-1 RBE 6000S-440- DB9000B- K254-150- TMM0175-
6-0.15-2 04512-A 0.10 3Y 5Y 070-3TAN

Outside diameter, mm 185 180 152 229 254 175

Inside diameter, mm 66 82.6 102 92 140.5 90

Mass, kg 9.25 6.80 6.69 8.5 9.1 9.4

Peak torque. N*m 29.2 98.3 41.2 51.2 75.0 158

Torque sensitivity,
N*m/A 1.6 1.14 1.65 3.03 1.42 8.35

Motor constant,
N*m/W 1.32 1.93 1.65 2.49 2.60 2.52

Static torque quality

factor, N*m/(kgW) 0.143 0.280 0.239 0.293 0.286 0.268

Mechanical time
constant, ms 9.0 1.3 2.0 1.2 2.0 0.7

Electrical time
constant, ms 3.0 6.3 1.5 2.5 12.5 7.1

Number of poles, 2p 16 12 16 32 18 22

Likely that such motors are torque motors from Parker
and ETEL companies.
For the group of large motors (Table 5) electrical
time constants Inland, Parker and ETEL motors are
close to the limit mentioned above in accordance with
condition (19) – 8 ms.
As a whole torque motors design analysis shows
that high-energy indexes may be obtained by different
ways as following:
1. Employment of high power magnets such as
NdFeB in ETEL motors.
2. Rotor with surface magnets. Embedded magnets
construction has only DBM motors. All other torque
motors in Tables 3-5 contain surface magnets rotors.
As a rule it provides a greater rotor hole.
3. Concentrated (coil) winding as for example in
Axsys motors versus distributed winding in DBM and
Inland motors.
4. Increasing of a copper specific volume. However it
increases electrical time constants as in Parker and
ETEL torque motors.
V. CONCLUSION
Brushless DC torque motors performance data
comparison provides following resume:
1. For a selection of torque motors two groups
of quality characteristics (indexes) may be employed:
static (energy) and dynamic indexes. Last ones are
extremely important for servodrives.
2. From our point of view the best static index is
the static torque quality factor measuring a developing

833
torque per units of consumed power and motor mass.
3. Well-known index the motor constant
strongly depends of the motor dimensions and mass
and hence can’t serves as any universal characteristic.
For example 13 modern torque motors from 5 different
manufactures considered in the paper with outside
diameter 38 – 254 mm and mass 0.16 – 9.4 kg
demonstrate the machine constant variety range more
then 80 times while the static torque quality factor
changes only 15%.
4. Modern torque motors have the static torque
quality factor about 0.2 – 0.3 N*m/(kgW) that exceed
80th years torque motors technical level 2-3 times
more.
5. Main dynamic indexes are mechanical and
electrical time constants varying for modern torque
motors in the range 0.7 – 18 ms for mechanical time
constant and 0.2 – 12 for electrical one.
6. Accentuation to the most important index
depends of a servo drive application and design. For a
gear drive the focus may be done on the mechanical
time constant while for a gearless (direct) drive more
important may be the electrical time constant that
define the servo drive bandwidth. For example to
achieve a cut-of frequency more then 10 Hz the motor
electrical time constant should be less then 8 ms.
7. Dynamic indexes analysis may be very useful
for revealing of any torque motor design peculiarities.
Really, relatively high mechanical time constant may
testify of high permanent magnets volume while a high
winding copper volume may cause relatively high
electrical time constant.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author is very grateful to St. Petersburg
“ELMA-Ko” Company and especially to its Director
and Chief Designer Ludmila Epifanova for initiating
and support of torque motors investigation discussed
in the paper.
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Alexander G. Mikerov (M’96, SM'04) received the Ph.D.
degree in automatic control from the St.-Petersburg
Scientific Research Institute “MARS” in 1972 and Doctor of
Tech. Sc. degree in electrical equipment from the
St.-Petersburg Electrotechnical University “ETU-LETI” in
1992. From 1964 till 1995 he was with Leninets Holding
Company. He took up all positions from the junior engineer
to the Heading Researcher at the Department of Drives, was
responsible for research and design of servo drives with
brushless DC motors. In 1995, he joined St.-Petersburg
Electrotechnical University ETU-LETI as a Professor.
Besides from 2007 he is the ELMA-Ko Company Advisor.
His main research interests include automatic control,
motion control, electric drives, small electric machines and
especially permanent magnet synchronous motors and
microcontrollers.