Dbms Complete Lab Manual

DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
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DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

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How to Write and execute sql, pl/sql

commands/programs:
1). Open your oracle application by the following navigation

Start->all programs->Oracle Database 10g Express Edition
->Run SQL Command Line
2). You will be asked for user name, password.

You have to enter user name, pass word.
3). Upon successful login you will get SQL prompt (SQL>).
In two ways you can write your programs:
a) directly at SQL prompt (or)
b) in sql editor.
If you type your programs at sql prompt then screen will look
like follow:
SQL> SELECT ename,empno,
2 sal from
3 emp;
where 2 and 3 are the line numbers and rest is the command
/program……
to execute above program/command you have to press ‘/’ then

enter.
Here editing the program is somewhat difficult; if you want to

edit the previous command then you have to open sql editor
(by default it displays the sql buffer contents). By giving ‘ed’ at
sql prompt.(this is what I mentioned as a second method to
type/enter the program).
in the sql editor you can do all the formatting/editing/file
operations directly by selecting menu options provided by it.
To execute the program which saved; do the following

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SQL> @ programname.sql (or)

SQL> Run programname.sql
Then press ‘\’ key and enter.
To save the day`s session ;do the following
SQL>commit;
This how we can write, edit and execute the sql command and
programs.
Always you have to save your programs in your own logins.
Background Theory
Oracle workgroup or server is the largest selling RDBMS product.it is

estimated that the combined sales of both these oracle database product
account for aroud 80% of the RDBMSsystems sold worldwide.
These products are constantly undergoing change and evolving. The
natural language of this RDBMS product is ANSI SQL,PL/SQL a superset
of ANSI SQL.oracle 8i and 9i also under stand SQLJ.
Oracle corp has also incorporated a full-fledged java virtual machine

into its database engine.since both executable share the same memory
space the JVM can communicate With the database engine with ease
and has direct access to oracle tables and their data.
SQL is structure query language.SQL contains different data types those

are
1. char(size)
2. varchar(size)
3. varchar2(size)
4. date
5. number(p,s) //** P-PRECISION S-SCALE **//
6. number(size)
7. raw(size)
8. raw/long raw(size)
Different types of commands in SQL:
A).DDL commands: - To create a database objects
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B).DML commands: - To manipulate data of a database objects

C).DQL command: - To retrieve the data from a database.
D).DCL/DTL commands: - To control the data of a database…
DDL commands:
1. The Create Table Command: - it defines each column of the table

uniquely. Each column has minimum of three attributes, a name , data
type and size.
Syntax:
Create table <table name> (<col1> <datatype>(<size>),<col2>

<datatype><size>));
Ex:
create table emp(empno number(4) primary key, ename char(10));
2. Modifying the structure of tables.

a)add new columns
Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> add(<new col><datatype(size),<new

col>datatype(size));
Ex:
alter table emp add(sal number(7,2));
3. Dropping a column from a table.
Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> drop column <col>;
Ex:
alter table emp drop column sal;
4. Modifying existing columns.
Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> modify(<col><newdatatype>(<newsize>));
Ex:
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alter table emp modify(ename varchar2(15));
5. Renaming the tables
Syntax:
Rename <oldtable> to <new table>;
Ex:
rename emp to emp1;
6. truncating the tables.
Syntax:
Truncate table <tablename>;
Ex:
trunc table emp1;
7. Destroying tables.
Syntax:
Drop table <tablename>;
Ex:
drop table emp;
DML commands:
8. Inserting Data into Tables: - once a table is created the most

natural thing to do is load this table with data to be manipulated later.
Syntax 1:
insert into <tablename> (<col1>,<col2>…..<col n>) values(<val 1>,

<val 2>…….<val n>);
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Syntax 2:
insert into <tablename> values(&<col1>,&<col2>……,&<col n>);
Syntax 3:
insert into <tablename> values(<val 1>,<val 2>…….,<val n>);
Ex 1:
Insert into skc (sname,rollno,class,dob,fee_paid)

values(‘sri’,’104B’,’cse’,’27-feb-05’,10000.00);
Ex 2:
insert into skc values(&sname,&roll no,&class);

enter sname:’sri’
enter roll no:’104B’
enter class:’cse’
1 row created.
Ex 3:
insert into skc values(‘sri’,’104B’,cse’,’27-feb-05’,10000.00);
9. Delete operations.
a) remove all rows
Syntax:
delete from <tablename>;
b) removal of a specified row/s
Syntax:
delete from <tablename> where <condition>;
10. Updating the contents of a table.
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a) updating all rows
Syntax:
Update <tablename> set <col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>;
b) updating seleted records.
Syntax:
Update <tablename> set <col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>
where <condition>;
11. Types of data constrains.
a) not null constraint at column level.
Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size)not null
b) unique constraint
Syntax:
Unique constraint at column level.

<col><datatype>(size)unique;
c) unique constraint at table level:
Syntax:
Create table
tablename(col=format,col=format,unique(<col1>,<col2>);
d) primary key constraint at column level
Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size)primary key;
e) primary key constraint at table level.

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Syntax:
Create table tablename(col=format,col=format

primary key(col1>,<col2>);
f) foreign key constraint at column level.
Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size>) references <tablename>[<col>];
g) foreign key constraint at table level
Syntax:
foreign key(<col>[,<col>]) references

<tablename>[(<col>,<col>)
h) check constraint
check constraint constraint at column level.
Syntax: <col><datatype>(size) check(<logical expression>)
i) check constraint constraint at table level.
Syntax: check(<logical expression>)
DQL Commands:
12. Viewing data in the tables: - once data has been inserted into a
table, the next most logical operation would be to view what has been
inserted.
a) all rows and all columns
Syntax:
Select <col> to <col n> from tablename;
Select * from tablename;
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13. Filtering table data: - while viewing data from a table, it is rare
that all the data from table will be required each time. Hence, sql must
give us a method of filtering out data that is not required data.
a) Selected columns and all rows:

Syntax:
select <col1>,<col2> from <tablename>;
b) selected rows and all columns:

Syntax:
select * from <tablename> where <condition>;
c) selected columns and selected rows

Syntax:
select <col1>,<col2> from <tablename> where<condition>;
14. Sorting data in a table.
Syntax:
Select * from <tablename> order by <col1>,<col2> <[sortorder]>;
DCL commands:
Oracle provides extensive feature in order to safeguard information

stored in its tables from unauthoraised viewing and damage.The rights
that allow the user of some or all oracle resources on the server are
called privileges.
a) Grant privileges using the GRANT statement

The grant statement provides various types of access to database
objects such as tables,views and sequences and so on.
Syntax:
GRANT <object privileges>
ON <objectname>
TO<username>
[WITH GRANT OPTION];
b) Reoke permissions using the REVOKE statement:

The REVOKE statement is used to deny the Grant given on an object.
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Syntax:
REVOKE<object privilege>
ON
FROM<user name>;
WEEK-1
CREATING,ALTERING AND DROPPING TABLES AND INSERTING ROWS INTO A
TABLE (USE CONSTRAINTS WHILE CREATING TABLES) EXAMPLES USING
SELECT COMMAND .
EXAMPLE 1:
CREATING A STUDENT RELATION TABLE WITH ALL DATATYPES:
SQL> create table student252(

sid number(5),
sname varchar(20),
sbranch char(5),
dob date,
spercent number(3,2));
Table created.
RELATIONAL SCHEMA FOR STUDENT RELATION :

SQL> desc student252;
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
SID NUMBER(5)
SNAME VARCHAR2(20)
SBRANCH CHAR(5)
DOB DATE
SPERCENT NUMBER(5,2)
INSERT THE RECORDS INTO STUDENT RELATION:
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METHOD 1:
SQL>Insert into
Student252(sid,sname,sbranch,dob,spercent) values(104,‘sri’,,’cse’,’27-
feb-05’,70);
1 row created.
METHOD 2:
SQL>Insert into
Student252 values(104,‘sri’,,’cse’,’27-feb-05’,70);
1 row created.
METHOD 3:
SQL>Insert into
Student252(sid,sname,sbranch,dob,spercent)
values(&sid, &sname,&sbranch,&dob,&spercent);
1 row created.
METHOD 4:
SQL>Insert into
Student252(sid,sname,sbranch,dob,spercent)
values(&sid, ‘&sname’,’&sbranch’,’&dob’,&spercent);
1 row created.
QUERY THE TABLE VALUES:
ALL ROWS AND ALL COLUMNS:
SQL> select * from student252;

SID SNAME SBRANCH DOB SPERCENT
------ --------------- --------------------- --------------- --------------------
130 ravi it 30-1-95 60
131 teja cse 21-07-87 55
129 kiran mech 12-05-92 60
104 sri cse 30-07-90 70
133 sajith eee 12-06-89 55
137 ram ece 07-07-85 40
WEEK 2 (cont…1)
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1) Creation, altering and dropping tables and inserting rows into a table
(use constraints while creating tables) examples using SELECT command.
MODIFYING THE STRUCTURE OF TABLE
ADDING A NEW COLUMN
SQL> ALTER TABLE Emp252

ADD (age number(3),
phno number(10));
Table altered.
MODIFYING EXISTING COLUMN

MODIFY (phno varchar(20));
Table altered.
DROPING A COLUMN

DROP COLUMN phno;
Table altered.
QUERY FOR THE TABLE VALUES

SQL> SELECT *
FROM Emp252;
ENO ENAME ESAL DEPTNO AGE

----- -------------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
30 ravi 51000 3
31 teja 31000 2
29 kiran 31200 1
45 allen 41000 3
33 sajith 51000 4
46 geetha 11000 4
90 veena 16000 3
85 pragna 61000 1
84 harsha 91000 3
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40 sanjeev 1500 13
10 rows selected.
UPDATING ENTIRE COLUMN
SQL> UPDATE Emp252

SET age=18;
10 rows updated.
QUERY THE TABLE VALUES

SQL> SELECT *
FROM Emp252;
ENO ENAME ESAL DEPTNO AGE

----- -------------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
30 ravi 51000 3 18
31 teja 31000 2 18
29 kiran 31200 1 18
45 allen 41000 3 18
33 sajith 51000 4 18
46 geetha 11000 4 18
90 veena 16000 3 18
85 pragna 61000 1 18
84 harsha 91000 3 18
40 sanjeev 1500 13 18
10 rows selected.
RENAMING THE TABLE:
SQL> RENAME Emp252

TO Emp1252;
Table renamed.
SELECTING THE TABLE VALUES

SQL> SELECT *
FROM Emp1252;
Example 3
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CREATING A DEPARTMENT RELATION TABLE
CREATING A DEPARTMENT TABLE
SQL> CREATE TABLE Dept252(

dname VARCHAR(10),
dno CHAR(5),
dloc VARCHAR(25));
Table created.
DESCRIBE A STUDENT TABLE
SQL> desc Dept252;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
DNAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNO CHAR(5)
DLOC VARCHAR2(25)
DROPING THE TABLE

SQL> DROP TABLE Dept252;
Table dropped.
WEEK 3 (cont…1)
1) Creation, altering and dropping tables and inserting rows into a table
(use constraints while creating tables) examples using SELECT
command.
CREATING A TABLE WITH KEY CONSTRAINTS
Example 1
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CREATING A TABLE WITH ‘UNIQUE ‘, ‘NOT NULL’, ‘CHECK’ AND

‘DEFAULT’ CONSTRAINT:
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp252

(eid NUMBER(5) UNIQUE,
ename VARCHAR(10) DEFAULT(‘UNKNOWN’),
age NUMBER(3) NOT NULL,
esal NUMBER(7) CHECK(esal > 1000));
Table created.
INSERTING RECORDS INTO TABLE:
SQL> INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (&eid, &ename, &age, &esal);

Enter value for eid: 1
Enter value for ename: 'ravi'
Enter value for age: 18
Enter value for esal: 10000
old 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (&eid, &ename, &age, &esal)
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (1, 'ravi', 18, 10000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: 'teja'
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (2, 'teja', 18, 20000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: 'kiran'
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new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (3, 'kiran', 19, 25000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: 'srinivas'
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (4, 'srinivas', 19, 30000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: 'alan'
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (1, 'alan', 19, 29000)
INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (1, 'alan', 19, 29000)
[SHOWING AN ERROR WHILE VIOLATING UNIQUE KEY
CONSTRAINT]
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C003875) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: 'dravid'
Enter value for age: null
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (7, 'dravid', null, 100000)
INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (7, 'dravid', null, 100000)
[SHOWING AN ERROR AS NOT NULL KEY CONSTRAINT IS
VIOLATED] *
ERROR at line 1:
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ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("SYSTEM"."EMP230"."AGE")
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: 'sachin'
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (8, 'sachin', 35, 100)
INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (8, 'sachin', 35, 100)
*
[NOT ALLOWING AS IT VOILATES CHECK CONSTRAINT FOR esal >
1000 VALUE]
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C003874) violated
Example 2
CREATING A TABLE WITH ‘PRIMARY KEY’ CONSTRAINT:
SQL> CREATE TABLE mdept252

(dno NUMBER(5),
dname CHAR(10),
dloc VARCHAR(10),
PRIMARY KEY (dno));
Table created.
SQL> desc mdept252;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
DNO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
DNAME CHAR(10)
DLOC VARCHAR2(10)
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INSERTING RECORDS INTO MASTER DEPARTMENT TABLE:
SQL> INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (&dno, &dname, &dloc);

Enter value for dno: 1
Enter value for dname: 'ravi'
Enter value for dloc: 'hyd'
old 1: INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (&dno, &dname, &dloc)
new 1: INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (1, 'ravi', 'hyd')
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for dno: 1
Enter value for dname: 'teja'
Enter value for dloc: 'sec'
new 1: INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (1, 'teja', 'sec')
INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (1, 'teja', 'sec')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C003876) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for dno: null
Enter value for dname: 'sajithulhuq'
Enter value for dloc: 'kmm'
new 1: INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (null, 'sajithulhuq', 'kmm')
INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (null, 'sajithulhuq', 'kmm')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("SYSTEM"."MDEPT230"."DNO")
ADDING A PRIMARY KEY TO AN EXISTING TABLE:
SQL> ALTER TABLE student252 ADD PRIMARY KEY (sid);
Table altered.
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SQL> ALTER TABLE emp252 ADD PRIMARY KEY (eid);

ALTER TABLE emp252 ADD PRIMARY KEY (eid)
*
[ GIVING AN ERROR AS ONE TABLE CAN HAVE A SINGLE PRIMARY
KEY AT COLUMN LAVEL]
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02261: such unique or primary key already exists in the table
Example 3
CREATING A TABLE WITH ‘FORIEGN KEY’ CONSTRAINT:
SQL> CREATE TABLE detailemp252

(eid NUMBER(5) REFERENCES mdept230 (dno),
ename VARCHAR(10),
esal NUMBER(7));
Table created.
INSERING RECORDS INTO DETAIL EMPLOYEE TABLE:
SQL> INSERT INTO detailemp252 VALUES (2, 'ravi', 50000);

INSERT INTO detailemp252 VALUES (2, 'ravi', 50000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C003877) violated - parent
key not
found
SQL> INSERT INTO detailemp252 VALUES (1, 'teja', 60000);
1 row created.
SQL> DELETE FROM mdept252 where dno=1;

DELETE FROM mdept252 where dno=1
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*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C003877) violated - child
record
found
SQL> SELECT * FROM detailemp252;
EID ENAME ESAL

---------- ---------- ----------
1 teja 60000
SQL> SELECT * FROM mdept252;
DNO DNAME DLOC

---------- ---------- ----------
1 ravi hyd
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Exercise
CREATING A CUSTOMER TABLE USING CONSTRAINTS :
SQL> CREATE TABLE cust252

(cnum NUMBER(5),
cname VARCHAR(10),
state VARCHAR(10) DEFAULT ('ap'),
phno NUMBER(5),
CONSTRAINT cnum_pkkey PRIMARY KEY (cnum));
Table created.
SQL> INSERT INTO cust252 VALUES (&cnum, &cname, &state, &phno);

Enter value for cnum: 1
Enter value for cname: 'ravi'
Enter value for state: 'bihar'
Enter value for phno: 001
old 2: (&cnum, &cname, &state, &phno)
new 2: (1, 'ravi', 'bihar', 001)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for cname: 'teja'
Enter value for state: 'up'
new 2: (2, 'teja', 'up', 007)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for cname: 'yama'
Enter value for state: 'ap'
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new 2: (2, 'yama', 'ap', 006)

INSERT INTO cust252 VALUES
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SYSTEM.CNUM_PKKEY) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for cname: 'huu'
Enter value for state: 'ap'
new 2: (4, 'huu', 'ap', 101)
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM cust252;
CNUM CNAME STATE PHNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 ravi bihar 1
2 teja up 7
4 huu ap 101
CREATING AN ITEM TABLE USING CONSTRAINTS:
SQL> CREATE TABLE itm252

(ino NUMBER(3),
iname VARCHAR(10),
iprice NUMBER(4,3),
qtyonhand VARCHAR(5),
CONSTRAINT itm252_ino_pkkey PRIMARY KEY (ino),
CONSTRAINT itm230_qtyoh_chk CHECK (qtyonhand>1));
Table created.
SQL> INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (&ino, &iname, &iprice, &qtyonhand);

Enter value for ino: 1
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Enter value for iname: 'rubber'

Enter value for iprice: 3.50
Enter value for qtyonhand: 3
old 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (&ino, &iname, &iprice, &qtyonhand)
new 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (1, 'rubber', 3.50, 3)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for iname: 'pencil'
new 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (1, 'pencil', 1.00, 3)
INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (1, 'pencil', 1.00, 3)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SYSTEM.ITM230_INO_PKKEY) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for iname: 'powder'
new 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (2, 'powder', 3.00, 0)
INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (2, 'powder', 3.00, 0)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SYSTEM.ITM230_QTYOH_CHK) violated
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1* CREATE TABLE invoice252(ivnno NUMBER(5), itemno NUMBER(5),

qty NOT NULL, CONSTRAINT invoice252_ivnno_pkkey PRIMARY
KEY(ivnno), CONSTRAINT FOREIGN KEY(itemno) REFERENCES
cust252)
SQL> desc cust252;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
CNUM NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
CNAME VARCHAR2(10)
STATE VARCHAR2(10)
PHNO NUMBER(5)
CREATING A INVOICE TABLE USING CONSTRAINTS:
SQL> CREATE TABLE invoice252

(ivnno NUMBER(5),
itemno NUMBER(5),
qty NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT invoice252_ivnno_pkkey PRIMARY KEY (ivnno),
CONSTRAINT fk_inv252 FOREIGN KEY (itemno) REFERENCES
cust252 (cnum))
Table created.
SQL> CREATE TABLE invitm252

(invno NUMBER(5),
itmno NUMBER(5),
qty NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT invitm252_invno_itmno_pkkey PRIMARY KEY
(invno, itmno));
Table created.
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WEEK 4
2) Queries (along with subqueries) using ANY, ALL, IN, EXISTS, NOT
EXISTS, UNIQUE, INTERSECT, Constraints.
Example: select the rollno and name of the student who secured 4th rank
in the class
TABLE DEFINITIONS
SQL> CREATE TABLE Customer (

cust_no NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
last_name VARCHAR2(20),
first_name VARCJHAR2(20) NOT NULL,
address1 VARCHAR2(20),
address2 VARCHAR2(20),
city VARCHAR2(3),
state VARCHAR2(20),
pin VARCHAR2(6),
birth_date DATE,
status VARCHAR2(1),
CHECH (status IN (‘V’, ‘I’, ‘A’))
);
Table created.
Insert the following data:
1 row created.
CUST LAST FIRST ADDRESS1 ADDRESS2 CITY STATE PIN BIRTH STATUS
NO NAME NAME DATE
1001 UDUPI RAJ UPENDRABAU NEAR UDP KARNARATA 57610 12- A
G KALPANA P 1 DEC-62
1002 KUMAR RAJ A
1003 BAHADUR RAJ SHANTHI VILLA NEAR UDP KARNATAK 57610 1-AUG- V
MALLIKA A 1 70
1004 SIMON FELIX M-J-56 ALTOBETIM PJM GOA 40300 12-FEB- A
2 71
1005 KUTTY RAJAN A1 TRADERS NEAR RLY KNR KERALA 67001 9-JUN- A
STATION 71
1006 PAI SHILPA 12/4B POLICE MNG KARNATAK 57415 11- I
QUARTERS A 4 DEC-70
1007 JAIN RAKSHIT BOSCO R.K PLAZA BNG KARNATAK 57620 1-JAN- A
A 1 71
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QUERIES
1) To list all the fields from the table Customer.

SEELCT *
FROM Customer;
2) To list the first name, last name.

SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM Customer;
3) To list the first name and last name of persons in Karnataka.

FROM Customer
WHERE state = ‘KARNATAKA’;
4) To list all the columns for invalid persons.

SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE status = ‘I’;
5) To list the names of active customers.

FROM Customer
WHERE status = ‘A’;
6) To list the name and address using concatenation.

SELECT first_name || ‘ ‘ || last_name, address1 || ‘,’ || address2 || ‘,’ || city || ‘,’
|| state || ‘-‘ || pin
FROM Customer;
7) To select records where the pin code has not been entered.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE pin IS NULL;
8) To select the single occurrence of any value from the table.

SELECT DISTINCT state
FROM Customer;
9) To select rows of valid customers from Karnataka.

SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE state = ‘KARNATAKA’
AND status = ‘V’;
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10) To select rows of customers from Karnataka or Kerala.

SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE state = KARNATAKA’
OR state = ‘KERALA’;
11) To sort the customer data in the alphabetic order of state.

SELECT state, first_name, last_name, pin
FROM Customer
ORDER BY state;
12) To sort in the descending order.

FROM Customer
ORDER BY state DESC;
13) To sort the customer data, state wise and within state by the last name.
FROM Customer
ORDER BY state, last_name;
14) To retrieve records of Karnataka customers who are valid.

SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE UPPER(state) = ‘KARNATAKA’
AND UPPER(status) = ‘V’;
15) To retrieve records of Karnataka/Kerala customers.

SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE UPPER(state) = ‘KARNATAKA’
OR UPPER(state) = ‘KERALA’;
16) To retrieve records of Karnataka/Kerala customers who are active.

SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE (UPPER(state) = ‘KARNATAKA’
OR UPPER(state) = ‘KERALA’)
AND UPPER(status) = ‘A’;
17) To retrieve records of Karnataka customers with pin code 576101.

SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE LOWER(state) = ‘karnataka’
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AND pin = ‘576101’;
18) To retrieve rows where the state name begins with K and followed by any other
character.
SELECT first_name, last_name, state
FROM Customer
WHERE state LIKE ‘K%’;
19) To retrieve rows where the first name contains the word RAJ embedded in it.
FROM Customer
WHERE first_name LIKE ‘%RAJ%’;
20) To retrieve rows where the address2 contains the word UDUPI or UDIPI in which
the 3rd character may be anything.
FROM Customer
WHERE address2 LIKE ‘UD_PI’;
21) To retrieve rows where the cust_no has data representing any value between 1003
and 1005, both numbers included.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE cust_no BETWEEN 1003 AND 1005;
22) To retrieve rows of persons born after 9-JAN-70 and before 1-AUG-96.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE birth_date BETWEEN ’10-JAN-70’ AND ’31-JUL-96’;
23) To retrieve rows where the city has data which is equal to UDP or MNG or BNG or
PJM or MAR.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE city IN (‘UDP’, ‘MNG’, ‘BNG’, ‘PJM’, ‘MAR’);
TABLE DEFINITIONS
SQL> CREATE TABLE Emp (

emp_no NUMBER,
emp_name VARCHAR(20),
join_date DATE,
join_basic NUMBER(7, 2),
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PRIMARY KEY (emp_no)

);
Table created.
EMP NO EMP NAME JOIN DATE JOIN BASIC

1001 Subhas bose 01-JUN-96 3000
1002 Nadeem shah 01-JUN-96 2500
1003 Charles 01-JUN-96 3000
babbage
1004 Shreyas kumar 01-JUL-96 2500
1005 George boole 01-JUL-96 2800
SQL> CREATE TABLE Salary (

emp_no NUMBER,
basic NUMBER(7, 2),
commission NUMBER(7, 2),
deduction NUMBER(7, 2),
salary_date DATE,
FOREIGN KEY (emp_no) REFERENCES Emp
);
Table created.
EMP NO BASIC COMMISSION DEDUCTION SALARY

DATE
1001 3000 200 250 30-JUN-96
1002 2500 120 200 30-JUN-96
1003 3000 500 290 30-JUN-96
1004 2500 200 300 30-JUN-96
1005 2800 100 250 30-JUN-96
1001 3000 200 250 31-JUL-96
1002 2500 120 200 31-JUL-96
1003 3000 500 290 31-JUL-96
1004 2500 200 300 31-JUL-96
1005 2800 100 150 31-JUL-96
QUERIES
1) To sum the salary of each employee.

SELECT emp_no, SUM(basic)
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no;
2) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it on the sum of basic.
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FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic);
3) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it in descending order on the sum of
basic.
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic) DESC;
basic. Display name also
SELECT s.emp_no, e.emp_name, SUM(s.basic)
FROM salary s, emp e
WHERE s.emp_no = e.emp_no
GROUP BY s.emp_no, e.emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(s.basic) DESC;
5) To group the data by average salary of each employee.

SELECT s.emp_no, INITCAP(e.emp_name), AVG(s.basic)
ORDER BY AVG(s.basic);
6) To group the basic by month.

SELECT TO_CHAR(salary_date, ‘MONTH’) “MONTH”, SUM(basic)
“TOTAL BASIC”
FROM salary
GROUP BY TO_CHAR(salary_date, ‘MONTH’);
7) To group the data by average salary of each employee and display where average
basic is more than 2000..
HAVING AVG(s.basic) >= 2000
SUBQUERIES
8) To list the employees who earn less than the average salary.
SELECT *
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FROM salary
WHERE basic < (SELECT AVG(basic)
FROM salary);
9) To list the employees whose deduction is 150.

SELECT *
FROM salary
WHERE emp_no IN (SELECT emp_no
FROM salary
WHERE deduction = 150);
10) To list the names of employees and salary details, whose basic is less than the average
salary.
SELECT s.*, e.emp_name
AND s.basic < (SELECT AVG(basic)
FROM salary);
WEEK 5
EXISTS, UNIQUE, INTERSECT, Constraints. Example: select the
rollno and name of the student who secured 4th rank in the class.
3) Queries using Aggregate functions (COUNT, SUM, AVG, MAX and

MIN), GROUP BY, HAVING and Creation and Dropping of Views.
4) Queries using Conversions, functions (to_char, to_num, and to_date),

string function (Conactenation, lpad, rpad, ltrim, rtrim, lower, upper,
initcap, length, substr, and instr), date functions (sysdate, next_day,
add_months, last_day, months_between, least, greatest, trunk, round,
to_char, to_date).
TABLE DEFINITIONS
SQL> CREATE TABLE Emp (

emp_no NUMBER,
emp_name VARCHAR(20),
join_date DATE,
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join_basic NUMBER(7, 2),

PRIMARY KEY (emp_no)
);
Table created.
EMP NO EMP NAME JOIN DATE JOIN BASIC

1001 Subhas bose 01-JUN-96 3000
1002 Nadeem shah 01-JUN-96 2500
1003 Charles 01-JUN-96 3000
babbage
1004 Shreyas kumar 01-JUL-96 2500
1005 George boole 01-JUL-96 2800
SQL> CREATE TABLE Salary (

emp_no NUMBER,
basic NUMBER(7, 2),
commission NUMBER(7, 2),
deduction NUMBER(7, 2),
salary_date DATE,
FOREIGN KEY (emp_no) REFERENCES Emp
);
Table created.
EMP NO BASIC COMMISSION DEDUCTION SALARY

DATE
1001 3000 200 250 30-JUN-96
1002 2500 120 200 30-JUN-96
1003 3000 500 290 30-JUN-96
1004 2500 200 300 30-JUN-96
1005 2800 100 250 30-JUN-96
1001 3000 200 250 31-JUL-96
1002 2500 120 200 31-JUL-96
1003 3000 500 290 31-JUL-96
1004 2500 200 300 31-JUL-96
1005 2800 100 150 31-JUL-96
QUERIES
11) To sum the salary of each employee.

FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no;
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12) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it on the sum of basic.
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic);
basic.
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic) DESC;
basic. Display name also
SELECT s.emp_no, e.emp_name, SUM(s.basic)
GROUP BY s.emp_no, e.emp_name
ORDER BY SUM(s.basic) DESC;
15) To group the data by average salary of each employee.

16) To group the basic by month.

SELECT TO_CHAR(salary_date, ‘MONTH’) “MONTH”, SUM(basic)
“TOTAL BASIC”
FROM salary
GROUP BY TO_CHAR(salary_date, ‘MONTH’);
17) To group the data by average salary of each employee and display where average
basic is more than 2000..
HAVING AVG(s.basic) >= 2000
SUBQUERIES
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18) To list the employees who earn less than the average salary.
SELECT *
FROM salary
WHERE basic < (SELECT AVG(basic)
FROM salary);
19) To list the employees whose deduction is 150.

SELECT *
FROM salary
WHERE emp_no IN (SELECT emp_no
FROM salary
WHERE deduction = 150);
20) To list the names of employees and salary details, whose basic is less than the average
salary.
SELECT s.*, e.emp_name
AND s.basic < (SELECT AVG(basic)
FROM salary);
WEEK 6


to_char, to_date).
TABLE DEFINITIONS
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Branch Schema <branch-name, branch-city, assets>

Customer Schema <customer-name, customer-street, customer-city>
Loan Schema <loan-number, branch-name, amount>
Borrower Schema <customer-name, loan-number>
Account Scheme <account-number, branch-name, balance>
Depositor Scheme <customer-name, account-number>
BRANCH TABLE
Branch Name Branch City Assets

Brighton Brooklyn 7100000
Downtown Brooklyn 9000000
Mianus Horseneck 400000
North Town Rye 3700000
Perryridge Horseneck 1700000
Pownal Bennington 300000
Redwood Palo Alto 2100000
Round Hill Horseneck 800000
CUSTOMER TABLE
Customer Name Customer Street Customer City

Adams Spring Pittsfield
Brooks Senator Brooklyn
Curry North Rye
Glenn Sand Hill Woodside
Green Walnut Stamford
Hayes Main Harrison
Johnson Alma Palo Alto
Jones Main Harrison
Lindsay Park Pittsfield
Smith North Rye
Turner Putnam Stamford
Williams Nassau Princeton
LOAN TABLE
Loan Number Branch Name Amount

L-11 Round Hill 900
L-14 Downtown 1500
L-15 Perryridge 1500
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L-16 Perryridge 1300

L-17 Downtown 1000
L-23 Redwood 2000
L-93 Mianus 500
BORROWER TABLE
Customer Name Loan Number

Adams l-16
Curry L-93
Hayes L-15
Jackson L-14
Jones L-17
Smith L-11
Smith L-23
Williams L-17
ACCOUNT TABLE
Account Number Branch Name Balance

A-101 Downtown 500
A-102 Perryridge 400
A-201 Brighton 900
A-215 Mianus 700
A-217 Brighton 750
A-222 Redwood 700
A-305 Round Hill 350
DEPOSITOR TABLE
Customer Name Account Number

Hayes A102
Johnson A-101
Johnson A-201
Jones A-217
Lindsay A-222
Smith A-215
Turner A-305
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QUERIES
1) To list all the fields from the table Customer.
SELECT branch_name
FROM Loan;
2) To list rows after eliminating duplicates.
SELECT distinct branch_name

FROM Loan;
3) To explicitly list rows, including duplicates.
SELECT all branch_name

FROM Loan;
4) To list fields after applying arithmetic operations.
SELECT loan_number, branch_name, amount *100

FROM Loan;
5) Find all loan numbers for loans made at the Perryridge branch with loan amounts
greater than Rs1200.
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE branch_name = ‘Perryridge’
AND amount > 1200;
6) Find all loan numbers for loans with loan amounts between Rs90,000 and Rs100,000.
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE amount BETWEEN 90000 AND 100000;
Or
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE amount <= 100000
AND amount >= 90000;
7) Find all loan numbers for loans with loan amounts not between Rs90,000 and
Rs100,000.
SELECT loan_number
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FROM Loan
WHERE amount NOT BETWEEN 90000 AND 100000;
8) For all customers who have a loan from the bank, find their names, loan numbers and loan
amounts.
SELECT customer_name, Borrower.loan_number, amount

FROM Borrower, Loan
WHERE Borrower.loan_number = Loan.loan_number;
Or
SELECT customer_name, Borrower.loan_number AS loan_id, amount

FROM Borrower, Loan
WHERE Borrower.loan_number = Loan.loan_number;
9) Find the customer names, loan numbers and loan amounts for all loans at the Perryridge
branch.
SELECT customer_name, Borrower.loan_number, amount

FROM Borrower, Loan
WHERE Borrower.loan_number = Loan.loan_number
AND branch_name = ‘Perryridge’;
Or
SELECT customer_name, T.loan_number, S.amount

FROM Borrower AS T, Loan AS S
WHERE T.loan_number = S.loan_number
AND branch_name = ‘Perryridge’;
10) Find the names of all branches that have assets greater than atleast one branch located in
Brooklyn.
SELECT DISTINCT T.branch_name

FROM Branch as T, Branch as S
WHERE T.assets > S.assets
AND S.branch_city = ‘Brooklyn’;
11) Find the names of all customers whose street address includes the substring ‘Main’.
SELECT customer_name
FROM Customer
WHERE customer_street LIKE ‘%Main%’;
12) To list in alphabetic order all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.
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SELECT DISTINCT customer_name

FROM Borrower B, Loan L
WHERE B.loan_number = L.loan_number
AND branch_name = ‘Perryridge’
ORDER BY customer_name;
13) To list the entire loan info in descending order of amont.
SELECT *
FROM Loan
ORDER BY amount DESC, loan_number ASC;
14) To find all customers having a loan, an account or both at the bank, without duplicates.
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Depositor)
UNION
FROM Borrower);
15) To find all customers having a loan, an account or both at the bank, with duplicates.
FROM Depositor)
UNION ALL
FROM Borrower);
16) To find all customers having both a loan and an account at the bank, without duplicates.
FROM Depositor)
INTERSECT
FROM Borrower);
17) To find all customers having a loan, an account or both at the bank, with duplicates.
FROM Depositor)
INTERSECT ALL
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FROM Borrower);
18) To find all customers who have an account but no loan at the bank, without duplicates.
(SELECT DISTINCT customer_name

FROM Depositor)
EXCEPT
FROM Borrower);
19) To find all customers who have an account but no loan at the bank, with duplicates.
(SELECT DISTINCT customer_name

FROM Depositor)
EXCEPT ALL
FROM Borrower);
20) Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch
SELECT branch_name, AVG(balance)

FROM Account
WHERE branch_name = ‘Perryridge’;
21) Find the average account balance at the each branch
SELECT AVG(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name;
22) Find the number of depositors for each branch .
SELECT branch_name, COUNT(DISTINCT customer_name)

FROM Depositor D, Account A
WHERE D.account_number = A.account_number
GROUP BY branch_name;
23) Find the number of depositors for each branch where average account balance is more
than Rs 1200.
SELECT branch_name, COUNT(DISTINCT customer_name)

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GROUP BY branch_name
HAVING AVG(balance) > 1200;
24) Find the average balance for all accounts.
SELECT AVG(balance)
FROM Account;
25) Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Customer;
26) Find the average balance for each customer who lives in Harrision and has at least three
accounts.
SELECT D.customer_name, AVG(balance)

FROM Depositor D, Account A, Customer C
AND D.customer_name = C.customer_name
AND C.customer_city = ‘Harrison’
GROUP BY D.customer_name
HAVING COUNT(DISTINCT D.account_number) >= 3;
27) Find all the loan number that appear in loan relation with null amount values.
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE amount IS NULL;
28) Find all customers who have both a loan and an account at the bank.
FROM Borrower
WHERE customer_street IN (SELECT customer_name
FROM Depositor);
29) Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the Perryridge branch
SELECT DISTINCT B.customer_name

FROM Borrower B, Loan L
WHERE B.loan_number L.loan_number
AND branch_name = ‘Perryridge’
AND (branch_name, customer_name) IN
(SELECT branch_name, customer_name
WHERE D.account_number = A.account_number);
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or
FROM Borrower B
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM Depositor D
WHERE D.customer_name = B.customer_name);
30) Find all customers who do not have a loan at the bank, but do not have an account the
bank.

FROM Borrower
WHERE customer_name NOT IN
FROM Depositor);
31) Find the names of customers who do have a loan at the bank, and whose names are neither
Smith nor Jones.

FROM Borrower
WHERE customer_name NOT IN (‘Smith’, ‘Jones’);
32) Find the names of all branches that have assets greater than those of at least one branch
located in Brooklyn.
SELECT DISTINCT T.branch_name

FROM Branch AS T, Branch AS S
WHERE T.assets > S.assets
AND S.branch_city = ‘Brooklyn’;
33) Find the names of all branches that have assets greater than that of each branch located in
Brooklyn.
SELECT branch_name
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name
HAVING AVG(balance) >= ALL (SELECT AVG(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name);
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34) Find all customers who have an account at all the branches located in Brooklyn.
SELECT DISTINCT S.customer_name

FROM Depositor AS D
WHERE NOT EXISTS ((SELECT branch_name
FROM Branch
WHERE branch_city = ‘Brroklyn)
EXCEPT
(SELECT R.branch_name
FROM Depositor AS T, Account AS R
WHERE T.account_number =
R.account_number
AND D.customer_name = t.customer_name));
35) Find all customers who have at most one account at the Perryridge branch.
SELECT T.customer_name
FROM Depositor AS T
WHERE UNIQUE (SELECT R.customer_name
FROM Depositor AS R, Account AS A
WHERE T.customer_name = R.customer_name
AND R.account_number = A.account_number
AND A.branch_name = ‘Perryridge’);
36) Find all customers who have at least two accounts at the Perryridge branch.
SELECT DISTINCT T.customer_name

FROM Depositor AS T
WHERE NOT UNIQUE (SELECT R.customer_name
FROM Depositor AS R, Account AS A
WHERE T.customer_name = R.customer_name
AND R.account_number = A.account_number
AND A.branch_name = ‘Perryridge’);
37) Find the average account balance of those branches where the average account balance is
greater than 1200.
SELECT branch_name, avg_balance

FROM (SELECT branch_name, AVG(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name)
AS Branch_avg(branch_name, avg_balance)
WHERE avg_balance > 1200;
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38) Find the maximum across all branches of the total balance at each branch.
SELECT MAX(tot_balance)
FROM (SELECT branch_name, SUM(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name)
AS Branch_total(branch_name, tot_balance);
39) Find the all customers who have an account but no loan at the bank.
SELECT d-CN
FROM (Depositor LEFT OUTER JOIN Borrower
ON Depositor.customer_name = Borrower.customer_name)
AS db1(d-CN, account_number, b-CN, loan_number)
WHERE b-CN is null;
40) Find the all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not both) at the bank.
FROM (Depositor NATURAL FULL OUTER JOIN Borrower)
WHERE account_number IS NULL
OR loan_number IS NULL;
WEEK 7


to_char, to_date).
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DUAL (ORACLE WORK TABLE):
1) To display system date.

SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;
2) To display arithmetic calculations.

SELECT 2*2 FROM DUAL;
3) To display the logged user.

SELECT USER FROM DUAL;
4) To display system time.

SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, ‘HH:MI:SS’) FROM DUAL;
5) To display current month.

SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, ‘MONTH’) FROM DUAL;
6) To display system date in specified format.

SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, ‘DD/MM/YY’) FROM DUAL;
7) To display system date in specified format.

SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, ‘MM’) FROM DUAL;
8) To display date arithmetic.

SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE, 5) FROM DUAL;

SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;

SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE, ’01-APR-09’) FROM DUAL;

SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE, ‘MON’) FROM DUAL;
GROUP FUNCTIONS:
12) To display average basic salary of the employees.

SELECT SUM(basic) FROM salary;
13) To display minimum basic salary of the employees.

SELECT MIN(basic) FROM salary;
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14) To display maximum basic salary of the employees.

SELECT MAX(basic) FROM salary;
15) To display sum of basic salaries of all the employees.

SELECT SUM(basic) FROM salary;
16) To display the number of records in salary table.

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM salary;
STRING FUNCTIONS:
17) To display a field value after left padding.

SELECT LPAD('PAGE-1', 10, '*') FROM DUAL;
18) To display a field value after left padding.

SELECT RPAD('PAGE-1', 10, '*') FROM DUAL;
19) To display a field value after converting to lower case.

SELECT LOWER(‘A’) FROM DUAL;
20) To display a field value after converting to upper case.

SELECT LOWER(‘a’) FROM DUAL;
21) To display a field value after converting to initial capital case.

SELECT INITCAP(‘HOW ARE YOU?’) FROM DUAL;
22) To display a substring of a field value.

SELECT SUBSTR(‘CSE2A’, 4, 2) FROM DUAL;
23) To display the length of a field value.

SELECT LENGTH(’HOW LONG AM I?’) FROM DUAL;
24) To display a field value after trimming the right side.

SELECT RTRIM(‘CSE2A’, ‘2A’) FROM DUAL;
25) To display a field value after trimming the left side.

SELECT LTRIM(‘CSE2A’, ‘CSE’) FROM DUAL;
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WEEK 8 (PL/SQL)
6) (i) Creation of simple PL/SQL program which includes declaration

section, executable section and exception handling section ( ex:
Student marks can be selected from the table and printed for those
who secured first class and an exception can be raised if no records
were found).
(ii) Insert data into student table and use COMMIT, ROLLBACK
and SAVEPOINT in SQL block.
7) Develop a program that includes the features NESTED IF, CASE

and CASE expression. The program can be extended using the
NULLIF and COALESCE functions.
8) Program development using WHILE LOOPS, numeric FOR

LOOPS, nested loops using ERROR handling, BUILT IN exceptions,
USER defined exceptions, RAISE APPLICATION ERROR.
9) Program development using creation of procedure, passing

parameters IN and OUT procedures.
10) Program development using creation of stored function, invoke

functions in SQL statements and write complex functions.
11)Program development using creation of package specification,

package bodies, private objects, package variables and cursors and
calling stored packages.
12) Develop programs using features of parameters in a CURSOR,

FOR UPDATE CURSOR, WHERE CURRENT of clause and
CURSOR variables.
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Syntax to write a sql program
Declare
<declaration stmts>
Begin
<executable stmts>
[exception <exceptional stmts>]----- optional
End;
/---end of buffer
Example: 1
Create a file DBFOR.SQL, to execute the FOR loop and display the variable.
At SQL Prompt type, ed dbfor to open notepad and type the below program:
Program
declare
cnt number;
begin
dbms_output.put_line('This is a demo of FOR loop ');
for cnt in 1..5 loop
dbms_output.put_line('loop number ' || cnt);
end loop;
end;
/
set serveroutput off
Save the file and at SQL prompt run as:

Execution
SQL>set serveroutput on
SQL> start dbfor (press enter) OR
SQL> @dbfor
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OUTPUT:-
This ia a demo of FOR loop
loop number 1
loop number 2
loop number 3
loop number 4
loop number 5
PS:
For syntax:
For <var> in <start_num> .. <endnum> loop
<statement(s);>
End loop;
Example: 2
Create a file DBREVFOR.SQL, to execute the REVERSE FOR loop and
display the variable.
Program
begin
dbms_ouput.put_line(‘This is a demo of REVERSE FOR loop’);
for cnt in reverse 1..10 loop
if mod(cnt, 2) = 0 then
dbms_output.put_line(‘loop counter ‘ || cnt);
end if;
end loop;
end;
/
OUTPUT:-
This is a demo of REVERSE FOR loop
loop counter 10
loop counter 8
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loop counter 6
loop counter 4
loop counter 2
PS:
Reverse For syntax:

For <var> in reverse <start_num> .. <endnum> loop
<statement(s);>
End loop;
Other forms of if syntax are:

If <condition> then
<action(s);>
End if;
If <condition> then
<action(s);>
Else
<action(s);>
End if;
If <condition> then
<action(s);>
Elsif <condition> then
<action(s);>
else
<action(s);>
End if;
Example: 3
Create a file DBLOOP.SQL, to execute the LOOP loop and display the
variable.
Program
set serveroutput on
declare
cnt number(2) := 0;
begin
dbms_ouput.put_line(‘This is a demo of LOOP loop’);
loop
cnt := cnt + 1;
exit when cnt > 10;
dbms_output.put_line(‘loop counter ‘ || cnt);
end loop;
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end;
/
OUTPUT:-
This is the demo of LOOP loop
loop counter 1
loop counter 2
loop counter 3
loop counter 4
loop counter 5
loop counter 6
loop counter 7
loop counter 8
loop counter 9
loop counter 10
PS:
Loop syntax:
loop
<statement(s);>
Exit when <condition>;
End loop;
Example: 4
Create a file DBWHILE.SQL, to execute the WHILE loop and display the
variable.
Program
set serveroutput on
declare
cnt number(2) := 1;
begin
dbms_ouput.put_line(‘This is a demo of WHILE loop’);
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while cnt <= 10 loop dbms_output.put_line(‘loop counter: ‘ || to_char(cnt, ‘999’));

cnt := cnt + 1;
end loop;
end;
/
OUTPUT:-
This is a demo of WHILE loop
loop counter : 1
loop counter : 2
loop counter : 3
loop counter : 4
loop counter : 5
loop counter : 6
loop counter : 7
loop counter : 8
loop counter : 9
loop counter : 10
PS:
while syntax:
while <condition> loop
<statement(s);>
End loop;
Example: 4
Write a program EMPDATA.SQL, to retrieve the employee details of an
employee whose number is input by the user .
Program
-- PROGRAM TO RETRIEVE EMP DETAILS
set serveroutput on
prompt Enter Employee Number:

accept n
declare
dname emp.emp_name%type;
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dbasic emp.emp_basic%type;
ddesig emp.desig%type;
begin
select emp_name, basic, design
into dname, dbasic, ddesig
from emp
where emp_no = &n;
dbms_ouput.put_line(‘Employee Details:);
dbms_output.put_line(‘Name: ‘ || dname);
dbms_output.put_line(‘Basic: ‘ || dbasic);
dbms_output.put_line(‘Designation: ‘ || ddesig);
end;
/
OUTPUT:-
enter employee number:
13
old 9:where eno =&n;
new 9:where eno=13;
employee details
Name:allen
basic:9500
desig:mech
PS:
Similarly you can use other SQL statements in the PL/SQL block
Exercises:
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1) Write a PL/SQL code, EX_INVNO.SQL, block for

inverting a number using all forms of loops.
ANSWER:-
declare
n number(20):=123;
s number(13):=0;
d number(3):=1;
r number(3):=10;
begin
dbms_output.put_line('the number is :' || n);
while n>0 loop
d:=mod(n,10);
s:=(s*r)+d;
n:=n/r;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('inverted values' || s);
end;
OUTPUT:-
the number is:123
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inverted value is:321
2) Write a PL/SQL code, EX_SUMNO.SQL that prints

the sum of ‘n’ natural numbers.
ANSWER:-
prompt enter number:
accept number n
declare
isum number(2):=0;
i number;
n number:=&n;
begin
for i in 1..n loop
isum:=isum+i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('sum is ' || isum);
end;
OUTPUT:-
enter the number:7
sum is 28
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3) Write a PL/SQL code, EX_AREA.SQL, of block to

calculate the area of the circle for the values of radius
varying from 3 to 7. Store the radius and the
corresponding values of calculated area in the table
AREA_VALUES.
ANSWER:-
set serveroutput on
declare
area number(5);
rad number(3);
pi number(4):=3.14;
begin
for rad in 3..7 loop
area:=pi*rad*rad;
dbms_output.put_line('area is' || area);
insert into area_values values(area,rad);
end loop;
end;
OUTPUT:-
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area is :27
area is :48
area is :75
area is :108
area is :147
SQL>select * from area_values;

area rad
____ ____
27 3
48 4
75 5
108 6
147 7
WEEK 9 (PL/SQL)
13) (i) Creation of simple PL/SQL program which includes

declaration section, executable section and exception handling
section ( ex: Student marks can be selected from the table and
printed for those who secured first class and an exception can be
raised if no records were found).
14) Develop a program that includes the features NESTED IF,

CASE and CASE expression. The program can be extended using the


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18) Program development using creation of package specification,


CURSOR variables.
Example: 1
Create a file (NEWINS.SQL), to insert into a new table, NEWEMP, the
record of any employee whose number is input by the user.
1. Create the table NEWEMP <emp_no, emp_name, join_date, basic).

2. Open an editor and type the following program.
Program
accept userno number
declare
dno number(4);
dname varchar2(30);
ddate date;
dbasic number(10);
begin
select emp_no, emp_name, join_date, basic
into dno, dname, ddate, dbasic
from emp
where emp_no = &userno;
if sql%rowcount > 0
then
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insert into newemp

values (dno, dname, ddate, dbaisc);
end if;
end;
/
3. Save the file as NEWINS
4. Execute the program as
SQL> start newins
Example: 2
Create a file (NEWINS2.SQL), to insert into a new table, NEWEMP, the
record of any employee whose number is input by the user. Also display on
the screen the employee details and to handle errors like user entering a
number which does not exist in the table.
Program
declare
dno number(4);
dname varchar2(30);
ddate date;
dbasic number(10);
begin
select emp_no, emp_name, join_date, basic
into dno, dname, ddate, dbasic
from emp
if sql%rowcount > 0
then
insert into newemp
values (dno, dname, ddate, dbasic);
dbms_output.put_line(‘Record inserted into NEWEMP’);

dbms_output.put_line(DNO || ‘ ‘ || DNAME || ‘ ‘ || DDATE || ‘ ‘ ||
DBASIC);
end if;
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line (‘Record ‘ || &userno || ‘ does not exist’);
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end;
/
Example: 3
Create a file (CALCTAX.SQL), to calculate tax for a specific employee and
display name and tax.
Program
declare
tot_basic number(10, 2);
tax number(10, 2);
name varchar2(30);
begin
select emp_name, basic
into name, tot_basic
from emp
if tot_basic = 0 or tot_basic is null

then
dbms_output.put_line(‘NO BASIC’);
elsif tot_basic <= 2000
then
tax := tot_basic * .02;
dbms_output.put_line(NAME || ‘ TOTAL BASIC: ‘ || TOT_BASIC);
dbms_output.put_line(NAME || ‘ TOTAL TAX: ‘ || TAX);
else
tax := tot_basic * .04;
dbms_output.put_line(NAME || ‘ TOTAL BASIC: ‘ || TOT_BASIC);
dbms_output.put_line(NAME || ‘ TOTAL TAX: ‘ || TAX);
end if;
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line (‘Record ‘ || &userno || ‘ does not exist’);
end;
/
PS:
EXECPTIONS
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When a program is executed certain errors are automatically recognized and

certain error situations must be recognized by the program itself. Errors in
general are referred to as Exceptions.
Exceptions can be either System defined or User defined.
Certain system exceptions raise the following flags:
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN – Displayed when the user tries to open a cursor
that is already open
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX – when user tries to insert a duplicate value into a
unique column
INVALID_CURSOR – when user references an invalid cursor or attempts an
illegal cursor operation
INVALID_NUMBER – when user tries to use something other than a number
where one is called for
LOGIN_DENIED – when connect request for user has been denied
NO_DATA_FOUND – this flag becomes TRUE when SQL select statement
failed to retrieve any rows
NOT_LOGGED_ON – user is not connected to ORACLE
PROGRAM_ERROR – user hits a PL/SQL internal error
STORAGE_ERROR – user hits a PL/SQL memory error
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE – user has reached timeout while waiting for an
Oracle resource
TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT – a remote server has rolled back the
transaction
TOO_MANY_ROWS – the flag becomes TRUE when SQL select statement
retrieves more than one row and it was supposed to retrieve only 1 row
VALUE_ERROR – user encounters an arithmetic, conversion, truncation or
constraint error
ZERO_DIVIDE – flag becomes TRUE if SQL select statement tries to divide a
number by 0
OTHERS – this flag is used to catch any error situations not coded by the
programmer
In the exception section and must appear last in the exception section
User defined exceptions must be declared in the declare section with the
reserved word, EXCEPTION.
Syntax for user defined exception:

<exception-name> EXCEPTION;
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This exception can be brought into action by the command,

RAISE <exception-name>
When the exception is raised, processing control is passed to the EXCEPTION
section of the PL/SQL block.
The code for the exception must be defined in the EXCEPTION section of the
PL/SQL block.
WHEN <exception-name> THEN
<action>;
Exercises:
1) Write a PL/SQL code block that will accept an account number from
the user and debit an amount of RS2000 from the account. If the
account has a minimum balance of 500 after amount is debited the
process should set a freeze on the account by setting the status to F.
(use table schema Accounts (acno, balance, status)
2) Write a PL/SQL block of code to achieve the following:
If the price of the product is >4000 then change the price to 4000. The
price change is to be recorded in the old price table along with product
number and date on which the price was last changed.
(use table schemas Product(pno, price) and Old_Price(pno,
date_of_change, oldprice)
WEEK 10 (PL/SQL)



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CURSOR variables.
Example: 1
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to retrieve first tuple from the
department relation.
(use table dept(dno, dname, loc))
Program
declare
vdno dept.deptno%type;
vdname dept.dname%type;
vloc dept.loc%type;
cursor c1 is select * from dept;
or // cursor c1 is select * from dept where rowno = 1;
begin
open c1;
fetch c1
into vdno,vdname,vloc;
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dbms_output.put_line('vdno = ' ||vdno|| ' vdname = '||vdname||' vloc

= '||vloc);
close c1;
end;
/
PS:
Cursors are used when the SQL select statement is expected to return more than
1 row.
A cursor must be declared and its definition contains a query and is defined in
the DECLARE section of the program.
A cursor must be opened before processing and closed after processing.
(Similar to how files are opened and closed in a C program).
Syntax to define a cursor:

CURSOR <CURSOR-NAME> IS <SELECT STATEMENT>
Syntax to open the cursor:

OPEN <CURSOR-NAME>
Syntax to store data in the cursor:

FETCH <CURSOR-NAME> INTO <VAR1>, <VAR2>, <VAR3>….
OR
FETCH <CURSOR-NAME> INTO <RECORD-NAME>
Syntax to close the cursor:

CLOSE <CURSOR-NAME>
Example: 2
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to retrieve each tuple from the
department relation.
(use table dept(dno, dname, loc))
Program
declare
vdept dept%rowtype;
cursor c1 is select * from dept;
begin
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for vdept in c1 loop

dbms_output.put_line('vdno = ' ||vdept.deptno|| ' vdname = '||
vdept.dname||' vloc = '||vdept.loc);
end loop;
end;
/
PS:
The cursor for loop can be used to process multiple records. The advantage of
cursor for loop is that the loop itself will open the cursor, read the records into
the cursor from the table until end of file and close the cursor.
Syntax for cursor FOR LOOP:

FOR <VARIABLE> IN <CURSOR-NAME> LOOP
<STATEMENTs>
END LOOP;
Example: 3
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to display the number, name, salary
of the three highest paid employees.
(use table emp(empno, ename,sal))
Program
declare
no emp.empno%type;
name emp.ename%type;
salary emp.sal%type;
cursor c1 is select empno, ename, sal from emp order by sal desc;
begin
open c1;
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loop
fetch c1 into no,name,salary;
exit when c1 %notfound;
exit when c1 %rowcount >3;
dbms_output.put_line(no||name||salary);
end loop;
close c1;
end;
/
PS:
Cursors Attributes:
There are 4 cursor attributes used to provide information on the status of a
cursor.
%NOTFOUND – To determine if a row was retrieved
Used after FETCH
NOTFOUND is TRUE if row is not retrieved
NOTFOUND is FALSE if row is retrieved
%FOUND – To determine if a row was retrieved.
Used after FETCH
FOUND is TRUE if row is retrieved
FOUND is FALSE if row is not retrieved
%ROWCOUNT – To determine the number of rows retrieved
ROWCOUNT is 0 when cursor is opened
ROWCOUNT returns the number of rows retrieved
%ISOPEN – To determine the cursor is open
ISOPEN is TRUE if a cursor is open
ISOPEN is FALSE if a cursor is not open
Example: 4
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to delete the employees whose
salary is more than 3000.
Program
declare
vrec emp%rowtype;
cursor c1 is select * from emp where sal>3000 for update;
begin
open c1;
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loop
fetch c1 into vrec;
exit when c1 %notfound;
delete from emp where current of c1;
dbms_output.put_line('Record deleted');
end loop;
close c1;
end;
/
PS:
In order to DELETE or UPDATE rows, the cursor must be defined with the
FOR UPDATE clause.
Example: 5
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to update the salary of each
employee by the avg salary if their salary is less than avg salary.
Program
declare
vrec emp%rowtype;
avgsal number(10,2);
cursor c1 is select * from emp for update;
begin
select avg(sal) into avgsal from emp;
for vrec in c1 loop
if vrec.sal < avgsal then
vrec.sal := avgsal;
update emp set sal = vrec.sal where current of c1;
dbms_output.put_line('Record updated');
end if;
end loop;
end;
/
PS:
Variable Attributes:
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%TYPE - is used in PL/SQL to declare a variable to be of the same type as a

previously declared variable or to be of the same type as a column in a table.
TOTBASIC SALARY.BASIC%TYPE;
will declare TOTBASIC of the same type as BASIC column from the table
SALARY.
%ROWTYPE – declares a variable which is actually a record which has the

same structure as a row from a table.
SALREC SALARY%ROWTYPE;
will declare SALREC as a record variable equivalent to the row from the table
SALARY.
Example: 6
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to insert into a table, NEWEMP, the
record of ALL MANAGERS. Also DISPLAY on the screen the NO, NAME,
JOIN_DATE. Handle any user defined exceptions.
(use table emp(emp_no, emp_name, join_date, desig))
Program
set serveroutput on
declare
ctr number(2) := 2;
dno number(4);
dname varchar2(30);
ddate date;
cursor cur_mgr is
select emp_no, emp_name, join_date
from emp
where upper(desig) = ‘MGR’;
no_manager_found exception;
begin
open cur_mgr;
loop
fetch cur_mgr
into dno, dname, ddate;
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exit when cur_mgr%notfound;

ctr := ctr + 1;
dbms_output.put_line(ctr || ‘Record inserted into

NEWEMP’);
dbms_output.put_line(dno || ‘ ‘ || dname || ‘ ‘ ddate);
insert into new emp

values (dno, dname, ddate);
end loop;
if cur_mgr%rowcount = 0
then
close cur_mgr;
raise no_manager_found;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line(‘TOTAL number of records’ || ctr);

close cur_mgr;
exception
when no_manager_found then
dbms_output.put_line(‘NO RECORS FOUND’);
end;
/
Exercises:
1) Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to insert into a table,
NEWEMP, for any designation input by the user from the keyboard.
Handle any user defined exceptions.
2) Code a program to calculate Tax for any employee whose number is

input from the keyboard. Display appropriate error message if data
does not exist in the table.
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WEEK 11 (PL/SQL)

(ii) Insert data into student table and use COMMIT,
ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT in SQL block.






CURSOR variables.
Example: 1
Code a procedure to calculate the sales made to a particular customer.
{ create table trn (itmid number(10),
cstid number(10),
trnqty number(10));
create table itmmast (itmid number(10),

itmprice number(10,2));
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create table cstmast ( cstid number(10),

name varchar2(30));}
Step 1: Open the editor

Step 2: Type the code below in a file named, TOTSALES.
Program
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE TOTSALES
(CID IN CSTMAST.CSTID%TYPE, SAL OUT NUMBER)
IS
id TRN.ITMID%TYPE;
qty TRN.TRNQTY%TYPE;
price ITMMAST.ITMPRICE%TYPE;
sales NUMBER(10, 2) := 0;
cursor cur_tr is
select trn.itmid, trnqty, itmprice
from trn, itmmast
where trn.cstid = cid
and trn.itmid = itmmast.itmid;
begin
open cur_tr;
loop
fetch cur_tr into id, qty, price;
if cur_tr%rowcount = 0
then
raise_application_error(-20020, ‘ERREOR!!!THERE IS NO
DATA’);
end if;
exit when cur_tr%notfound;
sales := sales + qty * price;
end loop;
close cur_tr;
sal := sales;
end;
/
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Step 3: Save the TOTSALES.SQL file.

Step 4: Return to SQL Prompt and compile as
SQL> start TOTSALES; (press enter)
Step 5: On the screen you will get the message Procedure created. If you have
errors type
SQL> show errors
Step 6: To execute the procedure at SQL prompt type
SQL> variable sl number
SQL> execute totsales(2001, :sl)
SQL> print sl
PS:
Procedural Objects
Groups of SQL and PL/SQL statements can be stored in the database. The code
stored once in the database can be used by multiple applications. Since the code
is in the database, which is in the server, processing is faster.
Procedures and functions are also referred to as sub-programs as they can take
parameters and be invoked.
Various types of procedural objects are: Procedures, Functions, Packages.
Procedures:
Procedures are sub-programs, which will perform an action and functions are
subprograms that are generally coded to compute some value.
The clients execute the procedure or function and the processing is done in the
server.
Procedures can receive and return values from and to the caller.
Communication is passed to a procedure through a parameter and
communication is passed out of a procedure through a parameter.
When calling a procedure, the parameters passed can be declared to be IN, OUT
or IN OUT.
The IN parameter is used to pass values to the procedure being called. It
behaves like a constant inside the procedure, i.e., cannot be assigned values
inside the procedure.
The OUT parameter is used to pass values out of a procedure to the caller of the
procedure. It behaves like a uninitialized variable inside the procedure.
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Inclusion Dependency:
An Inclusion Dependency is a statement of the form that some columns of a
relation are contained in other columns. A foreign key constraint is an example
of inclusion dependency.
59. What is durability in DBMS?

Once the DBMS informs the user that a transaction has successfully completed,
its effects should persist even if the system crashes before all its changes are
reflected on disk. This property is called durability.
60. What do you mean by atomicity and aggregation?

Atomicity:
Either all actions are carried out or none are. Users should not have to worry
about the effect of incomplete transactions. DBMS ensures this by undoing the
actions of incomplete transactions.
Aggregation:
A concept which is used to model a relationship between a collection of entities
and relationships. It is used when we need to express a relationship among
relationships.
61. What is a Phantom Deadlock?
In distributed deadlock detection, the delay in propagating local information
might cause the deadlock detection algorithms to identify deadlocks that do not
really exist. Such situations are called phantom deadlocks and they lead to
unnecessary aborts.
62. What is a checkpoint and When does it occur?

A Checkpoint is like a snapshot of the DBMS state. By taking checkpoints, the
DBMS can reduce the amount of work to be done during restart in the event of
subsequent crashes.
63. What are the different phases of transaction?
Different phases are
Ø Analysis phase
Ø Redo Phase
Ø Undo phase
64. What do you mean by flat file database?

It is a database in which there are no programs or user access languages. It has
no cross-file capabilities but is user-friendly and provides user-interface
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management.
65. What is "transparent DBMS"?

It is one, which keeps its Physical Structure hidden from user.
66. Brief theory of Network, Hierarchical schemas and their properties

Network schema uses a graph data structure to organize records example for
such a database management system is CTCG while a hierarchical schema uses
a tree data structure example for such a system is IMS.
67. What is a query?

A query with respect to DBMS relates to user commands that are used to
interact with a data base. The query language can be classified into data
definition language and data manipulation language.
68. What do you mean by Correlated subquery?

Subqueries, or nested queries, are used to bring back a set of rows to be used by
the parent query. Depending on how the subquery is written, it can be executed
once for the parent query or it can be executed once for each row returned by
the parent query. If the subquery is executed for each row of the parent, this is
called a correlated subquery.
A correlated subquery can be easily identified if it contains any references to the
parent subquery columns in its WHERE clause. Columns from the subquery
cannot be referenced anywhere else in the parent query. The following example
demonstrates a non-correlated subquery.
E.g. Select * From CUST Where '10/03/1990' IN (Select ODATE From
ORDER Where CUST.CNUM = ORDER.CNUM)
69. What are the primitive operations common to all record management
systems?
Addition, deletion and modification.
70. Name the buffer in which all the commands that are typed in are stored
‘Edit’ Buffer
71. What are the unary operations in Relational Algebra?

PROJECTION and SELECTION.
72. Are the resulting relations of PRODUCT and JOIN operation the
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same?
No.
PRODUCT: Concatenation of every row in one relation with every row in
another.
JOIN: Concatenation of rows from one relation and related rows from another.
73. What is RDBMS KERNEL?

Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the
software, and the data dictionary, which consists of the system-level data
structures used by the kernel to manage the database
You might think of an RDBMS as an operating system (or set of subsystems),
designed specifically for controlling data access; its primary functions are
storing, retrieving, and securing data. An RDBMS maintains its own list of
authorized users and their associated privileges; manages memory caches and
paging; controls locking for concurrent resource usage; dispatches and
schedules user requests; and manages space usage within its table-space
structures.
74. Name the sub-systems of a RDBMS

I/O, Security, Language Processing, Process Control, Storage Management,
Logging and Recovery, Distribution Control, Transaction Control, Memory
Management, Lock Management
75. Which part of the RDBMS takes care of the data dictionary? How
Data dictionary is a set of tables and database objects that is stored in a special
area of the database and maintained exclusively by the kernel.
76. What is the job of the information stored in data-dictionary?

The information in the data dictionary validates the existence of the objects,
provides access to them, and maps the actual physical storage location.
77. Not only RDBMS takes care of locating data it also

determines an optimal access path to store or retrieve the data
76. How do you communicate with an RDBMS?
You communicate with an RDBMS using Structured Query Language (SQL)
78. Define SQL and state the differences between SQL and other
conventional programming Languages
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SQL is a nonprocedural language that is designed specifically for data access

operations on normalized relational database structures. The primary difference
between SQL and other conventional programming languages is that SQL
statements specify what data operations should be performed rather than how to
perform them.
79. Name the three major set of files on disk that compose a database in
Oracle
There are three major sets of files on disk that compose a database. All the files
are binary. These are
Ø Database files
Ø Control files
Ø Redo logs
The most important of these are the database files where the actual data resides.
The control files and the redo logs support the functioning of the architecture
itself.
All three sets of files must be present, open, and available to Oracle for any data
on the database to be useable. Without these files, you cannot access the
database, and the database administrator might have to recover some or all of
the database using a backup, if there is one.
80. What is an Oracle Instance?

The Oracle system processes, also known as Oracle background processes,
provide functions for the user processes—functions that would otherwise be
done by the user processes themselves
Oracle database-wide system memory is known as the SGA, the system global
area or shared global area. The data and control structures in the SGA are
shareable, and all the Oracle background processes and user processes can use
them.
The combination of the SGA and the Oracle background processes is known as
an Oracle instance
81. What are the four Oracle system processes that must always be up and
running for the database to be useable
The four Oracle system processes that must always be up and running for the
database to be useable include DBWR (Database Writer), LGWR (Log Writer),
SMON (System Monitor), and PMON (Process Monitor).
82. What are database files, control files and log files. How many of these
files should a database have at least? Why?
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Database Files
The database files hold the actual data and are typically the largest in size.
Depending on their sizes, the tables (and other objects) for all the user accounts
can go in one database file—but that's not an ideal situation because it does not
make the database structure very flexible for controlling access to storage for
different users, putting the database on different disk drives, or backing up and
restoring just part of the database.
You must have at least one database file but usually, more than one files are
used. In terms of accessing and using the data in the tables and other objects,
the number (or location) of the files is immaterial.
The database files are fixed in size and never grow bigger than the size at which
they were created Control Files
The control files and redo logs support the rest of the architecture. Any database
must have at least one control file, although you typically have more than one to
guard against loss. The control file records the name of the database, the date
and time it was created, the location of the database and redo logs, and the
synchronization information to ensure that all three sets of files are always in
step. Every time you add a new database or redo log file to the database, the
information is recorded in the control files.
Redo Logs
Any database must have at least two redo logs. These are the journals for the
database; the redo logs record all changes to the user objects or system objects.
If any type of failure occurs, the changes recorded in the redo logs can be used
to bring the database to a consistent state without losing any committed
transactions. In the case of non-data loss failure, Oracle can apply the
information in the redo logs automatically without intervention from the DBA.
The redo log files are fixed in size and never grow dynamically from the size at
which they were created.
83. What is ROWID?

The ROWID is a unique database-wide physical address for every row on every
table. Once assigned (when the row is first inserted into the database), it never
changes until the row is deleted or the table is dropped.
The ROWID consists of the following three components, the combination of
which uniquely identifies the physical storage location of the row.
Ø Oracle database file number, which contains the block with the rows
Ø Oracle block address, which contains the row
Ø The row within the block (because each block can hold many rows)
The ROWID is used internally in indexes as a quick means of retrieving rows
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with a particular key value. Application developers also use it in SQL

statements as a quick way to access a row once they know the ROWID
84. What is Oracle Block? Can two Oracle Blocks have the same address?
Oracle "formats" the database files into a number of Oracle blocks when they
are first created—making it easier for the RDBMS software to manage the files
and easier to read data into the memory areas.
The block size should be a multiple of the operating system block size.
Regardless of the block size, the entire block is not available for holding data;
Oracle takes up some space to manage the contents of the block. This block
header has a minimum size, but it can grow.
These Oracle blocks are the smallest unit of storage. Increasing the Oracle
block size can improve performance, but it should be done only when the
database is first created.
Each Oracle block is numbered sequentially for each database file starting at 1.
Two blocks can have the same block address if they are in different database
files.
85. What is database Trigger?

A database trigger is a PL/SQL block that can defined to automatically execute
for insert, update, and delete statements against a table. The trigger can e
defined to execute once for the entire statement or once for every row that is
inserted, updated, or deleted. For any one table, there are twelve events for
which you can define database triggers. A database trigger can call database
procedures that are also written in PL/SQL.
86. Name two utilities that Oracle provides, which are use for backup and
recovery.
Along with the RDBMS software, Oracle provides two utilities that you can use
to back up and restore the database. These utilities are Export and Import.
The Export utility dumps the definitions and data for the specified part of the
database to an operating system binary file. The Import utility reads the file
produced by an export, recreates the definitions of objects, and inserts the data
If Export and Import are used as a means of backing up and recovering the
database, all the changes made to the database cannot be recovered since the
export was performed. The best you can do is recover the database to the time
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when the export was last performed.
87. What are stored-procedures? And what are the advantages of using
them.
Stored procedures are database objects that perform a user defined operation. A
stored procedure can have a set of compound SQL statements. A stored
procedure executes the SQL commands and returns the result to the client.
Stored procedures are used to reduce network traffic.
88. How are exceptions handled in PL/SQL? Give some of the internal
exceptions' name
PL/SQL exception handling is a mechanism for dealing with run-time errors
encountered during procedure execution. Use of this mechanism enables
execution to continue if the error is not severe enough to cause procedure
termination.
The exception handler must be defined within a subprogram specification.
Errors cause the program to raise an exception with a transfer of control to the
exception-handler block. After the exception handler executes, control returns
to the block in which the handler was defined. If there are no more executable
statements in the block, control returns to the caller.
User-Defined Exceptions
PL/SQL enables the user to define exception handlers in the declarations area of
subprogram specifications. User accomplishes this by naming an exception as
in the following example:
ot_failure EXCEPTION;
In this case, the exception name is ot_failure. Code associated with this handler
is written in the EXCEPTION specification area as follows:
EXCEPTION
when OT_FAILURE then
out_status_code := g_out_status_code;
out_msg := g_out_msg;
The following is an example of a subprogram exception:
EXCEPTION
when NO_DATA_FOUND then
g_out_status_code := 'FAIL';
RAISE ot_failure;
Within this exception is the RAISE statement that transfers control back to the
ot_failure exception handler. This technique of raising the exception is used to
invoke all user-defined exceptions.
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System-Defined Exceptions
Exceptions internal to PL/SQL are raised automatically upon error.
NO_DATA_FOUND is a system-defined exception. Table below gives a
complete list of internal exceptions.
PL/SQL internal exceptions.

PL/SQL internal exceptions.
Exception Name Oracle Error

CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN ORA-06511
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX ORA-00001
INVALID_CURSOR ORA-01001
INVALID_NUMBER ORA-01722
LOGIN_DENIED ORA-01017
NO_DATA_FOUND ORA-01403
NOT_LOGGED_ON ORA-01012
PROGRAM_ERROR ORA-06501
STORAGE_ERROR ORA-06500
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE ORA-00051
TOO_MANY_ROWS ORA-01422
TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT ORA-00061
VALUE_ERROR ORA-06502
ZERO_DIVIDE ORA-01476
In addition to this list of exceptions, there is a catch-all exception named

OTHERS that traps all errors for which specific error handling has not been
established.
89. Does PL/SQL support "overloading"? Explain

The concept of overloading in PL/SQL relates to the idea that you can define
procedures and functions with the same name. PL/SQL does not look only at
the referenced name, however, to resolve a procedure or function call. The
count and data types of formal parameters are also considered.
PL/SQL also attempts to resolve any procedure or function calls in locally
defined packages before looking at globally defined packages or internal
functions. To further ensure calling the proper procedure, you can use the dot
notation. Prefacing a procedure or function name with the package name fully
qualifies any procedure or function reference.
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90. Tables derived from the ERD

a) Are totally unnormalised
b) Are always in 1NF
c) Can be further denormalised
d) May have multi-valued attributes
(b) Are always in 1NF
91. Spurious tuples may occur due to

i. Bad normalization
ii. Theta joins
iii. Updating tables from join
a) i & ii b) ii & iii
c) i & iii d) ii & iii
(a) i & iii because theta joins are joins made on keys that are not primary keys.
92. A B C is a set of attributes. The functional dependency is as follows

AB -> B
AC -> C
C -> B
a) is in 1NF
b) is in 2NF
c) is in 3NF
d) is in BCNF
(a) is in 1NF since (AC)+ = { A, B, C} hence AC is the primary key. Since C B

is a FD given, where neither C is a Key nor B is a prime attribute, this it is not
in 3NF. Further B is not functionally dependent on key AC thus it is not in 2NF.
Thus the given FDs is in 1NF.
93. In mapping of ERD to DFD

a) entities in ERD should correspond to an existing entity/store in DFD
b) entity in DFD is converted to attributes of an entity in ERD
c) relations in ERD has 1 to 1 correspondence to processes in DFD
d) relationships in ERD has 1 to 1 correspondence to flows in DFD
(a) entities in ERD should correspond to an existing entity/store in DFD

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94. A dominant entity is the entity

a) on the N side in a 1 : N relationship
b) on the 1 side in a 1 : N relationship
c) on either side in a 1 : 1 relationship
d) nothing to do with 1 : 1 or 1 : N relationship
(b) on the 1 side in a 1 : N relationship

95. Select 'NORTH', CUSTOMER From CUST_DTLS Where REGION =
'N' Order By
CUSTOMER Union Select 'EAST', CUSTOMER From CUST_DTLS
Where REGION = 'E' Order By CUSTOMER
The above is
a) Not an error
b) Error - the string in single quotes 'NORTH' and 'SOUTH'
c) Error - the string should be in double quotes
d) Error - ORDER BY clause
(d) Error - the ORDER BY clause. Since ORDER BY clause cannot be used in
UNIONS
96. What is Storage Manager?

It is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data
stored in database, application programs and queries submitted to the system.
97. What is Buffer Manager?

It is a program module, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage
into main memory and deciding what data to be cache in memory.
98. What is Transaction Manager?

It is a program module, which ensures that database, remains in a consistent
state despite system failures and concurrent transaction execution proceeds
without conflicting.
99. What is File Manager?

It is a program module, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage
and data structure used to represent information stored on a disk.
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100. What is Authorization and Integrity manager?

It is the program module, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraint
and checks the authority of user to access data.
101. What are stand-alone procedures?

Procedures that are not part of a package are known as stand-alone because they
independently defined. A good example of a stand-alone procedure is one
written in a SQL*Forms application. These types of procedures are not
available for reference from other Oracle tools. Another limitation of stand-
alone procedures is that they are compiled at run time, which slows execution.
102. What are cursors give different types of cursors.
PL/SQL uses cursors for all database information accesses statements. The
language supports the use two types of cursors
Ø Implicit
Ø Explicit
103. What is cold backup and hot backup (in case of Oracle)?
Ø Cold Backup:
It is copying the three sets of files (database files, redo logs, and control file)
when the instance is shut down. This is a straight file copy, usually from the
disk directly to tape. You must shut down the instance to guarantee a consistent
copy.
If a cold backup is performed, the only option available in the event of data file
loss is restoring all the files from the latest backup. All work performed on the
database since the last backup is lost.
Ø Hot Backup:
Some sites (such as worldwide airline reservations systems) cannot shut down
the database while making a backup copy of the files. The cold backup is not an
available option.
So different means of backing up database must be used — the hot backup.
Issue a SQL command to indicate to Oracle, on a tablespace-by-tablespace
basis, that the files of the tablespace are to backed up. The users can continue to
make full use of the files, including making changes to the data. Once the user
has indicated that he/she wants to back up the tablespace files, he/she can use
the operating system to copy those files to the desired backup destination.
The database must be running in ARCHIVELOG mode for the hot backup
option.
If a data loss failure does occur, the lost database files can be restored using the
hot backup and the online and offline redo logs created since the backup was
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done. The database is restored to the most consistent state without any loss of
committed transactions.
104. What are Armstrong rules? How do we say that they are complete
and/or sound
The well-known inference rules for FDs
Ø Reflexive rule :
If Y is subset or equal to X then X Y.
Ø Augmentation rule:
If X Y then XZ YZ.
Ø Transitive rule:
If {X Y, Y Z} then X Z.
Ø Decomposition rule :
If X YZ then X Y.
Ø Union or Additive rule:
If {X Y, X Z} then X YZ.
Ø Pseudo Transitive rule :
If {X Y, WY Z} then WX Z.
Of these the first three are known as Amstrong Rules. They are sound because it
is enough if a set of FDs satisfy these three. They are called complete because
using these three rules we can generate the rest all inference rules.
105. How can you find the minimal key of relational schema?
Minimal key is one which can identify each tuple of the given relation schema
uniquely. For finding the minimal key it is required to find the closure that is
the set of all attributes that are dependent on any given set of attributes under
the given set of functional dependency.
Algo. I Determining X+, closure for X, given set of FDs F
1. Set X+ = X
2. Set Old X+ = X+
3. For each FD Y Z in F and if Y belongs to X+ then add Z to X+
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until Old X+ = X+
Algo.II Determining minimal K for relation schema R, given set of FDs F

1. Set K to R that is make K a set of all attributes in R
2. For each attribute A in K
a. Compute (K – A)+ with respect to F
b. If (K – A)+ = R then set K = (K – A)+
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106. What do you understand by dependency preservation?

Given a relation R and a set of FDs F, dependency preservation states that the
closure of the union of the projection of F on each decomposed relation Ri is
equal to the closure of F. i.e.,
((PR1(F)) U … U (PRn(F)))+ = F+
if decomposition is not dependency preserving, then some dependency is lost in
the decomposition.
107. What is meant by Proactive, Retroactive and Simultaneous Update.
Proactive Update:
The updates that are applied to database before it becomes effective in real
world .
Retroactive Update:
The updates that are applied to database after it becomes effective in real
world .
Simulatneous Update:
The updates that are applied to database at the same time when it becomes
effective in real world .
108. What are the different types of JOIN operations?

Equi Join: This is the most common type of join which involves only equality
comparisions. The disadvantage in this type of join is that there
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

How to Write and execute sql, pl/sql

1). Open your oracle application by the following navigation

2). You will be asked for user name, password.

to execute above program/command you have to press ‘/’ then

Here editing the program is somewhat difficult; if you want to

To execute the program which saved; do the following

SQL> @ programname.sql (or)

Always you have to save your programs in your own logins.

Oracle workgroup or server is the largest selling RDBMS product.it is

Oracle corp has also incorporated a full-fledged java virtual machine

SQL is structure query language.SQL contains different data types those

Different types of commands in SQL:

A).DDL commands: - To create a database objects

B).DML commands: - To manipulate data of a database objects

1. The Create Table Command: - it defines each column of the table

Create table <table name> (<col1> <datatype>(<size>),<col2>

2. Modifying the structure of tables.

Alter table <tablename> add(<new col><datatype(size),<new

3. Dropping a column from a table.

4. Modifying existing columns.

alter table emp modify(ename varchar2(15));

5. Renaming the tables

Rename <oldtable> to <new table>;

6. truncating the tables.

Truncate table <tablename>;

trunc table emp1;

Drop table <tablename>;

drop table emp;

8. Inserting Data into Tables: - once a table is created the most

insert into <tablename> (<col1>,<col2>…..<col n>) values(<val 1>,

insert into <tablename> values(&<col1>,&<col2>……,&<col n>);

insert into <tablename> values(<val 1>,<val 2>…….,<val n>);

Insert into skc (sname,rollno,class,dob,fee_paid)

insert into skc values(&sname,&roll no,&class);

insert into skc values(‘sri’,’104B’,cse’,’27-feb-05’,10000.00);

a) remove all rows

delete from <tablename>;

b) removal of a specified row/s

delete from <tablename> where <condition>;

10. Updating the contents of a table.

a) updating all rows

b) updating seleted records.

11. Types of data constrains.

a) not null constraint at column level.

Unique constraint at column level.

c) unique constraint at table level:

d) primary key constraint at column level

e) primary key constraint at table level.

Create table tablename(col=format,col=format

f) foreign key constraint at column level.

<col><datatype>(size>) references <tablename>[<col>];

g) foreign key constraint at table level

foreign key(<col>[,<col>]) references

check constraint constraint at column level.

Syntax: <col><datatype>(size) check(<logical expression>)

i) check constraint constraint at table level.

Syntax: check(<logical expression>)

a) all rows and all columns

a) Selected columns and all rows:

b) selected rows and all columns:

c) selected columns and selected rows