Introduction:

DIGIAC 1750

The DIGIAC 1750 (D1750) unit is a comprehensive transducer and instrumentation

trainer with examples of a full range of input and output transducers, signal
conditioning circuits and display devices.
Various Transducer experiments will be performed on this set. The unit is self-
contained and enables the characteristics of individual devices to be studied and
also their interconnection to form complete closed loop systems.

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that
forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and
the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor.
In a circuit diagram, a potentiometer is represented by one of the two symbols
below.

Potentiometer
Transducers
A device that converts variations in a physical quantity, such as pressure or
brightness, into an electrical signal, or vice versa.
Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers
because of the simplicity of construction and because they can give a large output
signal.
Types of Potentiometer:

Slider Potentiometer
A linear potentiometer transducer consists of a potentiometer, which is short
circuited by a slider. Let the resistance position caused by the slider movement be
BC. As the movement of the slider moves further to the right, the amount of
resistance increases. This increase in resistance value can be noted according to the
corresponding change in the linear displacement of the slider.
Character:
Tiny size slide potentiometer for side adjustment type, travel=10mm.

Rotary Switch Potentiometer

Rotary switch potentiometer can be used as either a variable resistance or a voltage
divider.
The Rotary Switch Potentiometer board allows you to populate your own resistors,
to help match situations where ordinary parts aren’t available or suitable.
Character:
Can rotate 360, no pin pith design.

Loading of Potentiometer Output Voltage

The output of a sensor device may deviate from the correct value due to loading
effect. We can categorize two types of loading effect
Inter element loading:
A given element in the system may modify the characteristics of the previous
element.
Process loading:
The introduction of the sensing element into the process or system being measured
causes the value of the measured variable to change.
Procedure
 Locate the 100kohm variable resistor on the DIGAC 1750 connect the
circuit.
 Set the 100kohm rotary resistor control fully counter clockwise to setting to
1.
 After ensuring the voltage adjustment is correctly set power supply ON.
 Note output voltage shown on DMM.
 Repeat the steps several time and record values.
Circuit diagram

Observations
s.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage 11.88 11.22 9.65 8.19 6.84 5.15 4.31 2.82 1.01 0.58

s.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage 4.98 4.13 3.04 1.79 0.63 -0.67 -1.82 -2.92 -4.04 -4.92

CONCLUSION
This lab effectively showed the working of slide and rotary potentiometer. It
demonstrated how to set-up a DIGIAC 1750 trainer, and how to manipulate it in a
laboratory setting. In addition, the lab provided a demonstration of the
potentiometer output voltage. Although significant error existed in this lab, the
results still reflect the relationships governing the DIGIAC 1750 trainer sufficiently
for understanding in an experimental contextual environment.
INTRODUCTION:
The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit used to compare an unknown resistance with a
known resistance. The bridge is commonly used in control circuits. For instance, a
temperature sensor in an oven often consists of a resistor with a resistance that
increases with temperature. This temperature-dependent resistor is compared
with a control resistor (outside the oven) to control a heater and maintain a set
temperature.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
A schematic of a Wheatstone bridge is shown below:

PROCEDURE
The unknown resistor is Rx, the resistor Rk is known, and the two resistors R1 and
R2 have a known ratio R2:R1, although their individual values may not be known.
A galvanometer G measures the voltage difference VAB between points A and B.
Either the known resistor Rk or the ratio R2:R1 is adjusted until the voltage
difference VAB is zero and no current flows through G. When VAB = 0, the bridge is
said to be “balanced”. Since VAB = 0, the voltage drops from C to A must equal the
voltage drop from C to B, VCA =VCB. Likewise, we must have VAD = VBD.
EQUATIONS

(1) IRa1=IbRk
(2) I Ra 2=IbR x

Dividing (2) by (1), we have

𝑅2 𝑅x
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑘
𝑅2
Rx= 𝑅𝑘
𝑅1
Unknown resistance Rx can be computed from the known resistance Rk and the
known ratio R2:R1. Because it uses a null measurement, (VAB = 0), the
galvanometer does not have to be calibrated.
READINGS

CONCLUSION
This lab effectively showed how the Wheatstone bridge provides a mechanism to
calculate an unknown resistance using the known relationships given through the
resistivity correlation to length. It demonstrated how to set-up a Wheatstone
bridge and how to manipulate a Wheatstone bridge in a laboratory setting. In
addition, the lab provided a demonstration of the aforementioned linear
relationships. Although significant error existed in this lab, the results still reflect
the relationships governing the Wheatstone bridge sufficiently for understanding
in an experimental contextual environment.
INTRODUCTION

What is a meter?

A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity in
a form readable by a human being.
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit.
Ammeter
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.

Multi-range voltmeter

A dc voltmeter is constructed by a connecting a resistor in series with a PMMC

instrument. Unlike an ammeter, a voltmeter should have a very high resistance Rise
and it is normally connected in parallel with the circuit where the voltage is to be
measured. To minimize voltmeter loading, the voltmeter operating current should
be very small i.e., the resistance connected in series with the coil should be high.

Calculation

V = IR
So
V = I (Rs + Rm)
V/Im= Rs + Rm
Rm = 10k, Ifs = 0.98mA, V = 15V
Rs = 15/0.98mV - 10K
= 5K ohm V = 25 V
Rs = 15K ohm
PMMC

The permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instruments consists of a light coil of
copper wire, suspended in the field of permanent magnet current in the coil to
produce magnetic field that interacts with the wire field resulting in rotation of the
coil. A pointer connected with the coil deflects over a calibrated scale, modify the
level of current flowing in the coil, for this to occur, three forces are operating

1. Deflecting force
2. Controlling force
3. Damping force

The deflecting force causes the pointer to move from its two position, where
current passes through it.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Procedure

 Find the coil resistance of the PMMC meter.

 Calculate the full deflection current and voltage of PMMC meter.
 Implement the basic voltmeter calculating the multi-meter resistance value.
 Implement the multi range volte meter to calculate the Rm1, Rm2 and Rm3.
 Implement the ammeter to calculate the shunt resistor.
 Implement the multi range ammeter to calculate the values of Rs1, Rs2 and
Rs3.
OBSERVATION

The permanent magnetic coil (PMMC) analog meter can be used as a multistage
volt meter and multi range ammeter by connecting resistance in series and in
parallel.

CONCLUSION

In this lab, we learnt the concept of galvanometer and it converted forms of

voltmeter, Ammeter by adding a resistor to increase its range to measure the high
voltages and currents of galvanometer is parallel attached it becomes ammeter and
if a resistor is attached it will become voltmeter and its random variations.
INTRODUCTION

The AC bridge is a natural outgrowth of the Wheatstone bridge. An AC bridge, in its

basic form, consists of four arms, a source of excitation, and a balance detector. In
an AC bridge each of four arm is an impedance, and the battery and galvanometer
are replaced by an AC source and a detector sensitive to small alternating potential
difference. The usefulness of AC bridge circuits is not restricted to the
measurement of unknown impedances and associated parameters like inductance,
capacitance, storage factor, dissipation factor etc. this circuits find other
application in communication systems and complex electronic circuit. Alternating
current bridge circuit are commonly used for phase shifting, providing feedback
paths for oscillator and amplifier, filtering out undesirable signals and measuring
the frequency of audio signals. The purpose of selecting this project is the cost
effectiveness, by combining the two bridges we are reducing the cost of case and
components, the motive behind choosing the Maxwell’s inductance capacitance
bridge and Schering bridge for the manufacturing of this generalized AC bridge is
the maximum number of common arms i.e. we directly get two common arms out
of four arms.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Equation

𝑍1 𝑍3
=
𝑍2 𝑍4
Types of bridges

1. Capacitor bridge
2. Inductance bridge
3. Maxwell’s bridge

Capacitor bridge

The capacitance bridges are used to measure unknown capacitance by the same
phenomena of wheat stone bridge.

C1=C2*(R4/R3)

Inductance bridge

The inductance bridge is used to measure the unknown inductance. The basic
configuration is shown below

L1=R2*R3*C4
Maxwell bridge

Maxwell bridge is also used to measure inductance. The configuration is shown

below

Procedure

 Connect AC bridge for capacitance measurement and apply sinusoidal input

to the bridge and calibrate the bridge to find unknown capacitance.
 Repeat the step 1 for inductance measurement.
 Apply Maxwell bridge and validate it.

Conclusion

In this lab we learnt is that the by using a single bridge we can measure unknown
inductance and capacitance. This reduces the hardware that is used in Maxwell’s
inductance capacitance bridge and Schering bridge, which ultimately reduces the
cost. The Q-factor can be improved by using high quality of inductor and capacitor
and by increasing the value of resistors
INTRODUCTION

STRAIN

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More

specifically, strain (ε) is defined as the fractional change in length. Strain can be
positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is
sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude
of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as macrostrain
(µε), which is ε × 10–6.

STRAIN GAUGE

It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc.
that can be felt easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the
dimensions like force, stress and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any
instrument. For such cases special devices called strain gauges are very useful.

The most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic strain gauge. The
metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil
arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire
or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction. The cross sectional area of the grid
is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson Strain. The grid is
bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly to the test
specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred
directly to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical
resistance.

alignment marks

solder tabs
active grid
length
carrier
Gauge Factor
A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed
quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of
fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):
∆R / R ∆R / R
GF = -------------- = --------------
∆L / L ε
The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

CIRCUIT DIGARAM

Wheatstone Bridge
The electrical circuit containing the strain gauge is as important as the gauge itself.
It is the job of the electrical circuit to relate the change in the gauge's resistance to
a measurable change in voltage. The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is the most popular
choice for accomplishing this. It is also called a quarter bridge circuit because the
gauge itself is one of four resistances in the circuit.
PROCEDURE
 Connect the circuit and set the amplifier # 1 Gain coarse to 100.
 Switch on the power supply and set the offset voltage output to zero.
 Place all your Ten weight and check the meter deflection.
 Note the value of output voltage.
 Repeat these steps for all your loads and record the value.

READINGS
No of coins

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Output voltage

0.8v 1.9v 3v 3.6v 4.1v 4.7v 5v 6.4v 6.9v 7.2v

CONCLUSION

In this lab we have learnt about strain and working of strain gauge. A strain gauge
is a thin strip of metal designed to measure mechanical load by changing resistance
when stressed (stretched or compressed within its elastic limit).
Strain gauge resistance changes are typically measured in a bridge circuit, to allow
for precise measurement of the small resistance changes, and to provide
compensation for resistance variations due to temperature.
INTRODUCTION

Electro-optical sensors are electronic detectors that convert light, or a change in

light, into an electronic signal. They are used in many industrial and consumer
applications.
Function an optical sensor converts light rays into electronic signals. It measures
the physical quantity of light and then translates it into a form that is readable by
an instrument. An optical sensor is generally part of a larger system that integrates
a source of light, a measuring device and the optical sensor. This is often connected
to an electrical trigger. The trigger reacts to a change in the signal within the light
sensor. An optical sensor can measure the changes from one or several light beams.
1. Photo transistor
2. Photo diodes
3. Light dependent resistor

PHOTO TRANSISTOR
A phototransistor is a device that converts light energy into electric energy.
Phototransistors are similar to photo resistors but produce both current and
voltage, while photo resistors only produce current.

Lamp 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
voltages/brightness

O/P V 4.92 4.86 4.57 4.16 3.07 1.98 0.53 0.37 0.22 0.21
PHOTO DIODE
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical
current. The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photo diode.
Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small
surface areas.

Lamp 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
voltages/brightness

O/P V 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.40 0.46 0.60 0.81 1.05 1.60

Light Dependent Resistance

A photo resistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is sensitive to light.
When light falls upon it then the resistance changes. Values of the resistance of the
LDR may change over many orders of magnitude the value of the resistance falling
as the level of light increases.

Lamp 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltages/brightness

O/P V 4.92 4.92 4.89 4.73 4.44 4.01 3.19 2.45 1.57 1.35
Procedure
 Connect circuit as shown in figure.
 Configure the two DMM as voltmeter range of 20v.v1 measure the
phototransistor voltage and v2 measure the filament voltage.
 Fit the opaque clear over the plastic enclosure to exclude all ambient light.
 Switch on the power supply and set the 10kohm wire wound resistor to
minimum for zero output voltage.
 Take the readings.

CONCLUSION
In this lab, we understood the concept of optical sensors and different transducer
and analyze its behavior on light intensity when we apply different intensity lights
by varying the resistance of the light source and analyze the output of the photo
transistor. We understood that the relation between light and resistance is directly
proportional to each other.
INTRODUCTION
LVDT stands for “Linear Variable Differential Transformer”
An LVDT is essentially a non-contacting transducer that can convert the rectilinear
motion of an object to which it is mechanically coupled to an analog signal which
can be used to determine the displacement of the object. They are extremely
accurate, robust, and proven through years of use in high pressure hydraulic
environments. LVDTs are extremely accurate, capable of resolving movements as
small as a few millionths of an inch, however only have a stroke range of
approximately 5 inches. But using CPI’s highly developed sensor core, our sensor
converts the relatively long stroke of hydraulic cylinders to the short stroke of the
LVDT via a patented linear to rotary to linear mechanism that is unique in the
industry.

The LVDT technology used by CPI is extremely accurate, tough, and reliable. LVDT
linear position sensors are available that can measure movements as small as a few
millionths of an inch up to several inches, and others are capable of measuring
positions up to ±120 inches (±0.5 m).

CIRCUIT DIGARAM

Equation
Vab = Va – Vb
PROCEDURE
 Connect the LVDT circuit on DIGAC 1750 trainer.
 Observe the output of LDVT.
 Change the position of moveable core, right to left.
 Observe the output at different position.
Advantage
 Friction-Free Operation
 Infinite Resolution
 Unlimited Mechanical Life
 Null Point Repeatability
 Fast Dynamic Response
 Absolute Output

RESULT

CONCLUSION
Our linear variable differential transformer generated linear behavior when the
core was fully inserted into the inner coil. Once the core left the inner coil, which
was responsible for driving the flux within the core, the induced flux decreased
significantly-causing a plunge towards a zero induction value. For the central, well
behaved portion, the linear plot actually consisted of three separate
lines. The slope of these lines varied according to the number of loops enclosing
the iron core. The left side was enclosed by only the inner coil and the negative coil.
At the zero point all three coils enclosed the core. Finally, when the core was moved
to the right side the core was enclosed by only the inner coil and the positive coil.
This experiment should be repeated with a longer iron core.
INTRODUCTION

AIR FLOW TRANSDUCER

Flow transducers are used to measure air and liquid flow velocity. Flow transducers
use different measuring principles. By means of the flow velocity, analysis units of
flow transducers can calculate the flow level or determine the amount of flow with
a counter. Our flow transducers operate based on ultrasound. A great advantage
of this type of non-contact measurement is that sensors are not exposed to
pressure surges or solid agents. Air flow transducers are mainly used in the heating,
ventilation and conditioning sectors. Flow transducers use the monomeric method
which allows the usage for a wide range of temperature and flow.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The Air Flow Transducer

AIR PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

A pressure transducer is a measuring device which converts an applied pressure
into an electrical signal. Generally, a pressure transducer consists of two parts, an
elastic material which deforms under the application of pressure and an electrical
part which detects this deformation.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The Air Flow & Pressure Transducer

Reading

PUMP OFF PUMP ON

Transducer 2.03 V 1.97 V

Output voltage

Transducer + output V 1.78 V 1.75 V

Amplifier #1 Output V 0 0.04 V

PROCEDURE
 Set the amplifier # 1 Gain coarse to 10 and Gain fine control to 0.3. Ensure
that the pump is off.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the offset to control the amplifier #
1 for zero output voltage. The unit is now calibrated zero for the current
atmospheric pressure.
 Set the flow control to pressure and switch the pump ON. The output voltage
from the amplifier # 1 is increase.
 Note the value of this voltage.

CONCLUSION

This lab effectively shows the working principle of Air Flow Transducer and Air
Pressure Transducer. Airflow flow is the movement of air from one area to another.
The primary cause of airflow is the existence of gradients. Measuring the airflow is
necessary in many applications such as ventilation (to determine how much air is
being replaced).
 Designing and Analyzing the Working of Temperature Sensor

Abstract
This Lab reviews various methods of utilizing bipolar transistors and integrated
circuits as temperature transducers. Starting with a study of the temperature
dependence of the base emitter voltages of bipolar transistors, the properties of
single-transistor temperature sensors are discussed. Next, integrated circuits that
generate an accurate output current or voltage proportional to the absolute
temperature (PTAT) are presented, along with a novel type of integrated circuit
that generates an output voltage on a °C, °F or an arbitrary scale. The accuracy,
stability and calibration problems of the different transducers are discussed and
compared with each other. Finally, a smart IC sensor with on-chip microcomputer
interfacing is described.

INTRODUCTION
A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or RTD, that provides
for temperature measurement through an electrical signal. A thermocouple
(T/C) is made from two dissimilar metals that generate electrical voltage in direct
proportion to changes in temperature.

Contact Temperature Sensor Types

These types of temperature sensor are required to be in physical contact with
the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes in temperature.
They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of
temperatures.
Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types
These types of temperature sensor use convection and radiation to monitor
changes in temperature. They can be used to detect liquids and gases that emit
radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in convection currents
or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the form of
infra-red radiation (the sun).
LM35
LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor with its output proportional to the
temperature (in oC). The sensor circuitry is sealed and therefore it is not subjected
to oxidation and other processes. With LM35, temperature can be measured more
accurately than with a thermistor. It also possesses low self-heating and does not
cause more than 0.1 oC temperature rise in still air.

Pin Description:

Pin No Function Name

1 Supply voltage; 5V (+35V to -2V) Vcc
2 Output voltage (+6V to -1V) Output
3 Ground (0V) Ground

Features of LM35 Temperature Sensor:

 Calibrated directly in ˚ Celsius (Centigrade)
 Rated for full l −55˚ to +150˚C range
 Suitable for remote applications
 Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
 Operates from 4 to 30 volts
 Low self-heating,
 ±1/4˚C of typical nonlinearity
Procedure

 Build the circuit

 Program
 Compile the code
 Observe the output change in voltage.

Observation / Readings
Main advantage of LM35 is that it is linear i.e. 10mv/°C which means for every
degree rise in temperature the output of LM35 will rise by 10mv. So if the output
of LM35 is 220mv/0.22V the temperature will be 22°C. So if room temperature is
32°C then the output of LM35 will be 320mv i.e. 0.32V.

Conclusion
In this lab we learnt about the LM35 temperature sensor can be used to sense
internal temperature. LM35 is a very common and easy to use temperature sensor
transistor. The circuit only needs one component, which is LM35 itself. By
interfacing the output of LM35 to ADC of Arduino, we can obtain the actual
temperature reading.

Reference
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240419190_Thermal_sensors_based_on_transistors