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Notes Part II
1
Amplitude Modulated
Communications
2
Reverse process of AM modulation
Converts a received AM modulated wave back
to the original information signal
Receiver must be capable of receiving,
amplifying, and demodulating an AM wave
Simple radio receiver block diagram
Simplified block diagram of an AM receiver
Selectivity
Sensitivity
The extend to which a receiver is capable of
differentiating b/w the desired signal and
other unwanted signals and noises
Over selectivity
◦ BW too narrow: lack of fidelity/reliability
Under selectivity
◦ BW too wide: increased noise
TRF receivers suffers selectivity problem
Ability to drive the output transducer to an
acceptable level
Minimum input RF signal to a receiver
required to produce a specified audio signal
at output (mV to nV)
◦ Determined by its gain and noise characteristic
Nonlinear device used as a
detector
Ideal curve
◦ linear on each side of
operating point
◦ does not introduce any
harmonics
Diode (Envelop) Detector
Can handle LF to low-VHF
bands
Useful for microwave
operation up to 40 GHz
Handle hi power signal
Distortion levels are acceptable. (decrease as
amplitude increases)
Highly efficient. (up to 90%)
Develop readily usable dc voltage for AGC
circuit
Power is absorbed from the tuned circuit by
the diode circuit reducing Q and selectivity of
the tuned input circuit
No amplification occurs in the circuit
Diode detector component
considerations
Selection of time constant is
crucial
Dashed lines indicate
average voltage during pulse
Square pulse modulation
For applications demanding greater
performance.
Advantages
◦ Low distortion << 1%
◦ Ability to follow fast-modulation waveform
(ex. Pulse Modulation or hi-fidelity appl.)
◦ Provides gain instead of attenuation
Also called Product or heterodyne detectors
◦ Uses oscillation, mixer, and LPF stage to obtain
intelligence from AM signal
Synchronous AM detection
Linear gain, 1-dB compression point, and third-order intercept
distortion for a typical amplifier
(T = 17°C)
Non-coherent tuned radio frequency receiver block diagram
AM Super-Heterodyne
RF-to-IF conversion
Super-heterodyne receiver block diagram
Mixer is a nonlinear device that mix the AM signal with a sine wave to generate a new
set of sum and difference frequencies
Since, IF < RF helps attain voltage gain. Detector detects Intelligence
AGC: a dc level proportional to the received signal’s strength extracted from detector is
fed back. It allows constant rec. output
Frequency conversion process. Mixer output will also produce
harmonics of the listed components and a dc. Mixer maintains same
amplitude proportions existed w/AM input
Frequency conversion. Reducing L or C in Local Oscillator will
increase tuned freq.
Figure for Example 5-3
Receiver tracking: (a) pre-selector and local oscillator schematic; (b)
tracking curve
Electronic tuning
Tracking error for Example 5-4: (a) tracking curve; (b) bandpass
characteristics
Image frequency
Illustration of Image frequency: undesired input frequency in a
super-heterodyne receiver that produces the same IM frequency as
the desired input signal
Image frequency not a problem (for low freq.). Double Conversion
super-heterodyne receiver design (Ch 7) that has two separate
mixer, local oscillators and intermediate frequencies to avoid image
frequency problems.
Frequency conversion for Example 5-5
Image-frequency rejection
Frequency spectrum for Example 5-6
RF amplifier configurations:
(a) bipolar transistor RF
amplifier; (b) DEMOS-FET RF
amplifier; (c) cascoded RF
amplifier
(a) self-excited mixer
(b) separately excited
mixer
(c) diode mixer
(d) balanced diode mixer
(a) schematic diagram
(b) response curve
(c) effects of coupling
(d) tuned primary-untuned secondary
(a) schematic diagram
(b) response curve
(a) single-tuned stage
(b) two cascaded stages
(c) three cascaded stages
(a) schematic diagram
(b) AM input waveform
(c) diode current waveform
(d) output voltage waveform
(a) input waveform
(b) output waveform
(a) input envelope
(b) rectifier distortion
(c) diagonal clipping
AM receiver with simple AGC
Simple AGC circuit
(a) response characteristics
(b) IF gain-versus-RF input signal level
Forward AGC
Squelch circuit
LM1820 linear integrated-circuit AM radio system
Single Side Band Communications
in AM
50
Sideband power depends on the modulation
signal voltage level, unlike carrier power
Side frequencies depend on the modulating
signal frequencies, unlike carrier frequency
For an AM carrier all of the modulating
information in the sidebands and none in the
carrier
For 100% modulation (m=1) one-third of the
total power transmitted is in the side bands
2/3 rd power wasted for carrier during AM
AM transmitters are rated in carrier power
output
◦ If carrier power = 4 W, each side band is 1W, total
transmitted power w/100% modulation is 6W
SSB transmission saves energy during
transmission
Suppress/eliminate high energy RF carrier
Eliminate one of the sidebands
SSB systems are used mostly in voice
communication
Power distribution
◦ Peak Envelop Power (PEP)
Types of Sideband Transmission
Peak Envelop Power (PEP)
◦ Method used to rate the output power of an SSB
transmitter
◦ PEP = ((.7 * Vp(max))^2)/R
SSB develops Pavg of 1/4 - 1/3 of its PEP
rating (for voice transmission)
Conventional AM
versus Single
Sideband
Single-Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC)
Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)
Single-Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)
Independent Sideband (ISB)
Vestigial Sideband Full Carrier (VSB)
SSBFC
◦ Only one sideband transmitted
◦ One sideband completely eliminated
◦ Popular w/amateur radio operators
Single-banded systems: (a)
conventional DSBFC AM; (b) full-
carrier single sideband; (c)
suppressed-carrier single
sideband; (d) reduced-carrier
single sideband; (e) independent
sideband; (f) vestigial sideband
SSBSC
◦ Eliminate one sideband and suppress the carrier
(pilot carrier) at a desired level and can be used as a
reference at the receiver. Maintains fidelity and
minimizes carrier interference
◦ Adv: Max transmitted signal range w/min power and
elimination of carrier interference
Comparison of three common
AM transmission systems: (a)
modulating signal; (b) DSBFC
wave; (c) DSBSC wave; (d) SSBSC
wave
ISB
◦ Also called Twin-sideband suppressed carrier
◦ Each sideband contains different intelligence
◦ Used in military communication
VSB
◦ Vestige (trace) of unwanted sideband and carrier are
included w/one full sideband (ch 17)
◦ Used for TV video transmission
SSBRC
◦ One sideband is totally removed and the carrier
voltage is reduced to 10% of its unmodulated
amplitude
◦ Consequently 96% of the total power transmitted is in
the unsuppressed sideband
SSBRC
◦ One sideband is totally removed and the carrier
voltage is reduced to 10% of its unmodulated
amplitude
◦ Consequently 96% of the total power transmitted is in
the unsuppressed sideband
ACSSB (Amplitude-compandored SSB)
◦ Similar to SSBSC includes pilot carrier
◦ Amplitude of the speech signal is compressed at the
transmitter and expanded at the receiver
◦ Provides better noise performance
◦ A variable gain circuit at the transmitter increases its
gain for low-level signals
◦ Receiver reverses the process to restore the original
signal using a complimentary circuit
Occupies less then half the freq. BW of
conventional AM and DSB
◦ Allows more signals to be transmitted
◦ Reduced noise
Same intelligence transmitted w/reduced
power
◦ Require smaller/lighter transmitter
No Selective fading
◦ Two sidebands are not received at diff. phase
◦ Upper SB could hit ionosphere and refracted back at
diff. phase
Ionosphere: earth's atmosphere that is ionized by solar
radiation.
Harder to recover the information
◦ Carrier must be reinserted at same freq. and phase
◦ A pilot carrier or low level carrier signal is
transmitted along the SSB signal
◦ Pilot carrier is amplified at the receiver and
reinserted so the original signal can be recovered
More complex transmitter and receiver
Generates DSBSC signal
Carrier sine wave forward (on) and reverse
(off) biases the diodes
Ac > 6*Ai to ensure the carrier controls the
diodes
V1 (carrier sig) is ‘+’ Diodes off
V1 is ‘-’ Diodes on
When V2 (Ai) is ‘0’, output is ‘0’ (no carrier)
carrier suppressed
Generates DSBSC
Spectrum analyzer with two side frequencies
and no carrier
Balanced bridge modulator: (a) schematic diagram; (b) diodes
biased off; (c) diodes biased on; (d) output waveform
Balanced ring modulator
Jeffrey S. Beasley and Gary M. Miller Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Modern Electronic Communication, 8e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Sideband Suppression
SSB Transmitter Block Diagram
The sum and difference frequency appears at the output of the balanced modulator.
Upper side band is passed through the filter. The filtered signal is mixed again with new
conversion freq. to adjust to desired transmitter freq. What should be the filter Q for the
linear power amp?
AM, DSB, and SSB waves from sinusoidal modulating signals
Mixer used as SSB demodulator (similar to AM receiver)
fLO desired fc (AFC VFO or BFO )
SSB Receiver Block Diagram
Jeffrey S. Beasley and Gary M. Miller Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Modern Electronic Communication, 8e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Carrier suppression as seen on a spectrum analyzer
Frequency Modulated
Communications
81
Baseband
◦ Original electrical information transmitted directly
over the communication channel
Broadband
◦ Process of using a baseband signal to modulate a
carrier to be more compatible with communications
medium
Amplitude Modulation
Angle Modulation
◦ Frequency Modulation (FM)
Instantaneous frequency of a carrier is caused to vary
by an amount proportional to the modulating
(baseband) signal amplitude
◦ Phase Modulation (PM)
Phase angle of a carrier is caused to depart from its
reference value by an amount proportional to the
modulating (baseband) signal amplitude. Used to help
generate FM
Also called Indirect FM
Center frequency
◦ Carrier frequency is at the center freq. when
modulating signal amplitude is zero
Frequency deviation
◦ The maximum carrier frequency change above or
below the center frequency
◦ = (f2 – f1)/2
FM Modulation index (mf) is a measure of
carrier phase deviation
◦ mf = / fm
where, fm is the modulating freq.
◦ Changes in modulating amplitude or frequency can
alter mf
Time Domain
◦ Voltage as a function of time
◦ Oscilloscope
Frequency Domain
◦ Voltage level as a function of frequency
◦ Spectrum Analyzer
◦ Easier to determine side bands
FM representation: Instantaneous
voltage e = A sin(wct + mf sin wit),
A is the peak value of original
carrier wave. A single mod. Freq.
can generate a number of side
frequencies number depends on
the mf . FM deviation is not
sensitive to mod. freq.
Frequency spectrum for FM (constant
modulating frequency, variable deviation)
Deviation effects on FM/PM by intelligence parameters: (a)
intelligence amplitude; (b) intelligence frequency
Theoretically, FM produces infinite number
of side frequencies, causing a infinite BW
Carson’s Rule provides a quick way to
approximate the BW of a FM carrier
It only recognizes most significant side
frequencies with amplitudes > 2% of
unmodulated carrier amplitude
BW depends on mf and fm
◦ BW = 2(fm + )
◦ Where, fm is the maximum modulating freq.
Frequency spectrum for FM (constant modulating frequency, variable
deviation)
For more accurate BW of FM carrier, the
Bessel table must be used
It lists relative amplitude of carrier and each
pair of side frequencies as a percentage of
the unmodulated carrier for each mf
Side freq. pairs and BW increases as mf
increases.
Unmodulated amplitude of carrier is 1
Unmodulated relative amplitude of carrier is 1
Symbol J0 represents the carrier
J1 first pair of side freq., J2 the 2nd pair …..
Side freq. amplitude < 1% of unmodulated
carrier amplitude, are not listed
Values are negative if frequencies are shifted
1800
BW= 2 fmN
◦ Where each side freq. are separated by fm
◦ There are N side freq. on each side of the carrier
Narrowband FM (NBFM)
◦ Signal that has only one pair of significant side freq.
◦ Occupies similar spectrum as AM
◦ Largest NBFM has mf = .25
◦ BW = 2 fm
Wideband FM has mf > .25
A Square wave is consist of sine waves of
multiple frequencies
◦ With fundamental sine freq and its harmonics
◦ Highest fm should be used to determine mf and the
BW
◦ A video signal BW > audio BW
Overmodulation
◦ Can cause interference with other signals
FM%mod = ( / m) x 100%
◦ Where m is maximum allowable carrier freq.
deviation which depends on particular application
◦ m is determined by maximum allowable carrier
signal BW
If FM%mod < 100% FM transmitter will stay
within its assigned BW
Capacitor microphone FM generator
Unlike AM, total power in FM carrier is equal
to the power of unmodulated carrier
◦ Power is redistributed b/w carrier and side freq.
◦ In essence side freq. steal power from carrier
◦ Carrier amplitude decreases as the number of side
freq. goes up (Bessel table)
◦ Therefore, sum of side freq. and carrier amplitude
remain constant
Increased noise immunity
◦ FM does not change amplitude of the carrier
Less sensitive to noise
Improved fidelity
◦ Introduces less distortion than AM
More efficiency
◦ Linear amplifier not necessary due to constant
amplitude of FM signals
More bandwidth
◦ FM only used at the higher frequencies of the
spectrum, where there is more room
Require more complex circuits in transmitter
and receiver
FM & AM noise comparison