30/10/17

LEP
ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROCESSING OF MATERIALS
TECNOLGIE DEI PROCESSI
ELETTROTERMICI

Induction Heating:
fundamentals

Fabrizio Dughiero
2017-2018

Induction heating
fundamentals

May 28-30, 2014

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Summary
1. Induction heating physical principles
2. Characteristics of the induction heating process
• Physical parameters that affect induction heating

3. The skin effect:

• What parameters modify the skin effect?
• Change of skin effect during the heating

4. Examples:
• Heating of a magnetic billet
• Choosing the frequency appropriate to the workpiece
• Coil thickness as a function of frequency
5. Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

1. Induction heating physical

principles

May 28-30, 2014

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Induction heating physical principles

Characteristics of induction heating

• High temperature in the workpiece (in most
cases).

• High power density for a short heating time

(in many applications).

• High frequency (in many applications).

• Thermal sources are inside the workpiece.

Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating: fundamental laws
?

A. Maxwell’s equations
3rd Maxwell’s equation or
Faraday-Neumann-Lenz’s law
4th Maxwell’s equation or
Ampere’s law
They state:
• how the electromagnetic (e.m.) field
is generated
• how the e.m. field propagates and is
distributed in the space
• how the e.m. field interacts with the
charged particles.

• they state what is the (approximate)

B. Constitutive relations response of a specific material to an
for materials external field or force.

? Ohm’s law Magnetic permeability Thermal capacity Fourier’s law

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Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: Maxwell’s equations

3rd Maxwell’s equation or

Faraday-Neumann-Lenz’s law
TOO BAD TO WRITE!
4th Maxwell’s equation or (in mathematical form)
Ampere’s law

Magnetic field lines

4th Maxwell’s equation (from (always closed loops)
the induction heating viewpoint):
If an electric current I (either DC
or time-varying) flows in a
conductor, then it generates a Cross section of a
magnetic field H in the conductor wire
surrounding space. (e.g., a copper
wire) carrying an
electric current I

Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: Maxwell’s equations
3rd Maxwell’s equation (from the induction heating viewpoint):
The time variation of the magnetic flux F generates an electromotive force e.

• It applies to every time variation (either

periodic or non-periodic).
• Periodic time variation à frequency is
defined.
• Special case: sinusoidal frequency.
• The higher the frequency à the stronger
the generated electromotive force.

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Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: Maxwell’s equations
Summarizing:

1. Currents generate magnetic fields in the surrounding

space (4th Maxwell’s equation).

2. If the current varies with time, then the magnetic fields

vary with time as well.

3. The time variation of magnetic flux generates an

electromotive force (3rd Maxwell’s equation).

WHY?
4. If any conductor object (i.e. metal) is placed in
presence of this electric field, then induced currents are
generated in the object itself.

Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating: fundamental laws

They state:
A. Maxwell’s equations • how the electromagnetic (e.m.) field is
generated
3rdMaxwell’s equation or
Faraday-Neumann-Lenz’s • how the e.m. field propagates and is
law distributed in the space

4th Maxwell’s equation or • how the e.m. field interacts with the
Ampere’s law charged particles.

B. Constitutive relations • They state what is the (approximate)

response of a specific material to an external
for materials
field or force.

? Ohm’s law Magnetic permeability Thermal capacity Fourier’s law

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Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: constitutive relations
Constitutive relations state what is the (approximate) response of a specific
material to an external field or force.

Ohm’s law V=R*I

Preliminary remark: the electric (static) field
E is associated to the scalar potential V.
It states what is the response of
V is related to the potential energy of a
any conductor (i.e. metal or charged particle in presence of an electric
alloy) to an electric field. field.

More precisely, Ohm’s law states what is the response of any conductor
when a potential difference between two points applies.

Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: constitutive relations

Ohm’s law V=R*I It states that a current I flows

between two points of any conductor
when a voltage V is applied.
1. A voltage V is applied to a
conductor.

2. Example: a copper wire is

connected to a battery.

3. A current I flows in the conductor:

• The higher the voltage, the higher the current
• The quantity of current that flows depends on the
resistivity r of the material, and on the geometry of
the conductor.

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Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: Maxwell’s equations
Summarizing:

1. Currents generate magnetic fields in the surrounding

space (4th Maxwell’s equation).

2. If the current varies with time, then the magnetic fields

vary with time as well.

3. The time variation of magnetic flux generates an

electromotive force (3rd Maxwell’s equation).
according to
WHY?
4. If any conductor object (i.e. metal) is placed in
Ohm’s law
presence of this electric field, then induced currents are
generated in the object itself.

Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: constitutive relations
Constitutive relations state what is the (approximate) response of a
specific material to an external field or force.

Magnetic B = µ0*µr(H)*H
permeability

It states what is the response of any

material (vacuum included) to a
magnetic field.
In vacuum: In magnetic materials:

H = magnetic field, magnetic field intensity. B = µ0*H (µr B = µ0*µr*H

= 1)
B = magnetic field, magnetic flux density. (µr>>1, µr depends on H)
µ0 = physical constant that depends on the
physical units (no actual physical meaning). Most materials behave similarly to vacuum:

B = µ0*µr*H (µr » 1)

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Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: constitutive relations
Magnetic B = µ0*µr(H)*H
permeability

• When a conductive material is placed in a magnetic field, it

generates its own bound currents.
• These “bound currents” are due to the interaction between
the magnetic field, the bounded electrons (that move
around the nucleus) and their spin; they contribute B = µ0*µr*H (µr » 1)
themselves to the total magnetic field in the material.
(paramagnetic and
• The µr value measures the ability of a material to diamagnetic materials)
support the formation of a magnetic field within itself.
• Most materials behave similarly to vacuum: B = µ0*µr*H
• Few materials (e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel and most of their µr>>1 (up to 104, µr depends
alloys) behave differently: on H)
(ferromagnetic or magnetic
materials)

Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: constitutive relations
Thermal capacity Q = m * c * (Tf–Ti)

It states how much thermal energy is • Ti = initial temperature of an

needed, for each (homogeneous) material, object (homogeneous material)
in order to change the initial temperature
• m = mass of that object
by a given amount.
• If Tf-Ti is fixed, then the lower the specific heat c, • Q = heat (thermal energy)
the lower the Q needed à a little heat Q is given to that object
enough to get the temperature change and vice
• Tf = final temperature reached
versa.
by the object, after it received
• The specific heat is a function of the material’s the thermal energy Q
temperature: c = c(T). It is constant on “small”
temperature intervals. • c = specific heat.
• Example: boiling water.

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Induction heating physical principles

Induction heating fundamental laws: constitutive relations
Thermal conductivity
Q/t = - l * A * (T2–T1)/l
(Fourier’s law)

Preliminary remark: Heat spontaneously flows

from bodies at higher temperature to bodies at
lower temperature.

The thermal conductivity states, for each • T2 = temperature of a body (homogeneous

(homogeneous) material, how quickly the heat is material) on one side.
transferred, from the higher temperature part to
the lower temperature part. • T1 = temperature of the body on the
opposite side.
• If T2-T1 is fixed, then the lower the thermal
conductivity l, the lower the Q transfer speed • A = area of the body at homogeneous
and vice versa. temperature.

• Example: Aluminium cup ceramic cup. • l = body’s thickness.

● l = thermal conductivity

2. Characteristics of induction
heating process

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Characteristics of induction heating process

How is the workpiece heated by means
of induction?

1. An electric current (normally high) flows in a

conductor (COIL or INDUCTOR).
2. The current generates a magnetic field (4th
Maxwell’s equation).
3. The current in the coil varies with time
(normally it has a frequency) à the generated
magnetic field (and its flux) have a frequency
as well.
4. The time variation of the magnetic flux
generates an electromotive force e (3rd
Maxwell’s equation).
5. The electromotive force can be considered as
a voltage V applied to the conductor.

Characteristics of induction heating process

How is the workpiece heated by means of
induction?
6. The workpiece (always a conductor, i.e. metal or
alloy) is near the coil (electric field more intense).
7. The voltage V between the points of the workpiece
generates currents in it (Ohm’s law)à
àinduced currents or eddy currents.
8. Eddy currents generate power in the workpiece.
9. The power is dissipated in the workpiece and
causes its heating.
10. The heat is distributed in the workpiece according
to the material’s thermal properties. Workpiece’s
temperature raises.

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Characteristics of induction heating process

How is the workpiece heated by means of induction?

Eddy currents generate power in the

workpiece.
What is power?

Power is the rate at which energy is

transferred, used, or transformed:
P=E/t

Why eddy currents

generate power?

Because eddy currents (i.e., moving electrons) collide with the metal atoms:
• Because current flowing in a conductor gives rise to heat (Joule effect)

Characteristics of induction heating process

In principle, induction heating is not uniform in the workpiece.

WHY?

Because eddy currents (i.e. the source of

the heating) aren’t uniformly distributed
through the workpiece.

WHY?

Many reasons:
1) Magnetic field lines are not uniformly
distributed in the space:

à the greater the induced current density

à the greater the induced power density and vice
versa.

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Characteristics of induction heating process

In principle, induction heating is not uniform in the workpiece.

Why aren’t eddy currents uniformly

distributed through the workpiece?

Many reasons:
1) Magnetic field lines are not uniformly
distributed in the space.

Characteristics of induction heating process

2) Even if the magnetic field is uniform, in
the conductive workpiece eddy currents are
NOT distributed uniformly through the
workpiece:

à mostofofthe
àmost thecurrent
currentdensity
densityisisclose
closetotothe
the
workpiece surface
the higher
à the
à higher the
the frequency,
frequency, the
the shallower
shallower areare the
the eddy
eddy currents.
currents.

WHY?

SKIN EFFECT
As a result of solving
Maxwell’s equations

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Characteristics of induction heating process

Writing down Maxwell’s equations is one thing…
…solving them is quite another story!

• The exact mathematical solution is found in very few

cases (e.g. the billet in a solenoidal inductor sketched
below)
• In all the remaining cases, approximate solutions (e.g.
by means of simulations) are found.
• Good news:

Both simple and complex cases are affected by

the same (few) physical parameters.

• Then, the billet (easy case) is considered in order to

understand how stuff works.

Characteristics of induction heating process

What physical parameters affect the
workpiece’s heating by induction?

PROCESS WORKPIECE
• Frequency f
• Relative magnetic permeability µr
• Current intensity I of inductor
• Electric resistivity r
• Total heating time t
• Heat capacity Cp
COIL
• Geometry of coil (e.g. air gap) • Thermal conductivity l
• Geometry of workpiece (e.g. diam.)

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Characteristics of induction heating process

PROCESS AND COIL GEOMETRY PARAMETERS:

PROCESS
• The coil is connected to a power supply (see below).
• Frequency f
• Choice of parameters: upon user’s experience.
• Current intensity I of inductor
• Total heating time t
COIL
• Geometry of coil

Characteristics of induction heating process

WORKPIECE

• Relative magnetic permeability µr

• Electric resistivity r
• Heat capacity Cp

• Thermal conductivity l
• Geometry of workpiece

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Characteristics of induction heating process

WORKPIECE:

• Relative magnetic permeability µr For magnetic materials, µr depends also

on H, i.e. on the process parameters
• Electric resistivity r
• Heat capacity Cp

• Thermal conductivity l B = µ0*µr(H)*H

• Geometry of workpiece

3.The skin effect

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The skin effect

“SKIN EFFECT” = tendency of any AC current (either induced or not) to distribute
itself within any conductor:

• Maximum current density on the conductor external surface

• Exponential decay of current density toward the conductor’s center

! ! -r /d Current density J =

J (r ) = J 0 e = current that crosses a surface

d = penetration depth.
d depends on material and process.

Cross section of a billet

(R>>d).
Sketch of induced
currents distribution
O R

The skin effect

• Maximum current density on the conductor external surface
• Exponential decay of current density toward the conductor’s center

r value % of J0 Formula
! ! -r /d r=0 100% J(0)=J0
J (r ) = J 0 e r=d 37% J(d)=J0/2.72
r = 2*d 14% J(2*dd)=J0/7.39
d = penetration depth
r = 3*d 5% J(3*d)=J0/20.1
r = 5*d 0.7% J(5*d)=J0/148
O At the billet’s centre:
Cross section of a billet. r
J(R) = 0
Sketch of induced R
currents distribution
O R

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The skin effect

• Maximum current density on the conductor external surface

• Exponential decay of current density toward the conductor’s center

! ! -r /d d is function of the process and of the material:

J (r ) = J 0 e - f = frequency à process parameter

r - r=r (T) resistivity à function of temperature

d= - µr= µr(H,T) magnetic permeability à function of
pµ0 µr f magnetic field and temperature

Smaller d
Current squeezed on the surface P(r ) = P0e -2 r / d
Bigger d
Current distributed in the workpiece R

The skin effect

r r= resistivity à material parameter

d=
pµ0 µ r f
Resistivity [Ohm*m] – reference
Material values
@ Tamb T » 700 T » 1000
°C °C
Copper 2*10-8 6*10-8 15*10-8 @ Tamb:
Carbon 20*10-
8
100*10-8 120*10-8 dstainless_steel » 6 * dcopper
(magnetic)
steel
Smaller d
Stainless (non- 80*10- 120*10-8 140*10-8 Current squeezed on the surface
8
magnetic) steel
Bigger d
Brass 7*10-8 13*10-8 16*10-8 R
Current distributed in the workpiece

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The skin effect

r f = frequency à process parameter

d=
pµ0 µ r f
Example:

• f = 50 Hz à very low frequency

à dlow_freq » 100 * dhigh_freq
• f = 500000 Hz à very high frequency

Smaller d
Typical frequency range:
Current squeezed on the surface
1 kHz ÷ 300 kHz
Bigger d
Current distributed in the workpiece
R

The skin effect

Penetration depth d
in magnetic and non-magnetic steel

18,00
Non-magnetic steel
16,00 Magnetic steel
Penetration depth d (mm)

14,00
12,00
10,00
8,00
6,00 d = 0,07 mm @100kHz

4,00 d = 0,71 mm @1kHz

2,00
0,00
1 2 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 1000
f (kHz)

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The skin effect

r µr= µr(H,T) magnetic permeability à function of magnetic

d= field and temperature (material and process parameter)
pµ0 µ r f

Example:

• Magnetic steel @Tamb à µr » 103

à dnonmagn » 30 * dmagn
• Non-magnetic steel @Tamb à µr = 1

• Magnetic steel @ T ≥ 760 °C à µr = 1

Smaller d
Current squeezed on the surface
Bigger d
Current distributed in the workpiece

The skin effect

r µr= µr(H,T) magnetic permeability à function of magnetic

d= field and temperature (material and process parameter)
pµ0 µ r f
µr » 103 B(H,T)

2 T = 20 °C µr @ Tamb
T = 400 °C
1,8 T = 500 °C
T = 540 °C
1,6
T = 580 °C
T = 600 °C
Magnetic flux density B [T]

1,4
T = 620 °C
1,2 T = 640 °C
T = 660 °C
1 T = 680 °C
T = 690 °C
0,8 T = 700 °C
T = 710 °C
0,6
T = 720 °C
Curie temperature for
0,4
T = 730 °C soft steel (magnetic
T = 740 °C
T = 745 °C
material) ≈ 760 °C
0,2
T = 750 °C
0 T = 755 °C
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
M agne tic fie ld inte nsity H [A/m]
T = 760 °C
T = 1350 °C
µr = 1 @ T≥760 °C

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The skin effect

r µr= µr(H,T) magnetic permeability à function of magnetic

d= field and temperature (material and process parameter)
pµ0 µ r f

4. Examples

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Examples

Heating of a magnetic billet from Tamb up to 1200°C

1. Heating starts:
• Billet fully magnetic
• Induced currents squeezed on the surface

2. Only surface layers of the billet heat up à the inside remains cold.
3. Surface temperature » Curie temperature (760 °C) à induced currents spread
more within the billet (where the material is still magnetic)
4. At the same time, the phase transition between magnetic and non-magnetic
material takes place:

• All the energy from induced currents is used for breaking magnetic domains
• The surface temperature does not increase any longer

5. Phase transition completed à the surface temperature rises again.

Examples

Heating of a magnetic billet from Tamb up to 1200°C

At Curie temperature (» 760 °C):

• All the energy from induced
currents is used for breaking
magnetic domains
• The surface temperature does not
increase any longer

Curie’s transition
(from magnetic to non-
magnetic steel)

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Examples

Heating of a magnetic billet from Tamb up to 1200°C

Temperature rise of the billet as a function of time

Billet diameter = 32 mm; total heating time = 10 s

1200
0 mm (core)
Temperature [°C]

1000 6,4 mm
800 9,6 mm

600 12,8 mm
16 mm (surface)
400
200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time [s]

Examples
How shall we get an uniform heating of the billet?

Temperature rise of the billet as a function of time

Billet diameter = 32 mm; cycle time = 12 s;
n = 3 coils; t = 6 s at the end of the heating time

900
800
700 0 mm (core)
Temperature [°C]

600 6.4 mm
500 9.6 mm
400 12.8 mm

300 16 mm (surface)

200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
time [s]

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Examples
Rule-of-thumb in the choice of frequency

Lower frequency (1÷2 kHz)

• Through heating
• Good performance on big parts

Medium frequency (2÷50 kHz)

• More often used: surface heating of average parts, annealing, stress

relieving…

Higher frequency (50÷500 kHz)

• Surface heating (< 1 mm case depth), welding

• Good performance on small parts.

Examples
Choice of appropriate frequency:

First example. Small magnetic steel tube (diam. 5 mm, wall 0.5 mm). Through
heating.

Multi-turn coil. Internal diam. 20 mm. Total heating time = 10 s.

Frequenc Magnetic Average final Total power Electrical

y [kHz] field temperature (coil + tube) efficienc
intensity [°C] [kW] y
[A/m]
1 1’000’000 520 800 0.009

100 10’000 740 4 0.67

100 30’000 1220 13 0.37

400 12’500 1230 9 0.65

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Examples
Coil thickness as a function of frequency

Multi-turn coil. Internal diam. 1100 mm. Total heating time = 200 s.

ICOIL=12000 A
f = 4800 Hz dCu = 1 mm Minimum acceptable coil
thickness » 2 dCu = 2 mm
t = 0s

Current density is greater on

“open surface” of inductor

Examples
Coil thickness as a function of frequency

THICK COIL ICOIL= 12000 A f = 4800 Hz t = 0s THIN COIL

Copper in the “active” zone min 2,5 mm Copper in the “active” zone min 0,4 mm

PTOT=288 KW PCOIL=54 KW h = PTOT=341 KW PCOIL=107 KW h =

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5.Proximity effect, ring effect,

flux concentrators effect

Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

Proximity effect

If there are two (or more) conductors in close proximity:

• Eddy currents and inductor current have opposite
directions.
• Coil and workpiece current will concentrate in poor
coil-to-workpiece areas.
• b) Currents have opposite directions à currents
concentrate in the areas facing each other.
• c) Currents have the same direction à currents
concentrate on opposite sides of the conductors.

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Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

Proximity effect

Small air gap à

better coupling

Big air gap à

worse coupling

Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

Flux concentrator

shields some parts to

“squeezes” the current
decrease or to avoid
to the “open surface”
heating
of the coil

optimizes the inductor- directs the magnetic

workpiece coupling flux to parts hard to
heat

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Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

Flux concentrator

Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

Flux concentrator

Most common materials: Fe-Si

electrical sheets, Commercial
“magnetic-dielectric” materials.

Fe-Si thin sheet , magnetodielectric or

Soft Magnetic Composites, ferrite-based

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Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

Flux concentrator

Proximity effect, ring effect, flux concentrators effect

Ring effect

• In a ring shaped inductor,

magnetic flux lines are
concentrated inside the ring.
• The workpiece is inside the
induction coil, à close coil-
workpiece coupling à good coil
efficiency.
• The workpiece is outside the
induction coil à poor coil-
workpiece coupling à bad coil
efficiency.

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Induction Heating:
Fundamentals
Fabrizio Dughiero

Thank you.
2017-2018

This information is confidential and was prepared by Saet Group;

it is not to be relied on by any 3rd party without Saet’s prior written consent

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