Vergielyn M.

Matus
EE-5A
ELECTRICAL EQUPMENT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Circuit breakers are switching devices capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under
normal circuit conditions and making, carrying for a specified time, and breaking current under specified
abnormal conditions such as a short circuit. Low voltage circuit breakers have voltage ratings from 250
to 600 V AC and 250 to 700 V DC.

The molded case circuit breaker is one of the two basic low voltage classes of circuit breakers.
The other class is the low voltage power circuit breaker. Medium voltage circuit breakers are rated up to
72.5 kV. ANSI or IEC is normally the governing standard for medium voltage circuit power breakers. ANSI
is associated with U.S. standards, and IEC is associated with international standards. For standard
definitions, refer to ANSI 37.100 Definitions for Power Switchgear.

Important ratings specifications to consider for circuit breakers include rated AC voltage, rated
DC voltage, continuous current rating, and rated breaking capacity (Icn). The rated AC and DC voltages
are the maximum voltage for ANSI rated breakers or the Voltage Class for IEC rated breakers. The
continuous current (at the rated voltage) on ANSI breakers or the normal current on IEC breakers should
always be in excess of the utilization equipment rating to provide for a short-time overload capability.

It is also referred to as the Frame Rating or the Frame Size. The rated breaking capacity is the
rated short circuit capacity or interrupting capacity. The short circuit current is rated at the breaker's
maximum voltage (ANSI) or voltage class (IEC). The number of poles and number of protected poles (if
different) are also important parameters to consider.

The trip unit type for circuit breakers can be thermal overcurrent, thermal magnetic, magnetic,
magnetic-hydraulic type circuit breakers, and electronic unit. In a thermal overcurrent type the tripping
mechanism is comprised of a thermal actuator and a mechanical latch designed to discriminate between
in-rush and temporary current surges and prolonged overloads.

Applications include motors, transformers, solenoids and low voltage wiring. A thermal
magnetic type of circuit breaker combines a bimetal element with a magnetic coil to provide
time/current characteristics with two distinct steps. The magnetic coil activates quickly at high
overcurrent values. Prolonged low value overloads cause the thermal element to activate.

Applications include telecommunications, process control, and similar applications requiring

precision performance. In a magnetic type circuit breaker the magnetic coil responds rapidly to high
values of overcurrent. A magnetic-hydraulic a fast acting magnetic coil with hydraulically delayed
switching characteristics. Electronic trip units are composed of three components, internal to the trip
unit. These components are the current transformer, circuit board and flux-transfer shunt trip (for
remote controlled tripping of the breaker). There are two types of electronic trip units: Analog and
Digital.

Common features found on circuit breakers include molded cases, miniature construction,
motor circuit protector, remote control, lock or interlock, positively trip free, snap-action actuation, trip
indicator, interchangeable trip unit, undervoltage release, and auxiliary contacts. Miniature circuit
breakers can have a supplementary protector, shunt trips, ground fault circuit interrupter, and duplex
circuit breakers

Intrinsic safety barriers are devices that limit the current, voltage, and total energy delivered to
a sensor in a hazardous area or flammable environment in order to prevent an explosion. There are
several types of intrinsic safety (IS) devices. Galvanic isolators provide intrinsically safe connections and
are used to isolate circuits, either optically or with a transformer, in both hazardous and non-hazardous
areas.

Most galvanic isolators require an external power source and are used as signal conditioners.
Zener barriers are passive devices that contain Zener diodes, resistors and fuses to limit excess voltage
and current. They divert potentially dangerous energy to ground and are the basic building blocks for all
other types of intrinsically safe barriers. Because of resistance, there is always a voltage drop across
Zener barriers. Some intrinsic safety barriers contain light emitting diode (LED) indicators or replaceable
fuses for overvoltage and reverse polarity protection. Other devices provide protection against short
circuits.

FUSES

Fuses protect electrical devices and components from overcurrent and short circuits that occur
in improperly operating circuits. When fault current reaches a predetermined magnitude for a fixed
period, current flow is interrupted through the melting of an internal element. Important performance
ratings to consider when specifying fuses include voltage rating, current rating, rated braking capacity,
and interrupt rating.

The voltage rating of the fuse is the maximum voltage up to which a safe fault current
interruption will occur. The rated breaking capacity of the fuse (interrupting rating) is the short circuit
current at which the fuse can blow (at the rated voltage) without destruction or arcing being maintained.
Consider the maximum possible fault current. Interrupt ratings can be high interrupt, medium interrupt,
or low interrupt. Important performance characteristics to consider include fast acting and time lag.
Quick-acting fuses are typically used in circuits with small inrush currents or where overcurrent or short
circuit must be quickly interrupted, such as resistive loads. Time-delay fuses are used where high
starting inrush currents will occur and decay gradually, such as inductive or capacitive loads. Important
environmental parameters to consider when specifying fuse holders include operating temperature.

General specifications that apply to fuses include mountings, materials of construction, fuse
types, and features. Mounting choices include solderable or surface mount, solderable with leads, and
replaceable with holder or clips. Common materials of construction include glass, ceramic, and sand.
Fuse types can be miniature, subminiature or micro, midget, automotive, blade type, PC board, and
protective. Miniature cartridge fuses are commonly available in dimensions of 5x20mm and 6.3x32mm.
Subminiature fuses have very small dimensions (no principal dimension greater than 10 mm) and are
ideal for compact circuit board layouts.
 Subminiature fuses are also called microfuses. Midget refers to 13/32" diameter fuses.
Automotive fuses are specifically for use in automobiles. Blade-type fuses are typically used in low
voltage, high current applications. PC board fuses are specifically for use on PC boards. Protective fuses
are used for protection of secondary circuits or low voltage ICs. Features include resettable and
indicating. Resettable (polymeric or positive temperature coefficient - PTC) fuses are unlike traditional
fuses that have to be replaced after a fault condition, this may not be necessary when using resettable
fuses. The internal resistance of the component increases in response to an overcurrent or a short-
circuit condition, limiting subsequent disturbances. After the fault condition is removed, the device cools
and the internal resistance drops to nearly its initial value, permitting normal equipment operation to
resume. Indicating fuses have visual indication and / or alarm activation. Used for telecommunication,
computer and control circuit applications.

TRANSFER SWITCHES

Transfer switches transfer electrical power back and forth between two power systems or buses
such as a utility power line and a back-up motor-generator power supply.

TERMINAL BLOCKS

Terminal blocks are modular, insulated blocks that secure two or more wires together. Terminal
blocks consist of an insulating body and a clamping device. Their flexibility allows wiring to be
centralized and makes it easier to maintain complex control circuits. Terminal blocks can be single feed
through, dual level, dual level bridged, three level, three level bridged, ground circuit terminals,
disconnect or switch blocks, fuse holder or fuse blocks, thermocouple blocks, I/O blocks, sensor specific
blocks, or electronic circuit blocks.

A single feed through terminal block is a type of basic terminal block used for wire-to-wire
connections where the wire feeds through one side and out the other. Single feed through terminal
blocks have one input and one output contact.

Dual level blocks are also called double level and two tier, these terminal blocks have two
levels of contacts. They are used to save space and simplify wiring. Dual level bridged are also called
double level and two tier, these terminal blocks have two levels of contacts. They are used to save space
and simplify wiring. Bridged terminal blocks use a "bridge" to connect one level to another for increased
circuit flexibility. Three level blocks are also called three tier, these terminal blocks have three levels of
contacts. They are used to save space and simplify wiring.

Three level bridged terminal blocks are also called three tier, these terminal blocks have three
levels of contacts. They are used to save space and simplify wiring. Bridged terminal blocks use a
"bridge" to connect one level to another for increased circuit flexibility. Ground circuit terminals are
interchangeable with standard block. These units can be inserted as needed. Permits grounding of
components that runs to a specific piece of equipment. Disconnect or switch blocks allow a circuit to be
easily disconnected without removing any wires. A knife switch uses a lever type of control handle to
disconnect the circuit. A sliding link disconnect uses a link that can be slid to the side to disconnect the
circuit.
 A plug disconnect has a removable plug to disconnect the circuit. When a short circuit occurs,
only the portion of the circuit connected to a fuse holder or fuse block is affected. This can also be a
disconnect block if dummy fuses are inserted instead of standard fuses. A light gives visual indication of
fuse condition. Also called circuit protection blocks.

Thermocouple blocks are used for connecting to thermocouples. Provides consistent metal type
connections for thermocouple sensors to measure temperature. I/O blocks provide communication
between a controller, usually a PLC or IPC, and some type of sensor level devices. Sensor specific blocks
handle three-wire or four-wire proximity sensors, three- or four-wire photoelectric sensors, or any other
type of three- or four-wire device. Also enables high-density terminations. Electronic circuit terminal
block provides electrical circuit functionality such as rectification, voltage indication, etc.

The numbers of input and output terminals are important specifications to consider when searching for
terminal blocks. The maximum working voltage and maximum current rating is important electrical
specifications to consider.

Terminal blocks consist of an insulating body and a clamping device. Their flexibility allows
wiring to be centralized and makes it easier to maintain complex control circuits. Terminal blocks can be
single feed through, dual level, dual level bridged, three level, three level bridged, ground circuit
terminals, disconnect or switch blocks, fuse holder or fuse blocks, thermocouple blocks, I/O blocks,
sensor specific blocks, or electronic circuit blocks.

The numbers of input and output terminals are important specifications to consider when
searching for terminal blocks. The maximum working voltage and maximum current rating is important
electrical specifications to consider.

Termination types for terminal blocks can include screw clamps, spring clamps, insulation
displacement (IDC), and tab connections. Common mounting types include universal mounting foot (rail),
15 mm DIN rail, 32 mm DIN rail, 35 mm DIN rail, panel mount, and PCB. Features common to terminal
blocks include pluggable, stackable, indicator lights, diodes, and 45-degree entry. Manufacturer
approvals can be CE conformity marks, CSA mark (US, C and US, NRTL/C), UL listing mark, UL recognized
component mark (US and Canadian) and VDE component mark

CABLE ASSEMBLIES

Cable assemblies are collections of wires or cables banded into a single unit with connectors on
at least one end. Technologies available for cable assemblies include Fibre Channel, IEEE 1394, GPIB,
LAN/Ethernet, parallel, patch, serial, and USB. Fibre Channel is a scalable, high-speed, serial data
transfer interface standard (ANSI X3TII). The GPIB standard was designed to connect several
instruments to computers for data acquisition and control. LAN or Ethernet is a network standard first
developed by Xerox, refined by DEC and Intel, and codified as the IEEE 802.3 standard.

Parallel cables work by transmitting a number of bits of data simultaneously over separate lines
(for example, eight bits over eight lines) usually unidirectional. A patch cable is a flexible cable
terminated at both ends with a plug. Used for interconnecting circuits on a patch panel. SCSI
(pronounced "scuzzy") is an intelligent bus for transmitting data and commands between a variety of
devices. Serial cables work by transmitting data one bit at a time. Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a serial 4-
wire bus architecture for peripheral I/O developed by Compaq, Intel, and Microsoft.

Common applications for cable assemblies include audio, camera or imaging, computer, military,
medical, networking, telecommunications, and video. Cable type choices for cable assemblies include
Cat 3, Cat 5, Cat 6, coaxial, fiber optic, RG6/11, triaxial, type 1, and twisted pair. The necessary cable
length is important to consider when searching for cable assemblies. Choices for gender of the
connectors of the cable are necessary to consider when searching for cable assemblies. Gender choices
are male-male, male-female, and female-female. Many connector choices are available for assemblies
of cable assemblies. Some of the more common connectors include Centronics connectors, BNC
connectors, DB connectors, internal pin SCSI connectors, micro Centronics connectors, DIN connectors,
RJ connectors, and USB connectors.

Common features found on cable assemblies include extreme environment, cleanroom

application, shielded construction, and Telco or hydra assembly. Extreme environment cables satisfy the
requirement that the cable be used hostile or extreme environments, including high or low temperature,
humidity, shock, vibration, etc. Shields are conducting envelopes composed of metal strands, which
enclose a wire, group of wires, or cable. They are constructed so that every joint on the surface of the
underlying insulation is a ground potential or at some predetermined potential with respect to ground.
By surrounding a cable with grounded metal, there is a decreased chance that electrical signals carried
by that cable will interfere with, or be interfered with, by external electrical signals. Telco cable
assemblies are used for data and voice applications with punch down blocks, patch panels and
distribution boxes. They can also be used as extension cables. An important environmental parameter
to consider when searching for cable assemblies is the operating temperature.

ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATOR

Electrical power generators are devices that convert mechanical, chemical, or other forms of
energy into electrical energy. The most common type of electrical power generator, a bicycle dynamo,
uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. These simple
devices are essentially reversed electric motors with a rotor that carries one or more coils surrounded
by a magnetic field, typically supplied by a permanent magnet or electromagnet. In other electrical
power generators, mechanical energy from steam turbines moves the rotor, which induces an electric
current in the rotor coil.

Electrical power generators that provide direct current (DC) typically include a mechanical
switch or commutator that switches the current every half-rotation so that the rotor remains
unidirectional. Large, modern generators or alternators in power stations provide alternating current
(AC) for general distribution

Selecting electrical power generators requires an analysis of inputs, outputs, and portability.
Typically, smaller units are movable while large devices are mounted or fixed in one location. Inputs
usually include conventional fuel sources such as gasoline, diesel, propane, and natural gas; however,
some electrical power generators use alternative forms of energy such as solar and wind power. In
terms of outputs, some electrical power generators provide single phase or three phase AC voltage.
Other devices output DC power. For AC electrical power generators, important specifications include AC
prime power rating, which is expressed in voltamperes (VA). For DC devices, important specifications
include DC power, which is expressed in watts (W). As a general principle, both AC and DC electrical
power generators should not be operated at maximum power output for more than 30 minutes or for
periods of time exceeding manufacturer recommendations.

Electrical power generators can be customized with a wide range of attachments, components,
and performance options. These range from simple electromechanical devices to advanced digital
microprocessor-based controls, remote communication capabilities, sound-attenuated and weather-
protected enclosures, fuel tank bases, silencers, batteries, alternators, governors, air cleaners, starting
aids, and cooling options Gasoline and diesel electrical power generators often feature reduced
emissions, open and pre-chamber designs, fast-burn pistons, and low-overlap cams.

REGULATORS

Power or line conditioners regulate, filter, and suppress noise in AC power for sensitive
computer and other solid state equipment. Power conditioners typically consist of voltage regulators in
combination with output isolation transformers and transient voltage suppression circuitry. They
provide electrical isolation and noise and spike attenuation to ensure the quality and consistency of
power to sensitive medical, laboratory, computer, and other high technology equipment.

Important specifications to consider when searching for power conditioners include power
rating, input voltage, output voltage, voltage regulation accuracy, phase, and frequency. The power
rating is usually expressed in volt-amps, which is the product of the maximum RMS voltage and the RMS
current that the conditioner can handle. Input voltage is the nominal line voltage to which the
conditioner is connected. The output voltage is regulated or conditioned voltage. The voltage
regulation accuracy is the accuracy with which the output voltage is controlled. Choices for phase are
single phase or three phase.

General public or standard commercial voltages are typically single phase. Examples of these
power conditioners include computers, office equipment, and many types of laboratory instruments.
Three phase power is typically reserved for industrial use for machines that benefit from its efficiency.
Industrial motors and machines with motors often use three phase power. Frequency choices include
50 Hz, 60Hz, and 400 Hz.

Common configurations for power conditioners include computer board, portable or benchtop,
hard wired, rack mount, DIN rail, wall mount, and floor or free standing. While many power
conditioners supply a single outlet for conditioned power, some feature multiple outlets. This is most
often for equipment that does not consume a great deal of power, such as computers or light
instrumentation.
 Not applicable for hard-wired or specialty conditioners such as boards. Features common to
power conditioners include medical rating, frequency conversion, bypass switch, and readout or
indicators. Conditioners with medical ratings are designed and rated for medical or dental use; may
include hospital grade ratings. Conditioners with frequency conversion include power conditioners that
also convert input frequency to a different value, e.g. 60 Hz to 50 Hz converters. Bypass switches for
taking power conditioners "off-line" without physically removing them; allows unconditioned power to
pass through. Readouts or indicators include visual display indicating status or performance; may
include simple LED indicators or more elaborate readouts.

POWER TRANSFORMERS

Power transformers convert power-level voltages from one level or phase configuration to
another. They can include features for electrical isolation, power distribution, and control and
instrumentation applications. Transformers typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction
between coils to convert voltage and/or current levels.

Power transformers can be configured as either a single-phase primary configuration or a three-

phase configuration. The size and cost of a transformer increases when you move down the listing of
primary windings. Single-phase primary configurations include single, dual, quad (2+2), 5-lead, and
ladder. A 5-Lead primary requires more copper than a Quad (2+2) primary. A Ladder is the least
economical primary configuration. Three-phase transformers are connected in delta or wye
configurations. A wye-delta transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary
winding connected in a delta. A delta-wye transformer has its primary winding connected in delta and its
secondary winding connected in a wye. Three phase configuration choices include delta - delta, delta -
wye (Y), wye (Y) wye (Y), wye (Y) delta, wye (Y) single-phase, delta single phase, and international.
Primary frequencies of incoming voltage signal to primaries available for power transformers include 50
Hz, 60 Hz, and 400 Hz. 50 Hz is common for European power. 60 Hz is common in North American
power. 400 Hz is most widely used in aerospace applications. The maximum primary voltage rating is
another important parameter to consider. A transformer should be provided with more than one
primary winding if it is to be used for several nominal voltages.

Power transformers can be constructed as either a toroidal or laminated transformer. Toroidal

transformers typically have copper wire wrapped around a cylindrical core so the magnetic flux, which
occurs within the coil, doesn't leak out, the coil efficiency is good, and the magnetic flux has little
influence on other components.

Laminated transformers contain laminated-steel cores; they are also called E-I transformers.
These steel laminations are insulated with a nonconducting material, such as varnish, and then formed
into a core that reduce electrical losses. Power transformers can be one of many types. These include
autotransformer, control transformer, current transformer, distribution transformer, general-purpose
transformer, instrument transformer, isolation transformer, potential (voltage) transformer, power
transformer, step-up transformer, and step-down transformer. Mountings available for power
transformers include chassis mount, dish or disk mount, enclosure or free standing, h frame, and PCB
mount.
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

Current transformers measure power flow and provide electrical inputs to power transformers
and instruments. Current transformers produce either an alternating current or alternating voltage that
is proportional to the measured current. There are two basic types of current transformers: wound and
toroidal. Wound current transformers consist of an integral primary winding that is inserted in series
with the conductor that carries the measured current. Toroidal or donut-shaped current transformers
do not contain a primary winding. Instead, the wire that carries the current is threaded through a
window in the toroidal transformer.

Current transformers have many performance specifications, including primary current,

secondary current, insulation voltage, accuracy, and burden. Primary current, the load of the current
transformer, is the measured current. Secondary current is the range of current outputs. Insulation
voltage represents the maximum insulation that current transformers provide when connected to a
power source.

There are a variety of applications for current transformers. Some devices are used to measure
current in electronics equipment or motors. Others are used in street lighting. Current transformers with
small footprints mount on printed circuit boards (PCBs) and are used to sense current overloads, detect
ground faults, and isolate current feedback signals. Larger devices are used in many three-phase systems
to measure current or voltage.

Commercial class current transformers that monitor low-power currents are also available.
Some current transformers are weatherproof or are rated for outdoor use. Others meet MIL-SPEC, ANSI
C-12, or IEC 1036 standards. Generally, ANSI class devices are intended for power monitoring
applications where high accuracy and minimum phase angle are required.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

Voltage Transformers are devices used to measure voltage in electric circuits. Their main role is
to condition (step down) the voltage to be measured to levels suitable to the measuring instruments.
ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS

Electro-pneumatic transducers convert current or voltage input signals to proportional output

pressures. They are used as process control elements in valves, pneumatic relays, and flow regulators
for applications such as spray and damper control. There are three basic types of electro-pneumatic
transducers: voltage-to-pressure (E/P), current-to-pressure (I/P), and digital-to-pressure (D/P).

Voltage-to-pressure devices offer finite control ranges such as 0 5 V or 0 10 V. Current-to-

pressure devices provide current loop control and signal ranges such as 4 20 mA or 0 20 mA. Digital-to-
pressure devices use either serial or parallel controls. Commonly used serial controls include RS232 and
RS485. Examples of parallel protocols include general-purpose interface bus (GPIB) and IEEE 488.
Specialized inputs such as transistor-transistor logic (TTL) are also available.

Electro-pneumatic transducers are used in applications that require the operation of valve
actuators, pneumatic valve positioners, damper and louver actuators, final control elements, relays, air
cylinders, web tensioners, clutches, and brakes. They are used widely in the petrochemical, energy
management, textile, paper, paper converting, and food and drug industries. They are also used in
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

LIGHTNING ARRESTER

An electrical equipment which is used for the protection of the equipment at the substations
against travelling waves, such type of device is called lightning arrester or surge diverter. In other words,
lightning arrester diverts the abnormals high voltage to the ground without affecting the continuity of
supply. It is connected between the line and earth, i.e., in parallel with the equipment to be protected at
the substation.
The following are the damages that are caused by the travelling wave on the substation equipment.

 The high peak or crest voltage of the surge may cause flash-over in the internal winding thereby
spoil the winding insulation.

 The steep wave fronts of the surges may cause external flashover between the terminal of the
transformer.

 The highest peak voltage of the surge may cause external flashover, between the terminal of the
electrical equipment which may result in damage to the insulator.

Working of Lightning Arrester

When a travelling wave reaches the arrestor, its sparks over at a certain prefixed voltage as
shown in the figure below. The arrestor provides a conducting path to the waves of relatively low
impedance between the line and the ground. The surge impedance of the line restricts the amplitude of
current flowing to ground.

The lightning arrester provides a path of low impedance only when the travelling surge reaches
the surge diverter, neither before it nor after it. The insulation of the equipment can be protected if the
shape of the voltage and current at the diverter terminal is similar to the shape shown below.

An ideal lightning arrester should have the following characteristics;

 It should not draw any current during normal operating condition, i.e., it sparks-over voltage
must be above the normal or abnormal power frequency that may occur in the system.

 Any transient abnormal voltage above the breakdown value must cause it to break down as
quickly as possible so that it may provide a conducting path to ground.

 When the breakdown has taken place, it should be capable of carrying the resulting discharge
current without getting damaged itself and without the voltage across it exceeding the
breakdown value.

 The power frequency current following the breakdown must be interrupted as soon as the
transient voltage has fallen below the breakdown value.

 There are many types of lightning arrester which are used to protect the power system. The
choices of the lightning arrester depend on the factor like, voltage and frequency of the line,
cost, weather condition and reliability.

Location of Lightning Arrester

The lightning arrester is located close to the equipment that is to be protected. They are usually
connected between phase and ground in an AC system and pole and ground in case of the DC system. In
an AC system, separate arrester is provided for each phase.

In an extra-high voltage AC system the surge diverter is used to protect the generators,
transformers, bus bars, lines, circuit breakers, etc. In HVDC system the arrester is used to protect the
buses, valves converter units reactors, filter, etc.
SWITCHGEAR

In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnect switches,

fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used
both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream. This type of
equipment is directly linked to the reliability of the electricity supply.

Typically, switchgear in substations are located on both the high- and low-voltage sides of large
power transformers. The switchgear on the low-voltage side of the transformers may be located in a
building, with medium-voltage circuit breakers for distribution circuits, along with metering, control, and
protection equipment.

For industrial applications, a transformer and switchgear line-up may be combined in one
housing, called a unitized substation (USS).One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which
is interruption of short-circuit and overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected
circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to
enhance system availability by allowing more than one source to feed a load.

TAP CHANGER

A tap changer is a mechanism in transformers which allows for variable turn ratios to be selected in
discrete steps. Transformers with this mechanism obtain this variable turn ratio by connecting to several
access points known as taps along either the primary or secondary winding.

Tap changers exist in two primary types, no load tap changers (NLTC) which must be de-energized
before the turn ratio is adjusted and on load tap changers (OLTC) which may adjust their turn ratio
during operation. The tap selection on any tap changer may be made via an automatic system, as is
often the case for OLTC, or a manual tap changer, which is more common for NLTC. Automatic tap
changers can be placed on a lower or higher voltage winding, but for high-power generation and
transmission applications, automatic tap changers are often placed on the higher voltage (lower current)
transformer winding for easy access and to minimize the current load during operation.

No Load Tap Changers

Also called Off-Circuit Tap Changer, Off-Load Tap Changer, or De-Energized Tap Changer (DETC), no load
tap changers are often utilized in situations in which a transformer's turn ratio does not require frequent
changing and it is permissible to de-energize the transformer system. This type of transformer is
frequently employed in low power, low voltage transformers in which the tap point often may take the
form of a transformer connection terminal, requiring the input line to be disconnected by hand and
connected to the new terminal. Alternatively, in some systems, the process of tap changing may be
assisted by means of a rotary or slider switch.

No load tap changers are also employed in high voltage distribution-type transformers in which
the system includes a no load tap changer on the primary winding to accommodate transmission system
variations within a narrow band around the nominal rating. In such systems, the tap changer will often
be set just once, at the time of installation, although it may be changed later to accommodate a long-
term change in the system voltage profile.

On Load Tap Changers

Also called On Circuit Tap Changer, in applications where a supply interruption during a tap
change is unacceptable, the transformer is often fitted with a more expensive and complex on load tap
changing mechanism. On load tap changers, may be generally classified as either mechanical,
electronically assisted, or fully electronic.

These systems usually possess 33 taps (one at centre "Rated" tap and sixteen to increase and decrease
the turn ratio) and allow for ±10% variation (each step providing 0.625% variation) from the nominal
transformer rating which, in turn, allows for stepped voltage regulation of the output.

Tap changers typically use numerous tap selector switches which may not be switched under
load, broken into even and odd banks, and switch between the banks with a heavy-duty diverter switch
which can switch between them under load. The result operates like a dual-clutch transmission, with the
tap selector switches taking the place of the gearbox and the diverter switch taking the place of the
clutch.

Mechanical tap changers

A mechanical tap changer physically makes the new connection before releasing the old using
multiple tap selector switches but avoids creating high circulating currents by using a diverter switch to
temporarily place a large diverter impedance in series with the short-circuited turns. This technique
overcomes the problems with open or short circuit taps. In a resistance type tap changer, the
changeover must be made rapidly to avoid overheating of the diverter. A reactance type tap changer
uses a dedicated preventive autotransformer winding to function as the diverter impedance, and a
reactance type tap changer is usually designed to sustain off-tap loading indefinitely.

In a typical diverter switch, powerful springs are tensioned by a low power motor (motor drive
unit, MDU), and then rapidly released to affect the tap changing operation. To reduce arcing at the
contacts, the tap changer operates in a chamber filled with insulating transformer oil, or inside a vessel
filled with pressurized SF6 gas. Reactance-type tap changers, when operating in oil, must allow for the
additional inductive transients generated by the autotransformer and commonly include a vacuum
bottle contact in parallel with the diverter switch. During a tap change operation, the potential rapidly
increases between the two electrodes in the bottle, and some of the energy is dissipated in an arc
discharge through the bottle instead of flashing across the diverter switch contacts.

Some arcing is unavoidable, and both the tap changer oil and the switch contacts will slowly
deteriorate with use. To prevent contamination of the tank oil and facilitate maintenance operations,
the diverter switch usually operates in a separate compartment from the main transformer tank, and
often the tap selector switches will be in the compartment as well. All the winding taps will then be
routed into the tap changer compartment through a terminal array.
REFERENCES:

https://circuitglobe.com/lightning-arrester.html

http://electricalequipment.pacontrol.com/acpowersources.html

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchgear

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapchanger