Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. Transformers
have no moving parts so they have high efficiency—as high as 99%. It consists of a soft iron
or silicon steel laminated core and two windings placed on it. The winding connected to the
a.c. source is called primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is called
secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be
changed is applied to the primary. Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1)
and secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f. E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f.
E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will
appear across the load. If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On the other hand, if
V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Principle of operation:
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux Ø is set
up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in

S . I N
them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as

T U N OTE
primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.

K
The magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and
primary respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer.
On the other hand, if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 (or V2 < V1) and we get a step-down transformer.
If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a
current I2 to flow through the load. Thus, a transformer transfers a.c. power from one circuit
to another with a change in voltage level.
The following points may be noted carefully:
(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(ii) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary. The a.c. power is
transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(iii) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input
power.
(iv) The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
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 Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input
primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.
E.M.F. equation of a transformer
Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as shown in
Fig. (i). The sinusoidal flux Ø produced by the primary can be represented as:

S . I N
OTE
Note. It is clear from exp. (i) above that e.m.f. E1 induced in the primary lags behind the flux

K T U N
Ø by 90°. Likewise, e.m.f. E2 induced in the secondary lags behind flux Ø by 90°.
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)
From the above equations of induced e.m.f., we have

The constant K is called voltage transformation ratio.

For an ideal transformer;
(i) E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 as there is no voltage drop in the windings.

(ii) There are no losses. Therefore, volt-amperes input to the primary are equal to the output
volt-amperes i.e.

Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of voltage transformation ratio. This simply means
that if we raise the voltage, there is a corresponding decrease of current.

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 Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

THEORY OF AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER

An ideal transformer is one that has
(i) no winding resistance
(ii) no leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
(iii) no iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core
(iv) Zero magnetizing current i.e, the core has infinite permeability and zero reluctance so
that zero magnetizing current is required for establishing the requisite amount of flux in the
core.
From the above facts an ideal transformer is supposed to consists of two purely inductive
coils wound on a loss free core.
Ideal transformer on no load
Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., secondary is open-circuited as shown in
Fig. (i). Under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance. When an
alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, it draws a small magnetizing current Im
which lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. This alternating current Im produces an
alternating flux Ø which is proportional to and in phase with it. The alternating flux Ø links
both the windings and induces e.m.f. E1 in the primary and e.m.f. E2 in the secondary. The
primary e.m.f. E1 is, at every instant, equal to and in opposition to V1 (Lenz’s law). Both
e.m.f.s E1 and E2 lag behind flux Ø by 90°. However, their magnitudes depend upon the
number of primary and secondary turns.

S . I N
Fig. (ii) shows the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no load. Since flux Ø is

OTE
common to both the windings, it has been taken as the reference phasor. The primary e.m.f.
E1 and secondary e.m.f. E2 lag behind the flux Ø by 90°. E1 and E2 are in phase. But E1 is

T U N
equal to V1 and 180° out of phase with it.
K

Ideal Transformer On Load

Let us connect a load 𝑍𝐿 across the secondary of an ideal transformer. The secondary
emf 𝐸2 will cause a current 𝐼2 to flow through the load.
𝐼2 = 𝐸2 /𝑍𝐿 = 𝑉2 /𝑍𝐿 (Since there is no voltage drop in an ideal
transformer, 𝐸2 = 𝑉2 )
The angle at which 𝐼2 leads or lags 𝑉2 (or 𝐸2 ) depends upon the resistance and
reactance of the load.
The secondary current 𝐼2 set up an mmf 𝑁2 𝐼2 which produces a flux in the opposite
direction to the flux ∅ originally set up in the primary by the magnetizing current. This will
change the flux in the core from the original value. However, the flux in the core should not
change from the original value. In order to fulfill this condition, the primary must develop an
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mmf which exactly counter balances the secondary mmf 𝑁2 𝐼2 . Hence the primary current 𝐼2′
must follow such that
𝑁1 𝐼2′ = 𝑁2 𝐼2
Therefore, 𝐼2′ = (𝑁2 /𝑁1 ) 𝐼2
= K𝐼2
Thus when a transformer is loaded and carries a secondary current 𝐼2 , then a current
′
𝐼2 = K𝐼2 must flow in the primary to maintain the mmf balance. In other words, the primary
must draw enough current to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary current so that
increases in unison and keeps the mutual flux ∅ constant. The power input, therefore,
automatically increases with the output.
Therefore,
The total primary current, 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′ (Phasor sum)

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

THEORY OF PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

The practical transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii) magnetic
leakage, giving rise to leakage reactances.

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(i) Iron losses: Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current
and hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are known as iron losses or core losses.
The magnitude of iron losses is quite small in a practical transformer.
(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper conductors, both primary and
secondary will have winding resistance. The primary resistance R1 and secondary resistance
R2 act in series with the respective windings as shown in Fig. When current flows through the
windings, there will be power loss as well as a loss in voltage due to IR drop. This will affect
the power factor and E1 will be less than V1 while V2 will be less than E2.

(iii) Leakage reactances. Both primary and secondary currents produce flux. The flux Ø
which links both the windings is the useful flux and is called mutual flux. However, primary
current would produce some flux Ø1 which would not link the secondary winding. Similarly,
secondary current would produce some flux Ø2 that would not link the primary winding. The
flux such as Ø1 or Ø2 which links only one winding is called leakage flux. The leakage flux
paths are mainly through the air. The effect of these leakage fluxes would be the same as
though inductive reactance were connected in series with each winding of transformer that
had no leakage flux. In other words, the effect of primary leakage flux Ø1 is to introduce an

S . I N
inductive reactance X1 in series with the primary winding as shown in Fig. Similarly, the

OTE
secondary leakage flux Ø2 introduces an inductive reactance X2 in series with the secondary

K T U N
winding. There will be no power loss due to leakage reactance. However, the presence of
leakage reactance in the windings changes the power factor as well as there is voltage loss
due to IX drop.

Practical Transformer on No Load

Consider a practical transformer on no load i.e., secondary on open-circuit as shown in Fig.
(i). Along with magnetizing current the primary draws a small current to supply the iron
losses and a very small amount of copper loss in the primary. Hence the primary no load
current I0 is not 90° behind the applied voltage V1 but lags it by an angle Ø0 < 90° as shown
in the phasor diagram in Fig. (ii).

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As seen from the phasor diagram in Fig.(ii), the no-load primary current I0 can be resolved
into two rectangular components viz. (i) The component IW in phase with the applied voltage
V1. This is known as active or working or iron loss component and supplies the iron loss and
a very small primary copper loss.

(ii)The component Im lagging behind V1 by 90° and is known as magnetizing component. It is

this component which produces the mutual flux Ø in the core.

The no load primary copper loss (i.e. I02R1) is very small and may be neglected. Therefore,

I N
the no load primary input power is practically equal to the iron loss in the transformer i.e.,

S .
OTE
No load input power, W0 = Iron loss

K T N
Note. At no load, there is no current in the secondary so that V2 = E2. On the primary side, the
U
drops in R1 and X1, due to I0 are also very small because of the smallness of I0. Hence, we
can say that at no load, V1 = E1.
Practical Transformer On Load
When the secondary circuit of a transformer is completed through an impedance, or
load, the transformer is said to be loaded, and current flows through the secondary and the
load. The magnitude and phase of the secondary current 𝐼2 with respect to secondary terminal
voltage 𝑉2 will depend upon the characteristics of load. ie current 𝐼2 will be in phase, lag
behind and lead the terminal voltage 𝑉2 respectively when the load is resistive, inductive and
capacitive.
When the transformer is on no load, it draws no load current 𝐼0 from the supply
mains. The no load current 𝐼0 set up an mmf 𝑁1 𝐼0 which produces flux ∅ in the core. When
an impedance is connected across the secondary terminals, current 𝐼2 flows through the
secondary winding. The secondary current 𝐼2 set up its own mmf and hence creates a
secondary flux ∅2 . The secondary flux ∅2 opposes the main flux ∅ set up by the existing
current 𝐼0 according to Lenz’s law. The opposing secondary flux ∅2 weakens the main flux
∅ momentarily, so primary back emf 𝐸1 tends to be reduced. So difference of applied voltage
𝑉1 and back emf 𝐸1 increases, therefore more current is drawn from the source of supply flow
through the primary winding until the original value of flux ∅ is obtained. It again causes
increase in back emf 𝐸1 and it adjusts itself as such that there is a balance between applied

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voltage 𝑉1 and back emf 𝐸1 . Let the additional primary current be 𝐼2′ . The current 𝐼2′ is in
phase opposition with secondary current 𝐼2 and is called the counter balancing current. The
additional current 𝐼2′ set up an mmf 𝑁1 𝐼2′ producing flux ∅′2 in the same direction as that of
main flux ∅ and cancels the flux ∅2 produced by secondary mmf 𝑁2 𝐼2 being equal in
magnitude.
So 𝑁1 𝐼2′ = 𝑁2 𝐼2
Therefore, 𝐼2′ = (𝑁2 /𝑁1 ) 𝐼2
= K𝐼2
The total primary current 𝐼1 is therefore, phasor sum of primary counter balancing current 𝐼2′
and no load current 𝐼0 .
Since the secondary flux ∅2 produced by secondary mmf 𝑁2 𝐼2 is neutralized by the flux ∅′2
produced by mmf 𝑁1 𝐼2′ set up by counter balancing primary current 𝐼2′ , so that the flux in
transformer core remains almost constant from no load to full load.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Practical transformer on load
Fig. shows a practical transformer having winding resistance and leakage reactance.
These are the actual conditions that exist in a transformer. There is voltage drop in R1 and X1
so that primary e.m.f. E1 is less than the applied voltage V1. Similarly, there is voltage drop in
R2 and X2 so that secondary terminal voltage V2 is less than the secondary e.m.f. E2.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

Phasor diagram: Both E1 and E2 lag the mutual flux Ø by 90°. The current I'2 represents the
primary current to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary current I2. Now I'2 = K I2
and is opposite to I2. Also I0 is the no-load current of the transformer (I0 = Im +Iw). The Phasor
sum of I'2 and I0 gives the total primary current I1.
The counter e.m.f. that opposes the applied voltage V1 is -E1. Therefore, if we add
I1R1 (in phase with I1) and I1 X1 (90° ahead of I1) to -E1, we get the applied primary voltage
V1. The phasor E2 represents the induced e.m.f. in the secondary by the mutual flux Ø. The
secondary terminal voltage, V2 will be what is left over after subtracting I2R2 and I2X2 from
E2.

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Note: But for easiness we draw V2 in phase, lagging or leading at some angle (assumed) to I2
when the load is resistive, capacitive or inductive respectively and add I2R2 and I2X2 to V2 to
obtain E2.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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Transformer On DC
If a DC voltage is applied to primary of transformer, flux produced will not be
varying and hence no emf is induced in the primary and secondary winding. As there is no
self induced emf in the primary winding to oppose the applied voltage, a heavy current will
flow in the primary winding due to its low resistance which may result in burning out of
primary winding. Therefore, DC voltage should not be applied to a transformer.
IMPEDANCE RATIO
Consider a transformer having impedance Z2 in the secondary as shown in figure.

i.e., impedance ratio (Z2/Z1) is equal to the square of voltage transformation ratio. In other
words, an impedance Z2 in secondary becomes Z2/K2 when transferred to primary. Likewise,
an impedance Z1 in the primary becomes K2 Z1 when transferred to the secondary.

S . I N
We can transfer the parameters from one winding to the other. Thus:

U OTE
(i) A resistance R1 in the primary becomes K2 R1 when transferred to the secondary.

N
(ii) A resistance R2 in the secondary becomes R2/K2 when transferred to the primary.
T
K
(iii) A reactance X1 in the primary becomes K2 X1 when transferred to the secondary.
(iv) A reactance X2 in the secondary becomes X2/K2 when transferred to the primary.
Note: It is important to remember that:
(i) When transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary, multiply it by K2.
(ii) When transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary, divide it by K2.
(iii) When transferring voltage or current from one winding to the other, only K is used.
SHIFTING IMPEDANCES IN A TRANSFORMER
Fig. shows a transformer where resistance and reactance are shown external to the
windings.

Referred to primary
When secondary resistance or reactance is transferred to the primary, it is divided by K2. It is
then called equivalent secondary resistance or reactance referred to primary and is denoted by
R'2 or X'2.

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Referred to secondary
When primary resistance or reactance is transferred to the secondary, it is multiplied by K2. It
is then called equivalent primary resistance or reactance referred to the secondary and is
denoted by R'1 or X'1.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A LOADED TRANSFORMER
Fig. shows the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer on load. Here R1 is the
primary winding resistance and R2 is the secondary winding resistance. Similarly, X1 is the
leakage reactance of primary winding and X2 is the leakage reactance of the secondary
winding. The parallel circuit R0 - X0 is the no-load equivalent circuit of the transformer. The
resistance R0 represents the core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) so that current IW
which supplies the core losses is shown passing through R0. The inductive reactance X0
represents a loss-free coil which passes the magnetizing current Im. The phasor sum of IW and
Im is the no-load current I0 of the transformer.

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The equivalent circuit has created two normal electrical circuits separated only by an
ideal transformer whose function is to change values according to the equation:

The following points may be noted from the equivalent circuit:

(i) When the transformer is on no-load (i.e., secondary terminals are open circuited), there is
no current in the secondary winding. However, the primary draws a small no-load current I0.
The no-load primary current I0 is composed of (a) magnetizing current (Im) to create magnetic
flux in the core and (b) the current IW required to supply the core losses.
(ii) When the secondary circuit of a transformer is closed through some external load ZL, the
voltage E2 induced in the secondary by mutual flux will produce a secondary current I2. There
will be I2R2 and I2X2 drops in the secondary winding so that load voltage V2 will be less than
E2.

S . I N
OTE
(iii) When the transformer is loaded to carry the secondary current I2, the primary current

K T U N
consists of two components:
(a) The no-load current I0 to provide magnetizing current and the current required to supply
the core losses.
(b) The primary current I'2 (= K I2) required to supply the load connected to the secondary.

(iv) If we add I1R1 and I1X1 drops to E1, we get the primary input voltage V1

Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a Loaded Transformer

The no-load current I0 of a transformer is small as compared to the rated primary
current. Therefore, voltage drops in R1 and X1 due to I0 are negligible. The equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. above can, therefore, be simplified by transferring the shunt circuit R0 - X0 to
the input terminals. This modification leads to only slight loss of accuracy.

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 Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

(i) Equivalent circuit referred to primary

If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, we get the equivalent circuit
of the transformer referred to the primary as shown in Fig. (i). This further reduces to Fig.
(ii). When secondary quantities are referred to primary, resistances/reactances/impedances
are divided by K2, voltages are divided by K and currents are multiplied by K.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
(ii) Equivalent circuit referred to secondary.
If all the primary quantities are referred to secondary, we get the equivalent circuit of
the transformer referred to secondary as shown in Fig. (i). This further reduces to Fig.(ii).
When primary quantities are referred to secondary resistances/reactances/impedances are
multiplied by K2, voltages are multiplied by K and currents are divided by K.

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 Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Loaded Transformer

The no-load current I0 in a transformer is only 1-3% of the rated primary current and
may be neglected without any serious error. The transformer can then be shown as in Fig.
This is an approximate representation because no-load current has been neglected.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
(i) Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary
If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, we get the equivalent circuit
of the transformer referred to primary as shown in Fig. When secondary quantities are
referred to primary, resistances/reactances are divided by K2, voltages are divided by K and
currents are multiplied by K.

(ii) Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary

If all the primary quantities are referred to secondary, we get the equivalent circuit of
the transformer referred to secondary as shown in Fig. When primary quantities are referred
to secondary, resistances/reactances are multiplied by K2, voltages are multiplied by K and
currents are divided by K.

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 Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;
1. Core or Iron losses 2. Copper losses
These losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase in temperature and (ii) a
drop in efficiency.
1. Core or Iron losses (Pi)
These consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses and occur in the transformer core
due to the alternating flux. These can be determined by open-circuit test.

Both hysteresis and eddy current losses depend upon (i) maximum flux density Bm in the core
and (ii) supply frequency f. Since transformers are connected to constant-frequency, constant
voltage supply, both f and Bm are constant. Hence, core or iron losses are practically the same
at all loads.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using steel of high silicon content whereas eddy
current loss can be reduced by using core of thin laminations.
2. Copper losses
These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their ohmic resistance.
These can be determined by short-circuit test.

If full load copper loss is PC then at x fraction of load, copper loss is x2PC
3. Stray load loss
Leakage fields induce eddy currents in machine parts which contribute to stray load
loss
4. Dielectric loss
Dielectric losses are losses occurring in the insulating material
Stray load loss and dielectric losses are usually negligible

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EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
Like any other electrical machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as the
ratio of output power (in watts or kW) to input power (watts or kW) i.e.,

The losses can be determined by transformer tests.

EFFICIENCY FROM TRANSFORMER TESTS

S . I N
U N
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
T OTE
K

For a normal transformer, V2 is approximately constant. Hence for a load of given p.f.,
efficiency depends upon load current I2. It is clear from exp (i) above that numerator is
constant and for the efficiency to be maximum, the denominator should be minimum i.e.,

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Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper losses are equal to constant
or iron losses.
From eq. (ii) above, the load current I2 corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by;

Note. In a transformer, iron losses are constant whereas copper losses are variable. In order to
obtain maximum efficiency, the load current should be such that total Cu losses become
equal to iron losses.
Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
It may be noted that the value of kVA at which the efficiency is maximum is independent of
p.f. of the load.
TRANSFORMER TESTS
The circuit constants, efficiency and voltage regulation of a transformer can be
determined by two simple tests (i) open-circuit test and (ii) short-circuit test.
These tests are very convenient as they provide the required information without
actually loading the transformer. Further, the power required to carry out these tests is very
small as compared with full-load output of the transformer.
OPEN-CIRCUIT OR NO-LOAD TEST
This test is conducted to determine the iron losses (or core losses) and parameters R0
and X0 of the transformer. In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary (usually
low-voltage winding) while the secondary is left open circuited. The applied primary voltage
V1 is measured by the voltmeter, the no load current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power
W0 by wattmeter as shown in Fig.(i). As the rated voltage is applied to the primary, therefore,
iron losses will occur in the transformer core. Hence wattmeter will record the iron losses and
small copper loss in the primary. Since no-load current I0 is very small (usually 2-10 % of
rated current), Cu losses in the primary under no-load condition are negligible as compared
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 Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

with iron losses. Hence, wattmeter reading practically gives the iron losses in the
transformer. Fig (ii) shows the equivalent circuit of transformer on no-load.

Thus open-circuit test enables us to determine iron losses and parameters R0 and X0 of the
transformer.
SHORT-CIRCUIT OR IMPEDANCE TEST

S . I N
OTE
This test is conducted to determine R01 (or R02), X01 (or X02) and full-load copper

K T N
losses of the transformer. In this test, the secondary (usually low-voltage winding) is short-

U
circuited. The input voltage is gradually raised till at voltage VSC, full-load current I1 flows in
the primary. Then I2 in the secondary also has full-load value since I1/I2 = N2/N1. Under such
conditions, the copper loss in the windings is the same as that on full load.
There is no output from the transformer under short-circuit conditions. Therefore,
input power is all loss and this loss is almost entirely copper loss. Since the applied voltage is
very low so flux linking with the core is very small and therefore, iron losses are so small that
these can be neglected. Hence, the wattmeter will practically register the full-load copper
losses in the transformer windings. Fig. (ii) shows the equivalent circuit of a transformer on
short circuit as referred to primary; the no-load current being neglected due to its smallness.

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Note: The short-circuit test will give full-load Cu loss only if the applied voltage VSC is such
so as to circulate full-load currents in the windings. If in a short circuit test, current value is
other than full-load value, the Cu loss will be corresponding to that current value.
Advantages of Transformer Tests
The above two simple transformer tests offer the following advantages:
(i) The power required to carry out these tests is very small as compared to the full-load
output of the transformer. In case of open-circuit test, power required is equal to the iron loss
whereas for a short-circuit test, power required is equal to full-load copper loss.

S . I N
(ii) These tests enable us to determine the efficiency of the transformer accurately at any load

T U OTE
and p.f. without actually loading the transformer.
N
(iii) The short-circuit test enables us to determine R01 and X01 (or R02 and X02). We can thus
K
find the total voltage drop in the transformer as referred to primary or secondary. This
permits us to calculate voltage regulation of the transformer.
Why Transformer Rating In kVA?
It is seen that copper loss depends on current and iron loss depends on voltage. Hence
total loss in the transformer depends upon Volt Ampere (VA) only and not on the phase angle
between voltage & current (ie, Power factor).
Rating of transformer in kW = kVA rating × load p. f
Load power factor depends upon the nature of load (Resistive, Inductive or
Capacitive). Thus kW rating of a transformer will be different at different load power factors.
So the rating of transformer is given in kVA and not in kW.
APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS
There are four principal applications of transformers viz.
(i) power transformers (ii) distribution transformers (iii) autotransformers (iv) instrument
transformers
(i) Power Transformers. They are designed to operate with an almost constant load which is
equal to their rating. The maximum efficiency is designed to be at full-load. This means that
full-load winding copper losses must be equal to the core losses.

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(ii) Distribution Transformers. These transformers have variable load which is usually
considerably less than the full-load rating. Therefore, these are designed to have their
maximum efficiency at between 1/2 and 3/4 of full load.
(iii) Autotransformers. An autotransformer has only one winding and is used in cases where
the ratio of transformation (K), either step-up or step down, differs little from 1. For the same
output and voltage ratio, an autotransformer requires less copper than an ordinary 2-winding
transformer. Autotransformers are used for starting induction motors (reducing applied
voltage during starting) and in boosters for raising the voltage of feeders.
(iv) Instrument transformers. Current and voltage transformers are used to extend the range
of a.c. instruments.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
An autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core and a part of winding is
common to both the primary and secondary circuits. Fig. (i) shows the connections of a step-
down autotransformer whereas Fig. (ii) shows the connections of a step-up autotransformer.
In either case, the winding ab having N1 turns is the primary winding and winding bc having
N2 turns is the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are connected
electrically as well as magnetically. Therefore, power from the primary is transferred to the
secondary conductively as well as inductively (transformer action). The voltage
transformation ratio K of an ideal autotransformer is

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

Fig. shows the connections of a loaded step-down as well as step-up autotransformer.

In each case, I1 is the input current and I2 is the output or load current. Regardless of
autotransformer connection (step-up or step-down), the current in the portion of the winding
that is common to both the primary and the secondary is the difference between these
currents (I1 and I2). The relative direction of the current through the common portion of the
winding depends upon the connections of the autotransformer. It is because the type of
connection determines whether input current I1 or output current I2 is larger. For step-down
autotransformer I2 > I1 (as for 2-winding transformer) so that I2 - I1 current flows through the
common portion of the winding. For step-up autotransformer, I2 < I1. Therefore, I1 - I2 current
flows in the common portion of the winding.

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In an ideal autotransformer, exciting current and losses are neglected. For such an
autotransformer, as K approaches 1, the value of current in the common portion (I2 - I1 or I1 -
I2) of the winding approaches zero. Therefore, for value of K near unity, the common portion
of the winding can be wound with wire of smaller cross-sectional area. For this reason, an
autotransformer requires less copper.
Theory of Autotransformer

Output
Since the primary and secondary windings of an autotransformer are connected

. I N
magnetically as well as electrically, the power from primary is transferred to the secondary
S
OTE
inductively (transformer action) as well as conductively (i.e., conducted directly from source
to the load).

K T U N

Suppose the input power to an ideal autotransformer is 1000 W and its voltage transformation
ratio K= 1/4. Then,

Note that input power to the autotransformer is 1000 W. Out of this, 750 W is
transferred to the secondary by transformer action (inductively) while 250 W is conducted
directly from the source to the load (i.e., it is transferred conductively to the load).
Saving of Copper in Autotransformer
For the same output and voltage transformation ratio K (=N2/N1), an autotransformer
requires less copper than an ordinary 2-winding transformer. Fig. (i) shows an ordinary 2-

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 Electrical Drives and Control for Automation -Module III

winding transformer whereas Fig. (ii) shows an autotransformer having the same output and
voltage transformation ratio K.
The length of copper required in a winding is proportional to the number of turns and
the area of cross-section of the winding wire is proportional to the current rating. Therefore,
the volume and hence weight of copper required in a winding is proportional to current x
turns i.e.,

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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Thus if K = 0.1, the saving of Cu is only 10% but if K = 0.9, saving of Cu is 90%. Therefore,
the nearer the value of K of autotransformer is to 1, the greater is the saving of Cu.
Advantages and Disadvantages of autotransformers
Advantages:
(i) An autotransformer requires less Cu than a two-winding transformer of similar rating.
(ii) An autotransformer operates at a higher efficiency than a two-winding transformer of
similar rating.
(iii) An autotransformer has better voltage regulation than a two-winding transformer of the
same rating.
(iv) An autotransformer has smaller size than a two-winding transformer of the same rating.
(v) An autotransformer requires smaller exciting current than a two-winding transformer of
the same rating.
Disadvantages:
(i) There is a direct connection between the primary and secondary. Therefore, the output is
no longer d.c. isolated from the input.
(ii) An autotransformer is not safe for stepping down a high voltage to a low voltage.
(iii) The short-circuit current is much larger than for the two-winding transformer of the same
rating. A short-circuited secondary causes part of the primary also to be short circuited. This
reduces the effective resistance and reactance.
Applications of Autotransformers:

S . I N
(i) Autotransformers are used to compensate for voltage drops in transmission and

OTE
distribution lines. When used for this purpose, they are known as booster transformers.
(ii) Autotransformers are used for reducing the voltage supplied to a.c. motors during the
starting period.
K T U N
(iii) Autotransformers are used for continuously variable supply.
(iv) As furnace transformer
(v) For inter connecting systems that are operating at roughly same voltage.
All-Day (or Energy) Efficiency
The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
power to the input power i.e.,

There are certain types of transformers whose performance cannot be judged by this
efficiency. For instance, distribution transformers used for supplying lighting loads have their
primaries energized all the 24 hours in a day but the secondaries supply little or no load
during the major portion of the day. It means that a constant loss (i.e., iron loss) occurs during
the whole day but copper loss occurs only when the transformer is loaded and would depend
upon the magnitude of load. Consequently, the copper loss varies considerably during the day
and the commercial efficiency of such transformers will vary from a low value (or even zero)
to a high value when the load is high. The performance of such transformers is judged on the
basis of energy consumption during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours). This is known as all-day
or energy efficiency.

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The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over a 24-hour period
is known as all-day efficiency i.e.,

CONSTANT VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (CVT)

The CVT is simply a magnetic transformer of a special construction that has a

capacitor connected across the secondary winding of the transformer. In an ordinary
transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound near each other so that whenever
there is a change of voltage across the primary there is a corresponding change in the
secondary voltage depending upon the ratio of the turns on the two windings. However, in a

S . I N
CVT the primary and secondary windings are wound separately from each other, as

OTE
illustrated in figure. To set up field in between the coils, a separate shunt path is provided

K T U N
between the two windings but an airgap is formed in the shunt path. A capacitor is connected
across suitable tappings of the secondary winding. The constructional details of a CVT are
shown in the figure.
Operation of CVT.
The portion of the magnetic core over which the secondary winding is wound is saturated,
while the portion over which the primary is wound is not saturated. A capacitor is connected
across the secondary winding to tune out the output at a frequency very close to 50 Hz. This
capacitor also makes the current in the secondary winding to increase which helps in the
saturation of the secondary flux. Since the secondary ac flux is restricted to a saturated value
for a large range of the input voltage (170-270 V), a constant voltage is available across the
secondary winding. The output voltage will not be of a pure sinusoidal waveform but will be
an approximate sinewave with the peaks flattened approaching a square wave. Output voltage
waveform of a CVT is shown in figure. In figure, a compensating winding is shown
connected in series to the secondary to improve the CVT performance.
Application:
For supplying sensitive equipment such as computers, biomedical equipments, fax machines,
DVD recorders, teleprinters, colour photography labs etc.
Instrument Transformer
Instrument Transformers are used for measuring high voltages and current using low range
voltmeters and ammeters. Instrument transformers are 2 types –CT and PT
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CT (Current Transformer)
CT steps down the high current to a low value which can be measured by a low range
ammeter. Since CT steps down the current, it will be a step up (voltage is stepping up)
transformer.

CT is a step up transformer. The high current which is to be measured is I1 flowing

through primary winding. Primary of CT is connected in series with transmission line.
Primary winding consists of fewer turns of thick wire. (Low voltage – lesser turns, high
current – thick wire).
The secondary winding has large no of turns of thin wire connected to a low range
ammeter. CT step up the voltage & step down the current which is measured using the meter.
𝑁2 𝐼1
= = 𝐶𝑇 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑁1 𝐼2

S . N
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 × 𝐶𝑇 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
I
where I1 – primary current to be measured; I2 – secondary current ; N1, N2 – no of turns in

T U N
primary & secondary respectively
OTE
So line current I1 = ammeter reading × CT ratio
K
PT (Potential Transformer)
It is a step down transformer which step down the high voltage to be measured to a
low voltage which can be measured using a low range ac voltmeter.

Primary of PT is connected across the line whose voltage V1 is to be measured.

Primary consists of larger no.of turns of thin wire. A low range ac voltmeter is connected
across the secondary.
V1 – line voltage (Primary voltage)
V2 – voltmeter reading (secondary voltage)

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𝑉1 𝑁1
= = 𝑃𝑇 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉2 𝑁2
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 × 𝑃𝑇 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
So line voltage V1 = voltmeter reading × PT ratio

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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