ST.

JOHN’S SCHOOL
ABUROAD
2018-19
 CERTIFICATE
This is certify that master VIKAS SINGH
RAO STUDENT OF CLASS XII
SCIENCE have completed the project with
sincerity and obedience under the expect
guidance and supervision of the undersigned
.I assure that the student has not restored to
any unfair means and has done the project
with great deal and interest.

TEACHER-IN-CHARGE PRINCIPAL
MR VINOD METHA MRS UMA SHYAM

H.O.DCHEMISTRY HEAD OF SCHOOL

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Completion of my project depend upon

cooperation, coordination and combination
effort of serval sources of knowledge . I have
taken all my effort in this project . However it
would not have been possible without the
kind support and help of the institution and
many individuals . I would like to extend my
sincere thanks to all of them.

I am highly indebted to our principle MRS

UMA SHYAM for her even willingness to
give me valuable advice and direction,
constant supervision as well as for providing
necessary research facilities in completing this
project
I am also thanks to MR VINOD METHA
SIR for his immense guiding and providing
relevant data for completion of my project .

I would like to express my gratitude toward

my parents for their kind co-operation and
encouraged which help me in completion for
this project
 CONTENT
1. POLYMER CHEMISTRY
2. POLYMER
3. POLYMER PROPERTIER
4. POLYMER SCIENCE
5. HISTORY
6. POLYMER SYNTHESIS
7. BIOLOGICAL SYNTHESIS
8. MODIFICATION OF
NATURAL POLYMER
9. POLMER DEGRADATION
10. BINLOOGRAPHY
Polymer chemistry
Polymer chemistry is a chemistry
subdiscipline that deals with the structures,
chemical synthesis and properties of
polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such
as plastics and elastomers. Polymer chemistry
is related to the broader field of polymer
science, which also encompasses polymer
physics and polymer engineering.
The chemist Hermann Staudinger first
proposed that polymers consisted of long
chains of atoms held together by covalent
bonds, which he called macromolecules. His
work expanded the chemical understanding
of polymers and was followed by an
 expansion of the field of polymer chemistry
during which such polymeric materials as
neoprene, nylon and polyester were invented.
According to the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC),[1][2]
macromolecules refer to the individual
molecular chains and are the domain of
chemistry. Polymers describe the bulk
properties of polymer materials and belong to
the field of polymer physics as a subfield of
physics
 Polymer
Appearance of real linear polymer chains as
recorded using an atomic force microscope on
surface under liquid medium. Chain contour
length for this polymer is ~204 nm; thickness is
~0.4 nm.
A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule)
composed of repeating structural units. These
subunits are typically connected by covalent
chemical bonds. Although the term polymer is
sometimes taken to refer to plastics, it actually
encompasses a large class of natural and synthetic
materials with a wide variety of properties.
Because of the extraordinary range of properties
of polymeric materials, they play an essential and
ubiquitous role in everyday life.
This role ranges from familiar synthetic plastics
and elastomers to natural biopolymers such as
nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for
life. Natural polymeric materials such as shellac,
amber, and natural rubber have been used for
centuries. A variety of other natural polymers
exist, such as cellulose, which is the main
constituent of wood and paper. The list of
synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber,
Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene,
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile,
PVB, silicone, and many more. Most commonly,
the continuously linked backbone of a polymer
used for the preparation of plastics consists
mainly of carbon atoms.
A simple example is polyethylene, whose
repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer.
However, other structures do exist; for example,
elements such as silicon form familiar materials
such as silicones, examples being silly putty and
waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also
commonly present in polymer backbones, such as
those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides (in
glycosidic bonds), and DNA (in phosphodiester
bonds). Polymers are studied in the fields of
polymer chemistry, polymer physics, and
polymer science.
Polymer properties
Polymer properties are broadly divided into
several classes based on the scale at which the
property is defined as well as upon its physical
basis.
The most basic property of a polymer is the
identity of its constituent monomers. A second
set of properties, known as microstructure,
essentially describe the arrangement of these
monomers within the polymer at the scale of a
single chain. These basic structural properties
play a major role in determining bulk physical
properties of the polymer, which describe how
the polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic
material.
 Chemical properties, at the nano-scale, describe
how the chains interact through various physical
forces. At the macro-scale, they describe how the
bulk polymer interacts with other chemicals and
solvents.
Polymer Science
Most polymer research may be categorized as
polymer science, a sub-discipline of materials
science which includes researchers in chemistry
(especially organic chemistry), physics, and
engineering. The field of polymer science
includes both experimental and theoretical
research. The IUPAC recommends that polymer
science be roughly divided into two
subdisciplines: polymer chemistry (or
macromolecular chemistry) and polymer physics.
In practice the distinction between the two is
rarely clearcut. The study of biological polymers,
their structure, function, and method of synthesis
is generally the purview of biology, biochemistry,
and biophysics. These disciplines share some of
the terminology familiar to polymer science,
 especially when describing the synthesis of
biopolymers such as DNA or polysaccharides.
However, usage differences persist, such as the
practice of using
the term macromolecule to describe large non-
polymer molecules and complexes of multiple
molecular components, such as hemoglobin.
Substances with distinct biological function are
rarely described in the terminology of polymer
science. For example, a protein is rarely referred
to as a copolymer.
History
The work of Henri Braconnot in 1777 and the
work of Christian Schönbein in 1846 led to the
discovery of nitrocellulose, which, when treated
with camphor produced celluloid. Dissolved in
ether or acetone, it is collodion, used as a wound
dressing since the U.S. Civil War. Cellulose
acetate was first prepared in 1865. In 1834,
Friedrich Ludersdorf and Nathaniel Hayward
independently discovered that adding sulfur to
raw natural rubber (polyisoprene) helped prevent
the material from becoming sticky.
In 1844 Charles Goodyear received a U.S. patent
for vulcanizing rubber with sulfur and heat.
 Thomas Hancock had received a patent for the
same process in the UK the year before.
In 1884 Hilaire de Chardonnet started the first
artificial fiber plant based on regenerated
cellulose, or viscose rayon, as a substitute for silk,
but it was very flammable.[3] In 1907 Leo
Baekeland invented the first synthetic polymer, a
thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde resin called
Bakelite.
Around the same time, Hermann Leuchs
reported the synthesis of amino acid N-
carboxyanhydrides and their high molecular
weight products upon reaction with nucleophiles,
but stopped short of referring to these as
polymers, possibly due to the strong views
espoused by Emil Fischer, his direct supervisor,
denying the possibility of any covalent molecule
exceeding 6,000 daltons.[4] Cellophane was
invented in 1908 by Jocques Brandenberger who
squirted sheets of viscose rayon into an acid bath.
 In 1922 Hermann Staudinger (of Worms,
Germany 1881-1965) was the first to propose that
polymers consisted of long chains of atoms held
together by covalent bonds. He also proposed to
name these compounds macromolecules.
Before that, scientists believed that polymers
were clusters of small molecules (called colloids),
without definite molecular weights, held together
by an unknown force. Staudinger received the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1953. Wallace
Carothers invented the first synthetic rubber
called neoprene in 1931, the first polyester, and
went on to invent nylon, a true silk replacement,
in 1935. Paul Flory was awarded the Nobel Prize
in Chemistry in 1974 for his work on polymer
random coil configurations in solution in the
1950s. Stephanie Kwolek developed an aramid,
or aromatic nylon named Kevlar, patented in
1966.
 In spite of the great importance of the polymer
industry, it took a long time before universities
introduced teaching and research programs in
polymer chemistry.
An "Institut fur Makromolekulare Chemie was
founded in 1940 in Freiburg, Germany under the
direction of Hermann Staudinger. In America a
"Polymer Research Institute" (PRI) was
established in 1941 by Herman Mark at the
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now
Polytechnic Institute of NYU). Several hundred
graduates of PRI played an important role in the
US polymer industry and academia. Other PRI's
were founded in 1961 by Richard S. Stein at the
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, in 1967 by
Eric Baer at Case Western Reserve University, in
1982 at The University of Southern Mississippi,
and in 1988 at the University of Akron.
Polymer synthesis

The repeating unit of the polymer polypropylene

Polymerization is the process of combining many
small molecules known as monomers into a
covalently bonded chain. During the
polymerization process, some chemical groups
may be lost from each monomer. This is the case,
for example, in the polymerization of PET
polyester. The monomers are terephthalic acid
(HOOC-C6H4COOH) and ethylene glycol
(HO-CH2-CH2-OH) but the repeating unit is -
OC-C6H4-COO-CH2-CH2-O-, which
 corresponds to the combination of the two
monomers with the loss of two water molecules.
The distinct piece of each monomer that is
incorporated into the polymer is known as a
repeat unit or monomer residue.
Biological synthesis

Microstructure of part of a DNA double helix

biopolymer Main article: Biopolymer There are
three main classes of biopolymers:
polysaccharides, polypeptides, and
polynucleotides. In living cells, they may be
synthesized by enzyme-mediated processes, such
as the formation of DNA catalyzed by DNA
polymerase. The synthesis of proteins involves
 multiple enzyme-mediated processes to
transcribe genetic information from the DNA to
RNA and subsequently translate that information
to synthesize the specified protein from amino
acids. The protein may be modified further
following translation in order to provide
appropriate structure and functioning.
 Modification of
natural polymers
Many commercially important polymers are
synthesized by chemical modification of
naturally occurring polymers. Prominent
examples include the reaction of nitric acid
and cellulose to form nitrocellulose and the
formation of vulcanized rubber by heating
natural rubber in the presence of sulfur.
Polymer degradation

A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to

heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight. Notice
the discoloration, swollen dimensions, and tiny
splits running through the material Polymer
degradation is a change in the properties—tensile
strength, color, shape, molecular weight, etc.—of
a polymer or polymer-based product under the
influence of one or more environmental factors,
such as heat, light, chemicals and, in some cases,
galvanic action. It is often due to the scission of
polymer chain bonds via hydrolysis, leading to a
decrease in the molecular mass of the polymer.
Although such changes are frequently
undesirable, in some cases, such as
biodegradation and recycling, they may be
intended to prevent environmental pollution.
Degradation can also be useful in biomedical
settings. For example, a copolymer of Polylactic
acid and polyglycolic acid is employed in
hydrolysable stitches that slowly degrade after
they are applied to a wound. The susceptibility of
a polymer to degradation depends on its
structure. Epoxies and chains containing
aromatic functionality are especially susceptible
to UV degradation while polyesters are
susceptible to degradation by hydrolysis, and
some other polymers are especially susceptible to
ozone cracking. Carbon based polymers are more
susceptible to thermal degradation than
inorganically bound polymers such as
polydimethylsiloxane and are therefore not ideal
for most high temperature applications. The
degradation of polymers to form smaller
molecules may proceed by random scission or
specific scission. The sorting of polymer waste for
recycling purposes may be facilitated by the use
of the Resin identification codes developed by the
Society of the Plastics Industry to identify the
type of plastic.
Bibliography

 Kupdf.net
 www.open.edu
 Wikipedia
 www.uq.edu.au

thank you