Tecnel Pe Lab

PRACTICES MANUAL
Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 1/159
INDEX
PRACTICES MANUAL .................................................................................................................... 3

7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 3
7.1.1 Equipment description................................................................................................................................................3
7.2 THEORETICAL BASIS.......................................................................................................... 5
7.2.1 Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers......................................................................................................5
7.2.2 Single-phase full-wave rectifier..............................................................................................................................13
7.2.3 Uncontrolled three-phase full-wave rectifier........................................................................................................28
7.2.4 Controlled single-phase half-wave rectifier..........................................................................................................33
7.2.5 Full-control single-phase rectifier...........................................................................................................................44
7.2.6 Full-control single-phase rectifier: DC motor supply .........................................................................................50
7.2.7 Full-control three-phase full-wave rectifier..........................................................................................................53
7.2.8 Semi-controlled single-phase rectifier...................................................................................................................59
7.2.9 Semi-controlled three-phase rectifier.....................................................................................................................66
7.2.10 Chopper voltage assembly .......................................................................................................................................69
7.3 LABORATORY PRACTICES .............................................................................................. 78
7.3.1 Practice 1: Single phase half-wave rectifier with R load....................................................................................78
7.3.2 Practice 2: Single phase half-wave rectifier with R-L load ...............................................................................81
7.3.3 Practice 3: Single-phase half-wave rectifier with R-L load with free wheeling diode (FWD)....................83
7.3.4 Practice 4: Single-phase full-wave rectifier..........................................................................................................84
7.3.5 Practice 5: Three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier...................................................................................88
7.3.6 Practice 6: Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier...................................................................................91
7.3.7 Practice 7: Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier......................................................................................94
7.3.8 Practice 8: Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier.......................................................................................98
7.3.9 Practice 9: Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier with a DC motor......................................................101
7.3.10 Practice 10: Three-phase full-wave completely controlled..............................................................................104
7.3.11 Practice 11: Single-phase semi-controlled rectifier...........................................................................................107
7.3.12 Practice 12: Three-phase full-wave semi-controlled rectifier..........................................................................110
7.3.13 Practice 13:Chopper................................................................................................................................................113
7.3.14 Practice 14: Single-phase square-wave inverter.................................................................................................116
7.3.15 Practice 15: Single-phase displaced-phase inverter..........................................................................................118
7.3.16 Practice 16: Single-phase inverter. PWM control..............................................................................................120
7.3.17 Practice 17: Three-phase inverter. PWM control with R load and R-L load................................................122
7.3.18 Practice 18: Three-phase inverter. PWM control with AC motor..................................................................125
7.3.19 Practice 19: Alternating regulators: R and R-L load.........................................................................................127
7.6 APPENDIX A: CONSIDERATIONS WITH DC MOTOR ...................................................158
7.7 APPENDIX B: CONSIDERATIONS WITH IGBTS ............................................................159
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IMPORTANT NOTE :
TO OBTAIN THE PROPER WORKING OF THE EQUIPMENT, SEE

THE APPENDICES C AND D IN THE END OF MANUAL.
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.1.1 Equipment description
The equipment has the following interface:
Figure 1.1.1: Equipment Interface
The SACED-TECNEL system is a Data Acquisition and Control System

entirely developed by EDIBON technicians. In its development, we have not given
our back to our experience developing teaching equipment spanning more than 20
years.
The different configuration levels allow the instructor to design virtually

the whole execution of the different practical exercises. The basic level is aimed for
data capture and storage that the student will process to work with later. The
intermediate level provides the student with graphic tools, which allows visualizing
the experiment in real time. The advanced level is specially aimed for Data Capture
Configuration and the calibration of all the equipment sensors.
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NOTE: The equipment is provided with two switches: a magnetic

switch and a differential switch. Both elements are located on the backside of
the equipment. Remember these switches when turning on the module.
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7.2 THEORETICAL BASIS
7.2.1 Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers
Uncontrolled rectifiers are constituted by diodes that, as uncontrolled

elements, provide a dependent output voltage of fixed magnitude. From a theoretical
point of view, they may be considered as switches that are opened or closed
depending on the direction of the voltage applied. That is, with a positive voltage
between anode (A) and cathode (K) the switch is closed, and it is opened if the
voltage is negative.
K A
+ - I
- + I=0
In a real way, the diodes support a fixed voltage between A and K in the
conduction (Vd), implying a power loss (rd). Electrically, it may be represented:
Vd rd
+ -
Typically Vd has a 0,7V value for signal diodes, and a bit higher,
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approximately 1,3V, for power diodes. The rd resistance is of dozens of mΩ. Other
features of the diode are important, as, for instance, the threshold voltage (Vγ) or
elbow voltage, the Qrr inverse recovery load, the maximum current, the maximum
inverse voltage that supports or breakdown voltage, the repetitive peak inverse
voltage, the inverse current, etc. Even if we should keep in mind these parameters,
they do not change the philosophy of the study of this rectifier.
To calculate the diode voltages and currents we should know that:

Id (average) = I load (average)
Id (effective) = I load (effective)
Vd = Ve + Vload
R
Id
Ve Vload
Figure 1.1
In figure 1.1, the single-phase half-wave rectifier is shown. It is the most

simple that can be made, and therefore, the one with less quality. In this study, we
may consider an input voltage high enough to ignore the drop in the diode, that is, it
behaves as a closed switch in conduction (direct polarization). We will also consider
the resistance in inverse polarization big enough to consider the diode an opened
switch. As diode commutation times last only a few nanoseconds (ns), they may be
considered of no importance in comparison with the semicycle of the 50 Hz input
voltage.
The behavior of the rectifier will depend considerably on the used load
type, so we may have:
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− Pure resistive load (R), where the voltage is annulled when its direction
changes.
− Inductive load (R-L), where the conduction continues until the moment
when the current in the coil is annulled, although the output voltage
inverts its polarity.
In order to separate the output voltage and the load type, we may use the
free wheeling diode (FWD), which avoids the inversion of polarization in the output
voltage.
7.2.1.1 INFLUENCES OF LOAD TYPE
7.2.1.1.1 Resistive load
With this load type, the voltage and the current will be in phase so that the
diode will begin to conduct as soon as the input voltage becomes positive during the
positive semicycle. This voltage will be blocked when the current at the end of this
period is annulled, remaining blocked all through the negative semicycle.
The input voltage is:

ve (t ) = V ·sin (ωt )
And the current will have a value:
ve (t ) V ·sen (ωt )
i (t ) = = 0 < t < T/2
R R
ve (t )
i (t ) = =0 T/2 < t < T
∞
The average value of the output wave will be:

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1 2π 1π
V ·sin ( wt) dwt + 0 = ·[− cos( wt) ]0 = [1 + 1] = V
V V
∫ ∫
π
Vaverage = V ·sin ( wt ) dwt =
T 0 T 0 T 2π π
The effective value will be calculated as follows:
1
2π
1
π
V2 π  V 2
= ∫ V ·sin (wt)dwt = ∫ V ·sin (wt )dwt + 0 = ·  =
2 2 2 2 2
Veffective
T 0
2π 0
2π 2  4
V2 V
Veffective = =
4 2
If we repeat the same process for the currents, we will obtain:
Vaverage V
I average = =
R π·R
Veffective V
I effective = =
R 2·R
The voltage in the diode will be:
Vdiode = Vinput − Voutput
The main waveforms of the resistive load half-wave rectifier are shown in
figure 1.2.
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Figure 1.2
7.2.1.2 R-L load
In this case the conduction begins when the input voltage becomes
positive. However, due to the presence of the inductance, a delay of the current as
regards the voltage is originated, so when the voltage at the end of the positive
semicycle becomes zero, the current continues circulating, therefore the diode is not
blocked. This would explain the presence of a negative voltage peak in the output,
that is annulled when the current becomes zero.
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Output voltage
Output current
Diode Voltage
Figure 1.3
When we observe the waveforms of figure 1.3, we should notice the

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transients appearing in the step from conduction to cut. If the selected diode in a
hypothetical design stage may not have a high value of repetitive peak inverse
voltage, it may be destroyed if those transients were not treated. That explains the
importance of some parameters of the semiconductors that we were alluding to at the
beginning of the practice. These transients are improved in the practice by using
snubber nets that muffle the voltage and current peaks.
Now the average value of the output voltage will be:
2π π ω t1 2π
1 1 1 1
Vaverage = ∫
T 0
V ·sin ( wt )dwt = ∫ V ·sin ( wt) dwt +
T 0 T ∫ V ·sin (wt )dwt +
π T ω∫t1
V ·sin( wt )dwt
Vaverage
T
[
= · [− cos( wt) ]0 + [− cos( wt)]π + 0 =
V π ωt 1 V
2π
][1 − cos(ωt1) ]
If we consider for this theoretical analysis that the voltage drop in the coil
has no value, the value of the current will be:
Vaverage V (1 − cos( wt1 )

I average = =
R 2πR
In this load type, the rectifier works in discontinuous conduction. The

inductive load causes an increase of the conduction angle and, therefore, a diminution
of the average value of the rectified voltage in a factor of 1-cos(ωt1), where (ω t1 is
the angle where the conduction of the diode finishes.
7.2.1.3 R-L load with Free wheeling Diode
We can see that when using a load with inductive character, the following
effects appear:
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− when the input voltage is inverted, a peak of negative voltage appears in

the output, and it is not annulled until the current becomes zero.
− In a part of the cycle, the current is interrupted, that is, the conduction is
discontinuous.
These two effects may be eliminated, as well as the reduction of the

harmonic content, with the introduction in parallel with the load of a diode called
Free wheeling Diode (FWD) or Flying Diode.
When the input voltage is annulled at the end of the positive semicycle, the
voltage in the coil is inverted. It begins to act as a generator, forcing the conduction
of the FWD and the load current going through it, annulling the peak of negative
voltage, as we can see in the following graphs:
Input current
Figure 1.4
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We may see here that from 10ms the waveform of the current load (graph
in previous page) is an exponential one, that proves the discharge of the coil for the
resistance through the FWD. This is corroborated by the input current, ceasing at
10ms.
7.2.2 Single-phase full-wave rectifier
The full-wave rectifiers can be presented in two ways:
− By a center-tap transformer (Figure 2.1).
− By a Graetz bridge (Figure 2.2).
TRANSFORMER
D1
Vload
D2
Figure 2.1
+
D1 D2
R
R2
1k Vload
N
D3 D4
Figure 2.2
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During the development of this practice we will study the operation of the
full-bridge or Graetz’s bridge that, although using twice as much semiconductors, is
easier to assemble due to the absence of a center-tapped transformer. As we may see,
these rectifiers can be considered as two half-wave series rectifiers, one with
common cathodes and the other with common anodes, as we can see in figure 2.3.
Rect.Halfwave
+
common
cathod
R Vload
S
Rect.halfwave
_
common
‘Anode
Figure 2.3
The operation of the bridge circuit works as follows:
− The D1 and D4 diodes conduct when VR–VS is positive.
− The D2 and D3 diodes conduct when VR–VS is positive.
For all load types the continuity of the conduction exists always between
two diodes and the current circulation has always the same direction.
The fundamental pulsation of the output voltage is 2ω , where ω is the

pulsation of the alternating input, since two periods in the output are originated for
each period in the input.
In the R-L-E load the beginning and the end of the conduction zone are
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determined by the load.
The formulation for the rectifier theoretical analysis is the same as the one
in the former practice, considering the waveform of the output voltage, shown below
(figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4
The average and effective voltage in the output will be:
1π 2 ⋅V
V ·sin ( wt )dwt = [− cos( wt) ]0 =
V
∫
π
Vaverage =
T 0 T π
1 π 2 V2π
Veffective = ∫ = ∫
2 2
V ·sin ( wt ) dwt sin 2 ( wt) dwt
T 0 T 0
And as we know the trigonometric relationship:
1 − cos 2 a = 2·sin 2 a
π
V 2 1 − cos( 2wt) V2 1
T ∫0
Veffective = dwt = · ·π
2 π 2
V
Veffective =
2
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Therefore, the full-wave rectifier generates an average voltage value that

doubles the value generated by the half-wave rectifier. Regarding the diode currents
and voltages, we may have:
Vaverage 2 ⋅ V
I diode = =
R π ⋅R
Vdiode = Vinput − Voutput
Vblock = Vinput
We must emphasize that the voltage blocking each non-conducting diode

may be the input voltage.
The average value of the phase current is null since the two diodes
connected to the same phase conduct currents with the same average value and
different directions.
The behavior of the rectifier will depend, to a great extent, on the load type
that it feeds. We may distinguish:
7.2.2.1 R load
We can choose between a phase-neuter or a phase-phase input. We may

keep in mind the latter is √3 times bigger, so the average voltage follows the same
ratio, and we may consider the Rload minimum value that we may use according to the
power to dissipate. We take a rectifier with resistive load and VRS input.
We know that in this type of rectifier two diodes are conductive during a
semicycle of the input wave, or, equally, during an interval [0, π]; then the average
value of the voltage in the load may be:
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Vinput = 3V ·sin ( wt)
π
Vaverage =
1
∫ 3V ·sin ( wt) dwt =
3V
[− cos( wt) ]π0 = 2 3 V
T 0
π π
where V is the phase-neuter maximum voltage, or phase-neuter peak

voltage
The effective voltage in the load:
π π
1 3·V 2 3·V 2
= ∫0 =
T ∫0
=
2 2 2
Veffective ( 3V · sin ( wt )) dwt sin ( wt ) dwt
T 2
3
Veffective = V
2
To determine the voltage drop in the non conducting diode we may observe
figure 2.5, where we may clearly see that the D3 and D2 blocking voltages are the
input voltages. So the peak inverse voltage per diode is:
The current in the load has the following value:

3V ·sen( wt )
i ( wt ) = for 0 < wt < π
R
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D1 D2
D3 D4
Figure 2.5
Therefore, the average and effective current for the load may be:
2 3
I average = ·V
π ·R
3V
I effective = ·
2 R
In the figure 2.6 the main wave forms appearing in the rectifier are
represented with resistive load
Output voltage
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Voltage in D1 and D4
Voltage in D2 and D3
Figure 2.6
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7.2.2.2 R-L load
To load the rectifier with an inductive load does not imply a variation of
the conduction angle of the diodes. So, the study carried out for the voltages with
resistive load is still valid.
The current average value, considering that the terminal voltage of the coil
is zero, is given by:
2 3
I average = ·V
π ·R
In figure 2.7 the main wave forms appearing in the rectifier with R-L load
are represented
Output voltage
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Output current
Coil Voltage
Input current
Uncontrolled three-phase half-wave rectifier

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In figure 3.1 an Uncontrolled Three-phase Half-valve Rectifier is

represented, in which a neuter connection is required for its operation. As it is a half-
wave assembly, each phase of the voltages to be rectified is connected to the load by
a diode, returning the load current through the neuter. As a consequence, each diode
will conduct when its corresponding phase voltage has the highest value (positive) of
all three, so each diode will conduct during a third part of the period (120º) because it
is a three-phase system.
D1
R
D2
S
D3
T
Load
0
7.1 FIG
We can say:
− D1, D2, D3 conducts when V1, V2 and V3 are, respectively, the most
positive. Each of them will conduct the current during (2 π) /3 radians.
− As the curling of these rectifiers is smaller, the condenser that may be

placed in the output as a filter is smaller as well.
To Calculate the theoretical values of the voltages and currents, we will

particularize the equations for this case, where p=3 since it is a three-phase half-wave
rectifier
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5π
5π
1 6
Vaverage = ∫Vsin ( wt) dwt =
V
[− cos( wt)]π6 = 3 3 ·V
T π 2π 3 6
2π
6
7.2.2.3 Influence of the load type
The behaviour of the rectifier will depend on the load type used, so we may
distinguish between Pure Resistive Loads (R) and Combined Loads (R-L).
Regardless of the type of rectifier with diodes supplying the rectified

output voltage we may be using, the curling of the voltage will only depend on the
number of rectified waves forming the output voltage in a T period, therefore in a
three-phase rectifier system the curling will be smaller.
In order to calculate the average and effective value of the voltages in the
load, we will make the integration in function of the cosine, since in three-phase
systems is much easier than to integrate in function of the sine. Therefore, at each
moment the only conductor will be the diode with the highest voltage, and considering
we are using the cosine to integrate, each diode will conduct from –60º (- π/3) up to
+60º (π/3), so in the end, each diode will conduct during 120º (2π/3), as commented
previously at the beginning of the practice.
To calculate the average value of the voltage in the load, we will first make
a generic calculation of the average voltage in function of the P parameter (the
number of pulses in a T period). We integrate in three-phase systems in function of
the cosine, as the calculation is easier:
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π
1
p
p·Vmax  π   − π   p·Vmax   π 
Veffectiveoutput =
2π ∫V max ·cos(ωt )·dωt =
2π
 sin   − sin 
  p  p 
  =
π
 sin  
  p 
p −π p
For the Uncontrolled three-phase half-wave rectifier, p=3
3·Vmax   π 
Vaverageout put =  sin 3  = 0.827·Vmax
π   
The equation to obtain the effective output voltage is:
π
π p π p
∫ (1 − sin (ωt))·d (ωt) = ∫ (1 − sin )

p 2 2
1 p·Vmax p·V
= ∫ Vmax ·cos (ωt )·dωt = (ωt ) ·d (ωt )
2 2 2 2 max 2
Veffectiveoutput
2π −π 2π −π p
4π −π p
p p
2
p ·Vmax  2π  2π 
utput =  + sin 
2
Veffectiveo
4π  p  p 
Specifying again for p=3:
2
3·Vmax  2π  2π 
utput = + sin    = 0.7067·Vmax → Veffectiveoutput = 0.8407·Vmax
2 2
Veffectiveo 
4π  3  3 
The wave voltage forms and output current with resistive load are shown in
figure 3.2.
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4.0A
2.0A
0A
-I(R2)
400V
0V
SEL>>
-400V
0s 5ms 10ms 15ms 20ms 25ms 30ms
V(R) V(S) V(T) V(R2:2)
Time
Figure 3.2
We must be careful with the minimum value of rheostat that we may use,
because of its maximum power. For that reason, we must always consider, before
applying the voltage to the equipment, the maximum current that the rheostat can
support for the output voltage that may exist in each case. We must operate
consequently, keeping, at least, that minimum value. The analysis of figure 3.2 has
been made with R = 125 Ω and Ve = 220 Vef between phase-neuter.
7.2.2.3.2 Inductive load
All the results of the study of the load voltage obtained in the case of
resistive load are still valid. In any case, it is important to keep in mind the generic
expression that gives us the value of the average load voltage.
p π 
Vaverage = ·V ·sin 
π  p
We know that we are applying to the load a cosine voltage during an

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interval - π/p < wt < π/p, and that the equation that governs the operation of the
circuit is:
di
V ·cos( wt ) = L + R·i
dt
The solution is the sum of a cosinoidal term and an exponential term that
disappears as t time increases.
4.0A
Isalida
2.0A
0A
-I(R2)
400V
Vsalida
0V
SEL>>
-400V
V(R) V(S) V(T) V(R2:2)
Time
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400V
Vouput
0V
-400V
VD2 VD1 VD3
-800V
V(R2:2) V(D4:1,R2:2) V(D5:1,R2:2) V(D6:1,R2:2)
Time
Figure 3.3
The average value of the output current is:

Vaverage 3V π  V
I average = = ·sin   = 0.8269·
R π R 3 R
In figure 3.3. are shown the s wave forms of the main magnitudes that may
appear in the rectifier. We must pay a particular attention to the blocking voltage of
the diodes, which have to support the voltage between one phase and the other.That
implies that they have to support a voltage √3 times higher than the output voltage.
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7.2.3 Uncontrolled three-phase full-wave rectifier
D1 D2 D3
R
Voutput
S
D4 D5 D6
The three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit is built by using a Graetz’s

bridge, but with the particularity of having a three-phase net as input. Or equally two
three-phase half-wave rectifier configurations, one with common cathodes and the
other one with common anodes, which makes the current return from the output to
the input.
The diodes with common cathodes will conduct when their voltage is the
most positive, while the diodes with common anodes will conduct when its phase
voltage is the most negative. Consequently, we may deduce that each couple of
diodes will conduct during a third part of the period, that is, during 60º. The wave
forms of the output voltage are shown in figure 4.2.
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Figure 4.2
So, when the voltage between R and S is the most positive, D1 and D5
diodes will conduct, as the voltage in S is the most negative, and later the D6 diode
as the voltage in T is the most negative. As we can appreciate in the 4.2 figure, the
output voltage is constituted by six sine waves domes corresponding to the three-
phase compound voltages, which is quite logical since they always conduct a diode at
the top and another at the bottom, thus the load is connected between two of the
phases.
To sum it all up, the operation will be:
− D1, D2, D3 will conduct when VR, VS, VT are the most positive, so all
of them will conduct the total current during 2π/3 radians. D4, D5, D6
conduct when VR, VS, VT are, respectively, the most negative, so in all
of them the total current will circulate during 2π/3 radians as well.
− The voltage in the load has the smallest wave of all rectifiers studied so
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far, and Vaverage tends to come closer to Veffective.
− The maximum blocking voltage that the diodes will support will be the
voltages among phases currently appearing in the output.
The generic formulation to find the theoretical values may be calculated as

follows, using figure 4.2 as a reference:
2π / 3
Vaverage =
1
∫ 3·V ·sin ( wt) dwt =
3·V
[− cos( wt )]π2π/ 3/ 3 = 3·V
[0.5 + 0.5] = 3 3·V
T π /3
T T π
Or using the generic formulation with the cosinodal input:
π
 π  3 3
p
p 2· p· 3 ·Vmaz
Vaverageoutput =
2π −π
∫ 3·cos(ωt )·dωt =
2π  sin ( p )  = π ·Vmaz
 
p
The average value of the phase current is null, because two diodes
connected to the same phase conduct currents with the same average value and
different directions.
The behavior of the rectifier depends, to a great extent, on the load type
used, so we may distinguish between pure resistive load and inductive load,
resistance and inductance union. We will explain some important aspects in detail:
7.2.3.1.1 R load
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We know the average value of the voltage in the load, and its value is (3 √3
V)/π, where V is the peak voltage between phase and neuter.
The effective voltage in the load will be:
2 2 2 2π / 3
1 2π / 3
  3 ·V  2π / 3 2  3 ·V  1 − cos( 2wt )
=  ∫ 3·V ·sin ( wt) dwt  =   · ∫ sin ( wt) dwt =   ∫
2
Veffective dwt
T π /3   T  π /3  T  π /3
2
2 2
 3 ·V  π 3   3·V 
=    + ≈ 
2
Veffective
 T  6 4   T 
And, as the wave period is π/3, we may obtain an effective value almost
equal to the average value.
3 3
Veffective ≈ Vaverage = ·V
π
In figure 4.3, the main wave forms of the three-phase full-wave rectifier
with resistive load are shown. If we observe the first graph, the output voltage is
formed by the line voltage peaks (voltage among phases) and not of the phase-neuter
voltage. The theory of circuits tells us that the line voltage is √3 times higher than the
phase-neuter one, and something very important: it is with a phase angle * of 30º.
*
If we talk about a VRS direct sequence system, it will be retarded in relation to VRN. In an inverse
sequence system, this line voltage will be early. Now an analysis for a direct sequence system is carried out.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Figure 4.3
The load current will be in phase with the voltage, because it is pure
resisve load, and it will have the following value:
Vaverage 3 3
I average = = ·V ≈ I effective
R πR
To add an inductance to the load doesn’t imply a variation of the diode

angle of conduction. Therefore, the study of voltages carried out for resistive load is
still valid.
The average current value considering that the coil terminal voltage is zero,
may be given by:
Vaverage 3 3V
I average = = ·
R π R
PRACTICES MANUAL
where V is the phase-neuter voltage.
The effective current is almost equal to the average current.
Figure 4.4
As we can see in figure 4.4, the wave form of the voltage is identical to the
one obtained with resistive pure load, but the current is delayed due to the coil. The
quantity of ripple that will appear in the output current will depend on the inductance
value. In figure 4.4 the simulation was made with R=100 Ω and L=236mH.
Finally, we must point out, as a conclusion of the study of bridge rectifiers,

that they have an important advantage: they avoid dc circulation in power-supply
transformers, which improves the operation of the magnetic circuits notably, that in
compensation, forces us to have more losses because of the use of twice as much
semiconductors.
7.2.4 Controlled single-phase half-wave rectifier
7.2.4.1 The thyristor
The thyristor could be basically defined as a diode controlled by a positive

PRACTICES MANUAL
voltage among gate (G) and anode (A) and a gate current that causes its interlocking
and therefore its conduction until the current that circulates through it becomes zero.
We must consider that, in order to make the interlocking of the device possible, a
minimum current known as “interlocking current” is necessary. If this current is not
over when the trigger of the thyristor takes place, it causes the thyristor non-
interlocking.
A K
G
Figure 5.1 Symbol of the thyristor.
The main feature of these thyristors is that no other thyristor has still
overcome the power supported by these devices. But they have a disadvantage: they
can only be used in low frequencies.
The thyristors triggering ways vary. We may distinguish between wanted

and unwanted ways, stressing in the latter the voltage trigger (the direct voltage of
disruption is the maximum anode-cathode voltage that the thyristor supports without
starting up, when the gate current is zero) and derived of voltage trigger (caused by a
derived abrupt anode-cathode voltage).
Ideally the thyristor would work as a switch (opened/closed), but, as it

happens with the conducting diode, thyristors support a fixed voltage between A and
K in the conduction (Vd), and implying a power loss (rd) that may be represented
electrically:
iD rD
VD
Figure 5.2 Equivalent circuit.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Causing losses in conduction:
P = VD ·iD + rD ·iD2 (effective )
Finally we should add, as the thyristor is a semi-controlled device, we may

control its set up operation, but not its switching off, which should be produced by
the external circuit. This switching off may be natural (e.g. when the current passes
by zero within the circuit), or forced, by voltage inverse source, or by intensity
inverse source.
7.2.4.2 Theoretical introduction to controlled rectifiers
With this practice we will start a study section focused on the controlled
half-wave rectifiers. The main difference between these sort of rectifiers and the
former ones (Uncontrolled rectifiers) may be based on the fact that thyristor
conduction and non-conduction states should be controlled externally, not within the
circuit.
In this section of the study we will always deal with rectifiers in which we
are capable to decide the moment when we may trigger the thyristors by using the
PC.
The controlled single-phase half-wave rectifier may be seen in figure 5.3,

where it may be easily seen that it is equivalent to the Uncontrolled single-phase half-
wave rectifier, if the diode is replaced by a thyristor.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Figure 5.3 Controlled single-phase half-wave rectifier
Controlled rectifiers are formed by power poles with direct and inverse
blocking capacity, usually thyristors, therefore as they are controlled elements, they
provide a rectified output voltage of adjustable magnitude.
The behavior of the rectifier will depend, to a great extent, on the load type
used. So we may distinguish:
− Pure Resistive Load (R), where the voltage is annulled when the voltage
changes its direction.
− Inductive Load (R-L), where the conduction lasts until the current in the
coil is annulled, although the output voltage may invert its polarity.
In order to make the output voltage independent of the load type, we may
use the free wheeling diode (FWD), which avoids the polarization inversion of the
output voltage.
7.2.4.3 Influence of the load type in the rectifier operation
7.2.4.3.1 Pure Resistive Load
The substitution of the diode by a thyristor allows delaying the beginning

of the conduction of the power switch. Whereas the diode required only a forward
bias condition, a thyristor requires a gate impulse as well, so by controlling the
PRACTICES MANUAL
sending angle of the gate pulse, we can control the rectifier output. This is reflected
in the following graphs, where we may observe the triggering α angle clearly:
400V
Vsalida
0V
Ventrada
-400V
0s 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
V(V1:+) V(R1:2)
Time
Figure 5.4 (α = 60º)
We may observe that, whereas the beginning of the thyristor output

conduction requires two conditions, the step to the thyristor cut only required inverse
polarization. Therefore, the thyristor interval of conduction may be:
α < ωt < π
For α > π, the thyristor may never enter in conduction, since the voltage
applied to its ends causes inverse bias.
For the rectifier of this practice, the output voltage will depend on the
interval:
For 0 < ωt < α

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.1.1.1.1 Vinput =V max · sin (ωt)

Vinput Load Voutput Voutput = 0
For α < ωt < π
7.1.1.1.2
Vinput Load Voutput Vinput =V max · sin (ωt)

Voutput =V max · sin (ωt)
• For π < ωt < 2π
Thyristor
Vinput = V max · sin (ωt) V output =

Vinput Load Voutput
0
The average value of the output voltage will be:

PRACTICES MANUAL
1 π V
Vmedia = ·∫Vmax ·sen(ωt )·dωt = maz (1 + cos α )
2π α 2π
The effective value will be:
1 π 2 2
Vmax 1
V 2
= ·∫Vmax ·sen(ωt )·dωt = ( + sen (2α ) + π − α )
eficaz
2π α 4π 2
1  V
2
Vmax 1
Veficaz = · sen( 2α ) + π − α  = max · π − α + sen( 2α )
4π  2  2 π 2
Current values may be:
i=0 for 0 < ωt < α

i = (V/R) sen (ω t) for α < ωt < π
i=0 for π < ωt < 2π
Their average value will be:
1 πV V  1 + cos α 
I media = ·∫ sen(ωt )·dωt = · 
2π α R R  2π 
The current effective value will be:
1 πV 2 V 1  1 
I media = ·∫ 2 sen 2 (ωt )·dωt = ·  π − α + sen( 2α ) 
2π α R R 4π  2 
Following, we can see the wave forms of the most important signals in the
rectifier.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Time
Figure 5.5.
7.2.4.3.2 R-L Combined load
The circuit for this practice is the following one:
T1
R
R
Vinput
Figure 5.6. Controlled single-phase R-L load rectifier
The equation of meshes that represents the behavior of the circuit when the
PRACTICES MANUAL
thyristor is in operation is the following one:

di
V ·sin (ωt ) = Ri + L
dt
The solution to this equation will be the sum of the solution to the equation
in permanent regime added to the solution to the equation in transitory regime:
Solution to the equation in permanent regime:

V ωL
if = ·sen (ω t − ϕ ) where ϕ = arctg( )
R 2 + L2ω 2 R
Solution to the equation in stationary regime:

R
− t
i L = A·e L
Then:
R
V − t
i= ·sen (ωt − ϕ ) + A·e L where Z = R 2 + (ωL ) 2
Z
As in this type of rectifiers there is an almost complete semicycle for the

discharge of the coil, we know that for ω t = α the current has already a 0 value, so
we may calculate the value of A:
R α
V − ·
0 = ·sin (α − ϕ ) + A·e L ω
Z
R α
V ·
A= ·sin (α − ϕ )·e L ω
Z
Therefore, the initial equation is:
V  − t 
 Rα R 

i=  sin (ωt − ϕ ) − sin (α − ϕ )·e  L ω L  
Z  
The thyristor may be in operation from an α angle to π+ϕ, when the

current pass by zero through the coil, since, so far, the current of the coil forces the
PRACTICES MANUAL
conduction of the thyristor.
The output voltage will have a value:

V=0 for 0 < ωt < α
V = V. sin (ωt) for α < ωt < π + ϕ
V=0 for π + ϕ < ωt < 2π
Therefore, the Average Output Voltage Value will be:
π +ϕ
∫ V ·sin (ωt )·dωt = 2π ·[cos α − cos(π + ϕ )]

1 V
Vaverage =
2π α
Then, the Average Voltage Value will be:

Vaverage
I average =
R
The effective value will be:
π +ϕ
· π + ϕ − α − [sin 2ϕ + sen 2α ]
1 V 1
Veffective = · ∫ V 2 ·sin 2 (ωt )·dωt =
2π α 2 π 2
7.2.4.3.3 R-L load with free wheeling diode
The circuit we may use in this practice is the following one:
R T1
R
Vinput
DLC
L
Figure 5.7. Controlled half-wave rectifier with FWD

PRACTICES MANUAL
The circuit works as follows: In the positive semicycle, during the interval
in which the thyristor is switched on, the input voltage appears in the output with no
changes. When the input voltage is annulled at the end of the positive semicycle, the
voltage in the coil is inverted, thus, the coil works as a generator. As a consequence,
the free wheeling diode is directly polarized, and the load current circulates through.
The negative peak of the output voltage that took place in the previous paragraph is
annulled. This may be better appreciated in the following graphs:
Vsalida sin DLC

V(R:2) V(X12:MT2)
Time
Vsalida alfa = 120º
carga R-L con DLC
Isalida

1 V(R:2) 2 -I(R)
Time
Figure 5.8.
PRACTICES MANUAL
The average output voltage may be:
1 π V
Vaverage = ·∫ Vmax ·sin (ωt )·dωt = maz (1 + cos α )
2π α 2π
This expression is exactly the same as the rectifier with pure R.
7.2.5 Full-control single-phase rectifier
Bridge rectifiers use 2q semiconductor devices when the rectification of q

alternating voltages is required, being these semiconductors divided in two groups:
one with common cathodes and the other with common anodes. Depending on the
nature of the semiconductor devices, we may obtain different configurations:
− Full-controlled bridges, when both groups are formed by thyristors.
− Half-controlled bridges, when one group is formed by diodes and the

other one by thyristors.
In this practice we will focus on the study of full-controlled bridges. The

diagram of this type of rectifiers is represented in the following figure:
PRACTICES MANUAL
T1 T3
R
Load
T2 T4
Figure 6.1. Full-controlled single-phase half-wave rectifier
As we may see, this rectifier type may be divided in two controlled single-
phase half-wave rectifiers (one with common cathodes and the other one with
common anodes) located in such a way that each one rectifies a semiperiod,
appearing in the load a rectified direct voltage.
1/ 2 wave
rectifier
Common
Cathodes
Vi
1/ 2 wave
rectifier
Common
anodes
Figure 6.2. Equivalent circuit
Then:
− T1 and T4 conduct when the input voltage is positive, the devices are
PRACTICES MANUAL
triggered.
− T2 and T3 conduct when the input voltage is negative and these

thyristors are triggered.
Therefore, we will be able to regulate the direct output voltage by using the
thyristors angle of conduction.
It is necessary to emphasize the fact that we may connect two phases or

phase and neuter as input,. This will imply having a different rectified voltage in the
output depending on which one is connected, and, consequently, it will be necessary
to estimate the rheostat minimum value, in order to avoid exceeding the maximum
intensity allowed.
7.2.5.1 Influence of the load type in the rectifier operation
We may consider the single-phase rectifier shown in the following figure,

where we have the phase-neuter voltage as input. Otherwise, we will have to multiply
all the results obtained by the √3 factor.
T1 T3
R
Load
R
N 150
T2 T4
Figure 6.3. Rect. Full-control single-phase (R load)

PRACTICES MANUAL
The load voltage will have the following values, considering that the period
of the output wave is π in this particular case, and considering the voltage drop in the
semiconductor devices to be worthless:
Effective output voltage:

1π 2 V 2 π 1 − cos( 2ωt ) V2  1 
Veffective = ·∫ V ·sin (ωt )·dωt =
2
·∫ ·dωt = ·π − α − sin ( 2α ) 
π α π α 2 2π  2 
Average output voltage:

1π
·∫ V ·sin (ωt )·dω t = ·[− cos(ωt )]α = (1 + cos(α ) )
V π V
Vaverage =
πα π π
The current through the load will be:

V ·sin (ωt )
i (t ) =
R
And its average value would be:

Vaverage V
I average = = ·(1 + cos α )
R πR
All these waves are represented in the following figure:

PRACTICES MANUAL
Vsalida
alfa = 90º
V(R:2,T2:A) V(V5:+,0)
VT1

V(T1:A,T1:K)
Time
Figure 6.4. Wave forms of the full-control single-phase rectifier
7.2.5.1.2 Combined R-L load
The main difference between this configuration and the former one is
based on the fact that while the former always worked with discontinuous conduction
(the voltage value passed by zero), in this type of configurations, the conduction
mode will be direct, because the thyristors belonging to the same group will conduct
until those of the other group are triggered.
We will calculate first the voltage values in the load:
Effective voltage:
π +α
1 π +α 2 V 2 π 1 − cos( 2ωt ) V2 
·ωt − sin ( 2ωt )
1
Veffective = · ∫ V ·sin 2 (ωt )·dωt = ·∫ ·dωt =
π α π α 2 2π  2 α
V2 V
Veffective = ·π =
2π 2
PRACTICES MANUAL
The average value will be calculated as follows:
1 π +α
· ∫ V ·sin (ωt )·dωt = ·[− cos(ωt )]α = ·[− cos(π + α ) + cos α ] =
V π +α V 2V
Vaverage = ·cos α
π α π π π
In order to calculate the average value of the output current, we have to

consider the average voltage drop in a coil to be zero, so:
Vaverage 2V
I average = = ·cos α
R πR
All these can easily be understood by observing the wave forms in this
rectifier:
-I(R)
400V
Voutput
0V
Vinput
-400V
V(R:2,T4:A) V(C1:1,0)
Time
Figure 6.6. Wave forms of the full-control single-phase rectifier with R-L load
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.2.6 Full-control single-phase rectifier: DC motor supply
Figure 7.1 shows the circuit we will be mentioning in this practice. Using
the application installed in the PC, it is possible to introduce triggering angles as well
as visualizing the voltage at any point of the circuit, mainly in the motor, as well as
its current.
300
R T1 T3
M
N C
110u
T2 T4
PC D.T.
Figure 7.1 Bridge single-phase rectifier DC motor
As previously seen in the former practice, a rectifier with thyristors allows

varying the system output voltage through its triggering angle α.
To simplify, the rectifier operation with a CC motor consists of connecting

a R-L load and a e.m.f. Depending on the nominal motor features it may be or may
PRACTICES MANUAL
be not required to set a series resistor.
The turning speed may be controlled, therefore, with a regulation in the

current by the induced. It will be possible to regulate that current with a variation of
the input voltage or of the total resistance of the circuit of the induced. This speed
flexibility, together with the high number of starting torques that may be obtained,
makes DC motors a key component in most of the more common typical industrial
applications (lamination trains, robot movement, conveyor belts, etc).
If the inductor and induced windings had individual supplies, we may have
the independent excitation machine. Usually, both circuits are connected to each
other electrically, as the motor that is optionally provided with TECNEL.
Rm
M Lm
f.e.m.
Figure 7.2. Electrical equivalent to the DC Motor
According to the 2nd Kirchhoff law the circuit of the induced corresponds
to this equation:
dI (t )
Vsin ( wt ) = Rm·I (t ) + Lm +E
dt
The solution is obtained similarly as the procedure described in practice 5,

but considering the new conduction angles, as well as the voltage (product of the
PRACTICES MANUAL
e.m.f. of the motor) E. This e.m.f. varies with the velocity.
You must notice that TECNEL equipment is capable of measuring motor

velocity using the D.T. connection at the back of the interface.
A brief and interesting analysis of the motor is based on calculating the

useful mechanical power in the motor tree. It will be necessary to subtract the rotor
losses (including the losses in the Pfe air gap and the Pm friction mechanical losses)
to the electromagnetic power Pa. Therefore, the useful motor power may be defined
as follows:
Puseful = Pa − Pfe − Pm
The power absorbed by the P1 motor has to be distributed between the

coiling of internal auto-excitation (Joule losses effect), and the induced itself.
P1 = Pinduc + Pexcit
Briefly we may see the distribution of the DC motor powers in figure 7.3.
The input power is the product of the motor supply voltage multiplied by the
absorbed current, establishing an expression for the efficiency:
Poutput
η=
Pinput
INPUT
Electric Power OUTPUT
P=V·I Mechanic
power
Pex Pind Pfe Pm

cit
Figure 7.3
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.2.7 Full-control three-phase full-wave rectifier
The rectifier that we will be studying in this practice is the following one:
T1 T3 T5
R
S
T Load
T2 T4 T6
Figure 8.1 Full-control three-phase rectifier
As this figure shows, we can consider this rectifier as a composition of two

controlled three-phase half-wave rectifiers, one with common cathodes and the other
with common anodes.
PRACTICES MANUAL
½ wave rectifier
Common
R cathodes
• Neuter
S r
T
½ wave rectifier
Common
anodes
Figure 8.2 equivalent circuit
Therefore, in this type of rectifiers:
1. T1, T3, T5, conduct when the voltages VR, VS and VT, respectively,
are the most positive, provided that thyristors have been triggered,
conducting the current through each of them during 120º (in case of
direct conduction).
2. T2, T4, T6, will conduct when VR, VS, VT are respectively the most
negative, conducting each of them during 120º if they have been
triggered, and provided it is a direct conduction.
3. Conduction coincidence among thyristors exists only partially, because

commutation instants are not coincident, as the number of phases is
uneven.
Finally, we must remember that in three-phase systems, the conduction

angle has its origin in the crossing of line voltages.
7.2.7.1 Influences of the load type
7.2.7.1.1 R load
PRACTICES MANUAL
Depending on the conduction angle, we will have in these systems a direct

conduction (α < 60º) or discontinuous conduction (α > 60º) behaviour.
Direct conduction mode (α < 60º)
The wave forms corresponding to this type of rectifiers are the following:
V(X1:K,X4:
VTS VRS VRT VST VSR VTR VTS VRS
0s 5ms 10ms 15ms 20ms 25ms 30ms 35ms 40ms

Time
Figures 8.4 Wave forms in M.C.C. ((=30º)
The average value of the output voltage may be calculated by integrating in

function of the cosine, which implies a variation of conduction limits. Also, in this
case, 6 is the value of p since it is a three-phase full-wave system:
π
+α
π
6 +α π
·[sin (ωt )] 6π =
p 6 3 ·V 6 3 3 3
Vdirect =
2π
·
π
∫ 3·V ·cos(ωt )·dωt =
2π − +α
6
π
·V ·sin ·cos α =
6 π
·V ·cos α
− +α
6
PRACTICES MANUAL
where V is the phase-neuter maximum voltage.
The value of the current through the load, as it is a pure resistive system,
will be:
3·V ·cos(ωt ) π π
i (t ) = for − + α ≤ ωt ≤ + α
R 6 6
The average current through the load will be, logically:
Vaverage 3 3 V
I average = = · ·cos(ωt )
R π R
Discontinuous Conduction Mode (α > 60º)
In this case, the voltage and the load current reach a value of zero during a
certain period of time. That happens because thyristors are cut when the voltage
becomes zero, since the current has the same wave form.
The average voltage value in the load will be:

π
2 π
 
Vdirect =
6
∫ 3·V cos(ωt )·d ωt = V
6 3
[sin(ωt )]−2π +α = V 3 3 1 − 3 sinα + 1 cos α 
2π π 2π 6
π  2 2 
− +α
6
The current for the load will have the following values:
3·V ·cos(ωt ) π π
i (t ) = for − + α π ωt π
R 6 2
And its average value is:

PRACTICES MANUAL
V average 3 3V  3 1 
I average = = 1 − sin α + cos α 
π R
R 2 2 
7.2.7.1.2 Combined R-L loads
Direct conduction mode
In this case, the average value of the output voltage will be:
π
+α
π
6 +α π
·[sin (ωt )] 6π =
p 6 3 ·V 6 3 3 3
Vdirect = · ∫ 3·V ·cos(ω t )·d ωt = ·V ·sin ·cos α = ·V ·cos α
2π π 2π − +α
6
π 6 π
− +α
6
where V is the phase-neuter maximum voltage.
The current in the load is given by this differential expression:

di
L +R·i = 3·V cos(wt)
dt
And the solution is:

− wt −π +α
  π 
6
3·V
i= cos( wt − φ ) + i0 − cos − + α − φ  ·e Q
Z   6 
where:
i0 = the value of i for wt = - (/6 + (
Z = the load impedance
Z = R 2 + w 2 L2
φ = the phase angle between v and i

PRACTICES MANUAL
wL
φ = arctg = arctg Q
R
And the average load current will be expressed as follows:

Vaverage 3 3 V
I average = = cos α
R π R
The voltage and current wave forms are shown in figure 8.5.
I load
V load
0V
0A

Timee
Figure 8.5 Wave forms in MCC load RL
Discontinuous conduction mode
The average voltage and current in the rectifier are expressed by the
equation:
3 3 
wt 1
6 1 3
Vaverage =
2π ∫V 3 cos wtdwt =  sinwt1 + cos α −
π  2 2
sin α 

−π +α
6
The average value of the load current is easily obtained by considering the
voltage in the coil is zero.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Vaverage 3 3V 1 3 
I average = =  sinwt1 + cos α − sin α 
R π R 2 2 
Direct conduction becomes discontinuous when i0 is annulled, that is when

the initial current in the rectified period is 0.
The rectified current in the load is given by the following expression:
di
V 3 cos wt = L + R·i
dt
And the solution is, considering that i0 = 0:
7.2.8 Semi-controlled single-phase rectifier
These sorts of rectifiers, called semi-controlled, are half-wave bridge

rectifier. Their name indicates that half of them are controlled and the other half,
uncontrolled. This means that we may consider them as two controlled half-wave
series rectifiers with common cathode, and an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier with
common anode. The diagram of the rectifier that we will be using in this practice is
shown in figure 9.1.
T1 T2
T3
R
Vload
D1 D2
Figure 9.1
PRACTICES MANUAL
In order to regulate the output voltage, we can use a 0º and 180º α

triggering angle, varying the output voltage from the maximum value to zero. It is
important to stress that a semi-controlled bridge is not reversible.
In figures 9.2 and 9.3, we will be studying the wave forms of the
rectifier
Figure 9.2
The upper graph in figure 9.2 represents R load voltage and the lower
graph the voltage drop in T1.
The average voltage value in this case will be:
1 π 3·V
Vaverage = ∫ V ·sin ( wt)dwt =
T π /3 2·π
PRACTICES MANUAL
If α = 0º, the behavior corresponds with the Uncontrolled rectifier. That is

logical, since the behavior of the thyristors with α = 0º is similar to the behavior of
the diodes.
Input
α T1 T1
1
D2 D2
α2
T3 T3
D1 D1
Output
Figure 9.3
Conduction intervals, simplified in case of pure resistive load, are shown in

figure 9.3. Moreover, T1 and T3 are triggered with different angles, α1 and α2, in
order to control the regulation even more. As we may appreciate, the operation is
almost exactly the same as the one studied in the Uncontrolled rectifier, with the
exception of controlling the output power using only two thyristors, not four, as it
would happen with the full-controlled rectifier. On the other hand, another advantage
PRACTICES MANUAL
of this rectifier as opposed to the full-control one, is the triggering easiness, since the
cathodes are united, isolating the triggers is not required.
Obviously, the behaviour of the rectifier will depend, to a great extent, on the
load type that we may be connecting. We may distinguish two types:
The output voltage of a rectifier with resistive load was shown in figure
9.2. This is given by:
Voutput = V ·sin ( wt ) dwt for [0 + α, π ]
Voutput = 0 for [π , π + α ]
Then, the average output value of the voltage will be:

1π
= ∫ V ·sin ( wt )dwt = (1 + cos α ) ,
V
Vaverage
Tα π
where V is the phase-neuter maximum voltage. We may deduce from the previous
equation that if we vary α, we may obtain the maximum average voltage for α = 0º,
and null for α = 180º. We could also appreciate that it could not operate as an
inverter. Only a full-controlled bridge allows the inversion of the average voltage
sign.
The current in the load, since it is resistive load, will follow the voltage
evolution, then:
V ·sin ( wt )
I= forα < wt < π
R
I average =
V
(1 + cos α )
π ·R
PRACTICES MANUAL
When loading the rectifier with an inductance a delay in the current is

involved, and abrupt changes are not allowed. The effect in the rectifier has a lot to
do with what has been seen in former practices. The load forces the current to
circulate, even when the voltage becomes negative. This effect can be perfectly
appreciated in the half-wave rectifier, but not in the semi-controlled one.
Figure 9.4
There is no peak of negative voltage in the semi-controlled one, but the

current required by the load is closed by a single branch. Hence a negative voltage of
constant value appears in figure 9.4, as a result of the voltage that falls into the
semiconductors. That is obvious if we consider the exponential component
PRACTICES MANUAL
appreciated in the current when the voltage passes by zero. It is necessary to notice
that the rectified voltage in figure 9.4 has a 15V peak, in order to visualize the
magnitudes properly. We may analyze the conduction periods to make the
understanding of the rectifier easier.
Input
Output
α
T1 T1
D2 D2 D2
α
T3 T3
D1 D1
Figure 9.5
In figure 9.5 we observe several details of the operation of the inductive

load rectifier:
− D1 and D2 diodes always conduct during the negative and positive

semicycle, respectively.
− The thyristors are forced to continue conducting when the input voltage
PRACTICES MANUAL
is negative, because the load causes the complete extinction of the

current, generating an e.m.f. that continues polarizing the thyristor
directly.
− When the input voltage is negative, the current is closed by the

corresponding diode and the corresponding forced thyristor (both
belong to the same branch). The voltage in the load is then
(Vdiode+Vthyristor).
The location of a FWD implies that the thyristors are not forced to conduct
and that the negative output voltage polarizes directly the FWD, which allows the
circulation of the current, with a short-circuit of the load. Figure 9.6.
Input
Figure 9.6
Vloa Iload
Outp
ut
α
T T T
1 1 1
D D D
2 2 2
α
T T
3 3
D D
1 1
F F F F
W W W W
Figure 9.6
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.2.9 Semi-controlled three-phase rectifier
This semi-controlled rectifier substitutes a group of thyristors by diodes in

the full-control assembly.
The theoretical analysis of this rectifier is similar to the one carried out for
the full-controlled rectifier:
− T1, T3, T5, conduct when VR, VS and VT voltages respectively, are the
most positive, provided that the thyristors have been triggered,
conducting the current through each of them during 120º (in case of
direct conduction).
− D1, D2 and D3 always drive during 120º, and when the VR, VS and VT
voltages are most negative.
− Conduction coincidence only exists partially among thyristors since

commutation instants are not coincident as there is an uneven number of
phases.
Here, the origin of the triggering angle is also in the crossing line voltages.
In the following figures, wave forms for inductive and pure resistive
loads (R-L) are shown
PRACTICES MANUAL
0V
0s 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms 50ms

Time
Figure 10.2
In figure 10.1 the output voltage is shown for a α = 30º triggering angle.
The current will have the same wave form as the voltage, obviously.
Vsalida Isalida
0V
0s 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms 50ms

Time
Figure 10.3
PRACTICES MANUAL
In the wave forms shown in figure 10.3, we can see the voltage and current
in the load when there is an inductive load (at the top). We can appreciate that the
current is now lighter, and that it is delayed in opposition to voltage. In the bottom,
line voltages are shown as they enter the rectifier in the intermediate points of the
branches.
This assembly, as the semi-controlled single-phase, has an additional

advantage: trigger easiness. Although far from earth, the three of them must refer to
the same point, which as far as control is concerned is much more simple than the
full-controlled one. On the other hand, the operation is not reversible: it takes place
only in the first quadrant.
This practice completes the study of the AC/DC converters or rectifiers,

while trying to give a last vision of the most usual rectifiers. Virtually, the most
common rectifiers are the full-bridge single-phase ones. An output filter that softens
the voltage and the current is added to these rectifiers, in order to complete some
specifications of the load they will feed.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.2.10 Chopper voltage assembly
Basically, we may obtain a variable voltage from a fixed direct voltage by

way of connecting and disconnecting the source from the load by using a switch, so
the average value of the output voltage may depend on the opening and closing
rhythm of the controllable switch. In this case it will be an IGBT. They are, thus,
called Commuted Direct Current Converters. It can also be made in a lineal way, so a
regulating element that works in the resistive area by dissipating energy is used.
The input voltage chopping to obtain a lower average value is the Chopper
operation principle. The average value of this voltage will depend on the ratio of the
T on time (conduction time) and the period T, called work cycle.
Figure 11.1
Ton
1 Ton 1 Ton 2
Vaverage =
T ∫0
Edt =
T
·E = d ·E Veffective =
T ∫0
E dt = d ·E
Therefore, the variation of the average output voltage can be made in three
ways:
− By closing the switch at a fixed frequency (1/T) and delaying its

PRACTICES MANUAL
opening (varying the work cycle using T on).
− By acting on the switch with a variable frequency, but always leaving

the switch closed at the same time (fixed T on).
− By acting on the switch in a mixed way, that is, acting the same as in
the latter case only with a variable conduction time.
We will be following the first procedure (figure 11.2), where the frequency
is constant. The parameter of operation frequency, as well as the trigger percentage,
is introduced from the corresponding application in the PC.
The most general sketch for this type of converters is the following one:
PRACTICES MANUAL
Interruptor
Rg Lg Lin Lout
+ L
Voutput
It Cin
Cout R
Input Input filtre DLC Output Load

Supply Filter
Figure 11.3
This type of converter only works in the first quadrant, so that the voltage
and the intensity in the load will always have positive values.
The function of the output filter is to cut down the output intensity. The
free wheeling diode prevents any dangerous overvoltages that may damage the
switch, since the current in the load circulates through it as soon as it is annulled, and
there is no abrupt variation of the current in Lout.
The source possesses internal impedance Rg, and Lin and Cin constitute
the input filter, which has a double function:
− Limiting the over voltages that will take place in Lg when the switch is
opened.
− To cut down the intensity supplied by the source, and consequently the
curling of its output voltage.
In this practice, in order to simplify the understanding of direct current

PRACTICES MANUAL
converters, and particularly, the chopper, we will analyze a basic assembly, in which
we have removed the input and output filters.
Before starting with the operation of the converted circuit, it is necessary to

specify two ways of operating clearly defined:
Direct conduction mode
The intensity that circulates through the load fluctuates between maximum
and minimum values, never to the point of being annulled. As it will be seen later on,
it is caused by the ratio of the period of time that the switch is closed and the time
that the coil needs to discharge all its energy previously stored. This is also called
direct current regime.
Discontinuous conduction mode
The intensity for the load is annulled at a certain moment during the Toff
period (time during which the switch is opened). The time during which the switch is
opened is bigger than the one required by the coil to give away all its energy,
therefore when the following period starts the insensity will be zero. Also called
regime of discontinuous current.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Continuous
Current Regime
Discontinuous
Current Regime
Figure 11.4
To study the circuit operation, we will analyze the two states that the
switch may present (opened or closed).
§ Closed switch. In this first stage the Vinput source is connected to the
load, and, at the same time, the diode is inversely polirized, during a T
time on. The intensity will go towards the load when Vinput > E. This
intensity, due to the presence of the R-L net, will follow an exponential
up to reaching a IL(MAX) maximum value. Figure 11.5 (a).
§ Opened switch. When that current value is reached, the switch may
open, leaving the load isolated from the source. The equivalent circuit is
the one shown in figure 11.5 (b). The diode polarizes in direct,
providing an open path to the energy stored in the coil during the former
period. The intensity in the load will tend to decrease, following a
decreasing exponential, to an IL(MIN) minimum value. At that
particular time, the switch will be closed again and the intensity will
begin to increase: a new cycle begins.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Figure 11.5
With the former explanations, we may carry out a mathematical analysis.

We may analyze the circuit in figure 11.6, a circuit corresponding with the chopper
featured in the lower part of the equipment.
Regarding the output voltage in function of the input voltage:

ton
1 t on
Vsaverage =
T ∫ Edt =
0
T
·E
Vsaverage = d · E
When we close the switch we apply the input voltage to the load; when we
open it, we have a cut in the load as a consequence of the FWD that polarized in
direct. The d work cycle oscillates between two values: zero (T on = 0) and one (T on
= T), so the average output voltage will be equal or smaller than the average input
voltage: hence the name “rectifier”.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Interruptor
Vinput
Cin R
Voutput
Power
Fuente Input Filter
Filtro DLC Load
Carga
tensión
Supply entrada
0
Figure 11.6
To calculate the current that circulates through the load, we will start from
the equation:
Ve = VL + Vs
di
Ve = L L + R·i L
dt
Ve di L R
= + iL
L dt L
where we may assume the switch drop to be worthless. We may need to mention that
the intensity in the coil, iL, is the same intensity circulating in the load (we may call it
io), so both names will be used indistinctly. The solution to the former differential
equation will be given by:
R
Ve  Ve  − t L
iL = +  I '− ·e 0 < t < Ton
R  R
I ' being the intesity value for t = 0. If the converter operates in

discontinuous conduction way, then I'=0, and if it operates in direct continuous way,
I ' = IL(MIN). Assuming that we may be in regime of continuous current:
PRACTICES MANUAL
V  V  −t R
iL = +  I L ( MIN ) − ·e L
R  R
And for t = T on, the current will reach its maximum value:
V  V  −Ton· RL
i L ( MAX ) = +  I L ( MIN ) − ·e
R  R
Once the intensity has reached that maximum value, the switch may open,
being the load separated from the source Ve. The current circulation through R, L and
the D diode will then take place. If we assume diode drop to be worthless, we will have
an equation defining the circuit:
di L
R·i L + L =0
dt
and the result may be:

R
−( t − Ton)
i L = I L ( MAX ) ·e L
.
When t = T, the intensity in the load will reach its minimum value IL(MIN).
To calculate the values of IL(MAX) and of IL(MIN) we may use the last
equation we have obtained. In this equation, we will substitute the value of IL(MAX)
previously calculated and we will find IL(MIN):
V  V  −Ton  −( T −Ton ) L
R R
I L ( MIN ) =  +  I L ( MIN ) − ·e L ·e

R  R 
 Ton RL 
V e − 1
I L ( MIN ) = · T
R T 
 e L − 1 
 −Ton 
R
V 1−e L 
I L ( MAX ) = · T 
R −T
 1 − e L 
PRACTICES MANUAL
NOTE: the equation of IL(MAX) can only be used in direct conduction

mode when the minimum intensity is different from zero. In discontinuous
conduction mode, we will use the one that was first calculated, which appears in the
previous page.
In the case of direct conduction way, we may calculate the average output
voltage by using an approximate power balance, so all the incoming power may be
identical to the outgoing power:
Pe = Ps
Vs 2
Ve· Iemedia =
R
if we may calculate some equations, we will be getting to a good approach:
where k = 2L / RT.
We may assume another operation mode, a mode between the two already
described, where the current becomes zero in an instant, being that instant not
sufficient to be a discontinuous conduction mode. It would be an intermediate stage
between the two we have analyzed, that would indicate the step from discontinuous
conduction mode to direct conduction mode, and vice versa. It will be fixed by the
constant defined as k
k critical = 1 − d
k > kcritical → CCM

k = kcritical → CCM − DCM
k < k critical → DCM
If R reduce R, k increases, so we enter direct conduction way, which is

logical because more current may be required.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3 LABORATORY PRACTICES
We recommend calibrating all sensors before performing the practical

exercises. To do this calibration read the annex “calibration sensor process”.
Calibration should be carried out at least once a year.
Note: In this manual are shown all the possible practices that can be
carried out. Depending on accessories you have been acquired you will be able
to carry out more or less practices.
7.3.1 Practice 1: Single phase half-wave rectifier with R load
7.3.1.1 Material Required
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− RCL3B Load module
− 12 Wires
7.3.1.2 Practices development
Resistive load
1. Carry out the assembly shown in the following figure, figure 3.1.1.
Sample the following parameters as follows:
Signals Conditionings
Input voltage V1
PRACTICES MANUAL
Output voltage V2
Output current I2
Diode voltage V3
Table 3.1.1
2. Load in the computer the SACED TECNEL program and, within it, the
window corresponding to this practice (the procedure has been
explained in the software manual, M4).
§ Select Practice Option
§ “Single-Phase uncontrolled rectifier” option
§ “Half-wave” option
§ Select the V1, V2 and V3 voltage sensors and I2 current

sensor
3. Check the connections and switch on the equipment.
4. Press the “Data Capture” button.
5. Visualize the parameters measured and save them in the corresponding

file.
6. Switch off the equipment.
7.3.1.3 Questions
C.1. Calculate the output voltage average and efficient values.
C.2. Obtain the voltage in the diode and obtain the maximum inverse
voltage that it supports.
PRACTICES MANUAL
C.3. Obtain the output current average and efficient values.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.2 Practice 2: Single phase half-wave rectifier with R-L load
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− RCL3R Load module
− 13-Wires.
7.3.2.2 Practice development
1. Carry out the assembly shown in figure 3.2.1.
2. Select the sensors shown in the following table.
Signal Sensor
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Diode voltage V3
Output current (load) I2
3. Load in the computer the SACED TECNEL program and, in it, the
window corresponding to this practice (the procedure has been explained
in the software manual, M4).
PRACTICES MANUAL
§ Select the V1, V2 and V3 voltage sensors and I2 current

sensor
3. Check that the assembly is correct.
4. Visualize the output voltage at the rectifier, the input voltage and the
output current and save it in the PC.
5. Observe how the conduction angle increases as we increase L (0 to

236mH) with R=350Ω, measuring with the voltmeter the average
output voltage. Observe how the output current varies for different L
values with R=300Ω. Save the different samples.
6. . Switch off the equipment.
7.3.2.3 Questions
C.1. Calculate, theoretically, the power consumption in a coil. Calculate

the power dissipated by the coil using the data obtained in the
practice.
Reason why the conduction angle increases and the average output
voltage decreases.
C.2. Deduce the voltage that supports the diode.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.3 Practice 3: Single-phase half-wave rectifier with R-L load with free
wheeling diode (FWD)
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− 14-Wires.
1. Carry out the assembly shown in figure 3.3.1, being very careful with
its adequate connections.
2. Select the following sensors

Signals Conditionings
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Output current I1
FWD Current I2
Table 3.3.1
3. Load in the computer the program SACED TECNEL and, within it, the
explained in the M4 software manual).

PRACTICES MANUAL
§ Select the V1, V2 voltage sensors and I1 and I2 as

current sensor
5. Select the signals to be visualized and activate “Capture Data”.
6. Visualize the input and output voltage and save both.
7. Change the values of L and save the different output voltages and output
currents.
7.3.3.3 Questions
C.1. Visualize the output voltage and compare it with the output voltage
with the R load. Why there is no negative peak in the output voltage?
C.2. Obtain the output voltage average and efficient values. Observe the
waving decrement in the wave form. What happens if the resistive
part of the load decreases?
C.3. Establish the conduction stages of the FWD
7.3.4 Practice 4: Single-phase full-wave rectifier
7.3.4.1 Objectives
− Visualization, measure and analysis of the different voltages and

PRACTICES MANUAL
currents appearing in the bridge rectifier at the output as well as in the

semi-conductors.
− Visualization and analysis of commutation time in the diodes.
− Study the influence of different loads in the rectifier operation.
− R Load.
− R-L Load.
− Introduce the student to the single-phase bridges operation.
7.3.4.2 Required material
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− 22-Wires.
1. Carry out the B2U assembly, as shown in figure 3.4.1.
2. Select the following sensors:
Signal Sensor
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Diode voltage D1 V3
PRACTICES MANUAL
Diode voltage D3 V4
Input current I1
Output current I2
3. Load in the computer the SACED TECNEL program and, within it, the
§ “Full-wave” option
§ Select the V1, V2, V3 and V4 voltage sensors and I1 and

I2 as current sensor
4. Load in the computer the window that corresponds to this practice.
5. Check that the connections are correct and switch on the equipment.
6. Select the signals to be visualized and activate the “Capture Data”.
7. Select the 300 Ω as minimum value for resistive load.
8. Visualize and analyze the output voltage determining its average value.
Check it with the voltmeter.
9. Obtain the voltage in one of the diodes checking the maximum inverse
peak voltage that it supports.
10. Analyze the output current at the rectifier and deduce the current
through the diode.
PRACTICES MANUAL
11. Once the previous observations are done, switch off the equipment.
1. Include in the previous circuit the inductive shock, as shown in figure

3.4.2
2. Carry out the operations described in steps 2 to 5 and set the rheostat at
a value R = 300Ω and L =236 mH.
3. Visualize the output voltage, deduce the effect that the inductive load
has in the voltage. Should a negative voltage peak appear if the current
delays?
4. Use different inductive shock takes and check that if L increases, the
current waves of the output current decreases. What influence does this
have in the average and efficient current?
5. Switch off the equipment and disconnect the wires.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.5 Practice 5: Three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier
7.3.5.1 Objectives
− Introduce the student into this rectifier operation.
− Visualize, measure and analysis of the different voltages and currents

that appear in the rectifier: voltage and output current, voltage and
current in the diodes, etc.
− Visualization and analysis of the conduction time in diodes.
− Study of the different loads. Influence in the rectifier operation with

pure resistive to R-L loads.
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− Load module RCL3R
− 19 Wires.
1. Carry out the assembly denominated B3U, shown as figure 3.5.1.

PRACTICES MANUAL
Signal Sensor
· Input voltage VR V1
· Input voltage VS V2
· Input voltage VT V3
· Output voltage V4
· Output current I2
Table 3.5.1
3. Load in the computer the program SACED TECNEL and, in it, the
window that corresponds to this practice (the procedure has been
§ “Three-Phase uncontrolled rectifier” option
4. Select the V1, V2, V3 and V4 voltage sensors and I1 and I2 as current
sensors
6. Visualize and analyze the input voltage. Calculate the average and
efficient value and check these values using a voltmeter.
7. Visualize the output voltage and determining its average voltage. Check
the result using a voltmeter. Deduce the maximum inverse voltage that
supports the diode.
8. Obtain the average and efficient value of the output current.
9. Study and visualize which will be the effect of inverting the polarization
of the three diodes.
PRACTICES MANUAL
10. Suppose that, due to an over-voltage, one of the diodes is in open

circuit. Study and visualize what effect provokes the output voltage.
7.3.5.4 Load R-L
1. Include in the previous circuit the inductive shock, as shown figure

3.5.2. To make this circuit is necessary to use two more wires.
2. Observe how the output current and voltage varies in one of the diodes
for different values of L when the R is fixed at 350Ω. See the power to
be dissipated in the rheostat and calculate the minimum value that
limits its power. Use a slightly higher value. You may reason the values
obtained.
3. Switch off the equipment and disassemble the circuit.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.6 Practice 6: Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier
7.3.6.1 Objectives
− Visualize, measure and analysis of the different voltages and currents

appearing at the rectifier output and in the semi-conductors.
− Visualization of the commutation time of the diodes.
− Analyze the influence of the different loads (R load and R-L load).
7.3.6.2 Required material
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− 22-Wires.
1. Carry out the B6UK assembly (figure 3.6.1), as shown on the lower side
of the equipment, being very careful with the connections as they are
shown on the sketch. In this experiment is necessary to use 300 Ω as
minimum value of the resistive load. Take into account that the three-
phase full-wave rectifier rectifies the line voltage and, probably, it will
be necessary to include series resistors with the rheostat.
PRACTICES MANUAL
3. Load the SACED TECNEL program in the computer and, within it,
the window that corresponds to this practice (the procedure has been
§ “Three-Phase uncontrolled rectifier” option
2. “Full-wave” option
3. Select the following sensors.
Signal Sensor
Phase-phase voltage VRS V1
Output voltage V2
Voltage in D1 V3
Output current I1
Table 3.6.1
4. Once the connections are checked, apply power to the equipment and
carry out the “Capture Data” from the SACED-TECNEL software.
5. Visualize the output voltage, determining its average value. Check it

with the voltmeter.
6. Visualize the voltage in one of the diodes and deduce the maximum
inverse voltage that it may support. Which will be the conduction
sequence of the pairs of diodes?
7. Analyze the output current for a secure resistor value in function of the
power that the available resistors can dissipate.
8. Once the previous measures have been taken, switch off the equipment.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.6.4 Inductive load
1. Modify the previous circuit and include the series inductance with the
resistive load (figure 3.6.2).
2. Carry out the operations described in sections 2 to 4 with L = 236mH

and R fixed (300Ω).
3. Visualize the output voltage and the current. Check the current delay
and measure its average and efficient value using the voltmeter. Vary L
and measure again the average and efficient current value. Check the
variation of the current waves.
4. Switch off the equipment and disassemble the equipment.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.7 Practice 7: Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier
7.3.7.1 Objectives
− Familiarize the student with thyristor operation.
− Visualizing, measuring and analyzing different voltages and currents

appearing in the rectifier. Such as input and output currents and
voltages and voltages and currents in thyristors.
− Visualization and analysis of conduction time in thyristors.
− Study the influence of different loads in the rectifier operation for pure
resistive loads as well as for combined R-L loads.
− Study and comprehension of the effects of introducing a free-wheeling

diode in the system.
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− 14 Wires.
1. Carry out the E1CK assembly (figure 3.7.1) as shown in the figure on
PRACTICES MANUAL
the lower side of the equipment.
Signal Sensor
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Input current I1
Output current I2
Voltage in the thyristor V3
Table 3.7.1
3. Load the SACED TECNEL program in the computer and, within it, the
§ “Three-Phase controlled rectifier” option
§ “Half wave” option
3. Check the connections. In this experiment is necessary to use 300 Ω as

minimum value for the resistive load.
4. Select the signals to be visualized and activate “Capture Data”.
5. Visualize the input voltage and calculate its average and efficient
voltage. Check the values using a voltmeter.
6. Visualize the output voltage determining its average voltage. Check the
result using a voltmeter. Obtain the voltage at the thyristor and deduce
the maximum inverse voltage that it can support.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7. Obtain the average and efficient value of the output current.
8. Repeat the previous steps for different values of R, considering the

minimum value required for not surpassing the maximum current
through the rheostat.
9. Represent graphically the Voutput value in function of α.
10. Switch off the equipment
7.3.7.3.2 R-L Combined load
1. Add to the circuit the series inductive shock with the series resistive
load and thus obtain inductive load (figure 3.7.2).
2. Select the following sensor:

Signal Sensor
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
FWD current I1
Output current I2
Table 3.7.2
3. Visualize the output voltage. Analyzing this voltage, represent the wave
form of the voltage in the power pole.
4. Study how an increment of L affects the conduction angle and the

average voltage value of the rectified voltage. Is it possible to obtain a
negative output voltage?
5. Observe how the output voltage varies for different L values and
PRACTICES MANUAL
different triggering angles. What happens if we trigger with an α angle

smaller than the delay angle of the ϕ current?
7.3.7.3.3 Combined load R-L with FWD.
1. Include in the previous assembly the FWD in anti-parallel with the load
(figure 3.7.3). Check that the connections are correct because there
may be risks of provoking a short-circuit in the supply.
2. Visualize the output voltage and the current through the FWD.
3. Visualize the input current.
4. Study how an increment of L may affect the average value of the output
voltage and the current wave.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.8 Practice 8: Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier
7.3.8.1 Objectives
− Visualization, measuring and analysis of the different voltages and

currents appearing in the rectifier, output currents and voltage, and
semi-conductor currents.
− Visualization and analysis of the conduction times in the thyristors.
− Study of the influence of the different loads in the rectifier operation.
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− 19 Wires
1. Assemble the circuit shown in figure 3.8.1.

PRACTICES MANUAL
Signal Sensor
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Input current I1
Output current I2
Voltage in T1 V4
Table 3.8.1
3. Load the SACED-TECNEL.
4. Select the practice option in the main menu.
5. Select the “Rectifiers” options and select the “Controlled Rectifiers”à

“Single-phase” and select “full-wave” option.
6. Once the connections are checked switch on the equipment and click
“Capture Data” button.
7. Obtain and analyze the output voltage, determining its characteristic

values for different values of α.
8. Analyze the output current in the thyristors for different α values.
9. Study the value in which α triggering angle has a negative voltage.

Calculate the value theoretically, verifying it with the equipment.
10. Which is the triggering angle “α” where the average output voltage is
zero?
11. Observe how as |cos(α)| decreases, the rectified voltage increases.
7.3.8.3.2 R-L Load.

PRACTICES MANUAL
1. Modify the circuit previously assembled to obtain inductive load (figure

3.8.2).
2. Repeat steps 2 to 6 of the former section.
3. Check how an increment of L affects the average output voltage and the
output current wave.
4. From which triggering angle we may obtain a negative voltage ?
5. Visualize the conduction times in the thyristors. Is the triggering angle

modified when the inductive load is introduced?
6. For which α value we may calculate 0 average output voltage?

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.9 Practice 9: Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier with a DC motor.
7.3.9.1 Objectives
− Introducing the student to open-loop direct current motors while

considering the nominal operation characteristics.
− Provide an industrial point of view of power electronics.
− Visualize the most important magnitudes of the rectifier and analyze

them.
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− 22 Wires
− Tachodynamo connector wire.
− DC motor
1. Carry out the assembly shown in figure 3.9.1, connecting the DC motor
to a series resistor with minimum value of 300Ω.
2. Select the following parameters:

PRACTICES MANUAL
Signal Sensors
Motor Voltage V3
Output Voltage V2
Input Current I1
Output Current I2
Table 3.9.1
Connect to the back side of the interface the tachodynamo connector

wire and the other end to the motor.
3. Load in the PC the practice corresponding to the Single-phase full-wave

rectifier with DC motor.
4. Select in the software the sensors formerly specified on table 3.9.1.
5. Check carefully the connections before closing the magnetothermal

switch and switching on the equipment. Data taking may be initialized
whenever you want and modify the angle α.
6. Note: We recommend starting with small downward variations of α.
7. Which triggering angle turns on the motor rotation?
8. Visualize the output voltage and reason its wave form.
9. Compare the output voltage with the current introducing different

triggering angles α and increasing the series resistor with the motor.
10. Set a triggering angle of 180º, and the motor will stop.
11. Now, decrease 5 to 5 the thyristor conduction angle. When does the
motor begin to turn? Consider the nominal characteristics of the DC
PRACTICES MANUAL
motor and do not decrease the triggering angle.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.10 Practice 10: Three-phase full-wave completely controlled
7.3.10.1 Objectives
− Familiarize the students with the behaviour and the use of this type of
rectifiers.

currents appearing in the rectifier, such as output voltages and currents
and output voltages and currents in the semi-conductors devices.
− Visualization and analysis of the thyristors conduction time.
− Study of the influence of the different loads (R and R-L) in the rectifier
operation.
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− RCL3R Load module.
− 24 Wires.
REMEMBER: THE VOLTAGE IN THE RECTIFIER MAY BE VERY

HIGH. ALWAYS SWITCH OFF THE EQUIPMENT BEFORE
PRACTICES MANUAL
DISCONNECTING A WIRE.
1. Carry out the assembly corresponding to this practice (B6C), taking

special care with the correct connection of all the elements (figure
3.10.1).

Signal Sensor
Input Voltage Phase R V1
Input Voltage Phase S V2
Input Voltage Phase T V3
Output voltage V4
Output current I1
Table 3.10.1
3. Load SACED-TECNEL program and select “Rectifiers”à”Controlled

Rectifiers”à”Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers”à”Full-Wave”. In
this screen, select the sensors indicated in table 3.10.1.
4. Once checking that the connection is correct, activate it and click on

“Capture Data” button in the software.
5. Visualize the output voltage determining its average value. Check the
result using a voltmeter.
6. Consider the rectifier output voltage and estimate the minimum value of
R not to overpass its maximum power. For different values of R, from
400Ω, observe the difference between the output currents and voltages.
7. Visualize the voltage in the thyristors and the inverse maximum voltage
PRACTICES MANUAL
that support for different values of α.
8. Analyze the output current in the thyristors for different values of α

sampling with the different current sensors placed in the equipment.
9. Study for which α value a negative average output voltage is obtained.
10. Which α value produces an average output voltage equal to zero?
7.3.10.3.2 R-L Load
1. Modify the former circuit to obtain the circuit corresponding to this

practice, being particularly careful with the correct connection of the
components as shown in figure 3.10.2.
2. Repeat from step 2 to 5 of the previous section.
3. Check how an increment of L affects the average output voltage and to

the wave of the output current.
4. Visualize the conduction times of the thyristors for the same values of α
of point 7 of the previous section. Does the conduction angles change
when inductive loads are introduced?
5. For which triggering angle the average output voltage is 0? Calculate it

theoretically and check the results with those of the practice.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.11 Practice 11: Single-phase semi-controlled rectifier
7.3.11.1 Objectives
− Familiarize the student with the behavior of the semi-controlled

rectifier.

currents appearing in the rectifier, at the output as well as in the semi-
conductors.
− Analyzing and obtaining the conduction time of the thyristors and

diodes.
− Study the influence of different loads (R and R-L loads).
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− 18 Wires
1. Carry out the assembly of the B2HK semi-controlled rectifier with pure
PRACTICES MANUAL
resistive load, see figure 3.11.1.
Signal Sensor
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Voltage in T1 V3
Output current I1
Table 3.11.1
3. Load the window corresponding to the practice; RectifiersàSemi-

controlled rectifiersàSingle-phase full-wave semi-controlled rectifiers.
4. Press the “Capture Data” button.
5. Check that the connections are correct, switch on the equipment,

start the data capture from the PC.
6. Visualize the output voltage, determining its characteristics values for

different values of α.
7. Analyze minutely the voltage in the thyristor T1, you should deduce the
maximum inverse voltage that it can support.
8. Visualize the output current for different α values.
9. Which α value produces a discontinuous current? From which

triggering angle an average output voltage of 10V is obtained?
10. Which triggering angle produces a null average voltage?

PRACTICES MANUAL
1. Modify the former circuit, including the series inductive shock with the
load resistance. To assemble the circuit, see figure 3.11.2.
2. Carry out the operations described in steps 2 to 4, being particularly

careful with the connections.
3. Analyze the output voltage.
4. In this case, which α value may produce an average voltage of 10V?
5. Visualize the output current with a value of L =236mH.
6. Switch off the equipment and disassemble the circuit

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.12Practice 12: Three-phase full-wave semi-controlled rectifier
7.3.12.1 Objectives

currents appearing in the rectifier. We may also study the output
voltage.
− Analyze and obtain thyristors and diodes conduction time.
− Study the influence of the different loads (R and R-L loads).
− Reinforcing your knowledge of rectifiers
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− 24-Wires
REMEMBER THE VOLTAGE OBTAINED IN THE RECTIFIER IS

VERY HIGH. ALWAYS SWITCH OFF THE EQUIPMENT BEFORE
DISCONNECTING A WIRE.
1. Carry out the B6HK assembly as shown in the equipment and make the
circuit following the directions in figure 3.12.1.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Signal Sensor
Voltage Phase-Phase R-S V1
Voltage T1 V2
Voltage D2 V3
Output Voltage V4
Output Current I2
Table 3.12.1
3. Load the corresponding practice in the software, that is,

“Rectifiers”à”Semi-controlled”à”Three-phase Full-wave Semi-
Controlled rectifiers”.
4. Select in this screen the sensors indicated in the table 3.12.1.
5. Analyze, before switching on the equipment, the output voltage that

will be obtained and estimate the value of the resistor set as load in
order not to overpass the rheostat power limit.
6. Once the correct connection may have been checked, activate it and
click on the data taking in the software.
7. For which triggering angle the average output voltage is 0? Calculate it

theoretically and check it experimentally.
8. Visualize the magnitudes and draw a graph with all the aconduction
state of diodes and thyristors.
7.3.12.4 RL-Load
10. Include the series inductive shock and analyze the most significant
PRACTICES MANUAL
wave forms, output voltage, input and output currents, etc.
11. In order to make the calculations of point 10, assemble the circuit as
shown in figure 3.12.2.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.13 Practice 13:Chopper
7.3.13.1 Objectives
− Introduce the student to the operation of direct regulators.
− Study, measure and analysis of the voltages and currents that appear in
the chopper.
− Studying the influence of different loads (resistive and inductive load).
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− Wires
1. Carry out the assembly corresponding to this practice shown in figure

3.13.1.

Signals Sensors
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Input current I1
Output current I2
Table 3.13.1
PRACTICES MANUAL
3. Load in the PC the corresponding practice, “DC to DC

converters”à”Chopper”.
4. Introduce 500 Hz as frequency and 50% as duty cycle.
5. Check that the connections are correct and switch on the equipment.
Take special care to set the load in a value according to the power that
will dissipate.
6. Obtain and analyze the output voltage, determine its average value and
check it with the voltmeter. Analyze how R variations affect the output
voltage.
7. Obtain and analyze the output current and determine its average value.
8. Analyze how a variation of R affects on the average and maximum

value, being particularly careful of not surpassing the power
maximum, which will destroy the rheostat.
9. Deduce the maximum voltage that will support the switch (IGBT).
10. Visualize the current in the diode. Which will be the maximum inverse
voltage that it will support?
11. Modify the duty cycle and analyze now the modifications that the
voltage and the average current experience on the load. In order to do
so, maintain L and R fixed. In which triggering percentage is the buck
in the medium mode MCD-MCC?
13. Include in parallel with the load (R = 300Ω) a condenser of maximum

PRACTICES MANUAL
value 110µF/350V, observe the voltage and the output current. Find out
the frequency and the triggering percentage that make the buck enter
into MCD.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.14 Practice 14: Single-phase square-wave inverter
7.3.14.1 Objectives
− Fully study the operation of a DC/AC converter in a square-wave

single-phase assembly so the student may familiarize with the
foundations of converters.
− Visualize the physical magnitudes in the input and output converters.
− Study the influence of different loads connected at the output.
− Analyze the wave forms appearing and deduce the triggers required.
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− 23 Wires
1. Assemble circuit B2CI shown on the lower part of the equipment with
load R. Use as direct supply the three-phase net rectified with the
diodes (half-wave rectifier) M3UK and filtering with both condensers
supplied.
2. Load in your PC the window corresponding to the practice;

PRACTICES MANUAL
“Inverters”à”Single-Phase”à”Square Wave”

Signals Sensors
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Input current I1
Output current I2
Table 3.14.1
4. Introduce the triggering frequency (f: 15 to 500Hz).
5. Check the connections carefully, point by point, switching on the

equipment when the circuit may be properly assembled. Start the data
capture from the PC.
6. Visualize the voltage and the output current.
7. Visualize the input current, verifying the filter operation

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.15Practice 15: Single-phase displaced-phase inverter
7.3.15.1 Objectives
1. Integral Study of the operation of the DC/AC converter in a single-

phase assembly of square-wave.
2. Introduce the student to the problems of width control in inverters.
3. Visualize the most significant magnitudes of the converter.
4. Study the converter behavior with different loads at the output.
5. Complete the study of square-wave inverters.
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− 25-Wires
1. Assemble circuit B2CI shown in the lower part of the equipment as load
R. Use as direct supply the three-phase net rectified with the diodes
(half-wave rectifier) M3UK and filtering with both condensers supplied.
2. Load in the PC the window corresponding to the practice;

“Inverters”à”Single-Phase”à”Delayed Wave”
PRACTICES MANUAL

Signals Sensors
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Input current I1
Output current I2
Table 3.15.1
Introduce the triggering frequency (f: 15 to 490Hz).
3. Check the assembly may have been properly done.
4. Begin introducing an angle of 180º as out of phase, reduce it little by

little. Carry out consecutive data takings and visualize the output
voltage.
5. When you introduce a α = 170º as out of phase angle. What is the

average value? When you introduce α = 30, What is the average data?
6. Switch off the equipment, although you may not disconnect the wires.
7.3.15.4 R-L load
7. Include the inductive shock in the load and introduce different

displacement angles. Visualize the output current and deduce through
which semi-conductor circulates the current in each experiment.
8. Make a diagram with the triggering wave forms in each of the IGBT.
Where would you introduce a “time out” to avoid a cut in the branch?
9. Switch off the equipment and disconnect the assembly being

particularly careful with the condenser.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.16 Practice 16: Single-phase inverter. PWM control
7.3.16.1 Objectives
− Integral study of the operation of single-phase DC/AC converters,

completing the previous assemblies
− Visualizing and analyzing the most representative magnitudes of the

converter.
− Analyzing the wave forms for different operation modes.
− Establishing real bases in inverse bridges control.
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− 25 Wires
1. Carry out the assembly of figure B2C as shown on the lower part of the
equipment. The inverse circuit can be fed by the three-phase net
rectification with, for instance, a thyristor bridge with input VR and N.
Connect, in series, a resistor load of 450Ω as minimum value.
2. Run SACED-TECNEL program in the PC and select the corresponding

practice, that is, “Inverter”à”Single-Phase”à”PWM control”.
PRACTICES MANUAL

Signals Sensors
Input voltage V1
Output voltage V2
Input current I1
Output current I2
4. Introduce an operation frequency (2-45Hz).
5. Check, carefully, the connections, close the magnetothermal switch and

switch on the equipment.
6. Introduce a low output frequency and carry out the Capture Data from
the PC visualizing the transistor voltage in the same branch. Is there
simultaneous conduction at any time?
7. Switch off the equipment and introduce series inductive shock with the
load. Visualize the input and output voltage and deduce the current
through each of the semi-conductors.
8. Carry out several assemblies with different values of L and the R fixed
in 450Ω. Analyze how the increment of the inductive load affects the
inverter operation in its transistors as well as diodes in counter-parallel.
9. Switch off the equipment and disconnect the circuit.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.17 Practice 17: Three-phase inverter. PWM control with R load and R-L
load
7.3.17.1 Objectives
− Integral Study of the operation of single-phase DC/AC converters, completing the

former assemblies.
− Visualize and analyze the most representative magnitudes of the converter.
− Establish real bases in the control with inverse bridges.
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− 19 Wires.
1. Carry out the assembly of B6CI figure as shown on the lower part of the
equipment. The three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier, M3UK circuit, must
feed the inverter circuit. A capacitor also may be connected to the inverter input to
stabilize the output voltage. The load will be three resistance of value 300 Ω
connected in start configuration. This diagram connection is shown on figure
3.17.1.
PRACTICES MANUAL
2. Load the SACED-TECNEL program and select: “Inverter”à “Three-

phase”à”PWM control”

Signals Sensors
R-N output voltage V1
S-N output voltage V2
T-N output current V3
Input Voltage V4
5. Check, carefully, the connections, close the magnetothermal switch and switch on
the equipment.
6. Visualize the output voltage for different phase in function of the resistance
values.
7.3.17.4 PWM control with R-L load
8. Assemble B6CI figure as shown on the lower part of the equipment. The three-
phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier, M3UK circuit, must feed the inverter
circuit. A capacitor also may be connected to the inverter input to stabilize the
output voltage. The load will be three sets of resistance in series with inductance
of value 300 Ω and 140 mH, respectively. Both sets must be connected in start
configuration. See the circuit 3.18.2
9. Load the SACED-TECNEL program and select: “Inverter”à “Three-

phase”à”PWM control”
PRACTICES MANUAL

Signals Sensors
R-N output voltage V1
S-N output voltage V2
T-N output current V3
Input Voltage V4
12. Check the connections carefully, close the magnetothermal switch and switch on
the equipment.
13. Visualize the output voltage for different phase in function of the resistance
values.
Switch off the equipment and disconnect the circuit.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.18 Practice 18: Three-phase inverter. PWM control with AC motor.
7.3.18.1 Objectives
− Integral Study of the operation of single-phase DC/AC converters, completing the

former assemblies.
− Visualize and analyze the most representative magnitudes of the converter and a
typical AC motor.
− Analyze the motor speed for different operation modes.
− Establish real bases in the control with inverse bridges.
− SACED TECNEL.
− TECNEL.
− 22 Wires
− AC motor connected in STAR.
1. Carry out the assembly of B6CI figure as shown on the lower part of the
equipment. The three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier, M3UK circuit, must
feed the inverter circuit. A capacitor also may be connected in the input of the
inverter to stabilize the output voltage. The load will be three resistance of value
PRACTICES MANUAL
300 Ω connected in start configuration. This diagram connection is shown in the

figure 3.18.1.
2. Load in the PC the practice corresponding to the PWM control three phase
inverter and introduce an operation frequency (15-40Hz). For frequencies greater
than 40 Hz, you may have synchronization problems. This might stop the motor
completely. In such cases, use the “STOP” button and try again. Finally, take into
account the out of the inverter has some harmonics. These harmonics can produce
some variations on the movement, depending on the value of the frequency you
adjust.
3. Check, carefully, the connections, close the magnetothermal switch and switch on
the equipment.
4. Visualize the motor speed regulation.
5. Turn up the frequency gradually and see the motor speed at its maximum value.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.19 Practice 19: Alternating regulators: R and R-L load
7.3.19.1 Objectives
− Introduce the student to the operation of the alternating regulator

currents appearing in the regulator
− Study the influence of different loads in the regulator operation
− SACED TECNEL
− TECNEL
− Wires
1. Carry out the assembly W1C with resistive load (R= 300Ω) shown on
the lower part of the equipment. See figure 3.19.1.
Signals Sensor
Input V1
Output V2
Output I1
Table 3.17.1
3. Load in the PC and select the options: “AC regulators”.

PRACTICES MANUAL
4. Once the connections are checked, close the magnetothermal switch,

switch on the equipment and initiate the data capture.
5. Visualize the output voltage for different α, determining its efficient

value. Check with the voltmeter.
6. Visualize the voltage that supports T1 and deduce the one that supports
T2.
7.3.19.4 R-L Load
8. Modify the circuit including the inductive shock to obtain R-L load.
9. Visualize the regulator output voltage and, then, deduce and represent
the wave form of the current going through each thyristor.
10. Take different data samples for different triggering angles different
values of L. How does an increment of L affect the output current?
What about the voltage?
Switch off the equipment and disconnect the power before disassembling the circuit.
PRACTICES MANUAL
APPENDIX B: Connections for the practices
P1 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE, R

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P2 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE, RL

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P3 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE, RL

LOAD WITH DLC
PRACTICES MANUAL
P4-1 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE
R LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P4-2 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE,

RL LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P5-1 THREE PHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE,

R LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P5-2 THREE PHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE,

RL LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P6-1 THREE PHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE,

R LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P6-2 THREE PHASE RECTIFIER, UNCONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE,

RL LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P7-1 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE, R

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P7-2 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE, RL

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P7-3 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, HALF-WAVE, R

LOAD WITH DLC
PRACTICES MANUAL
P8-1 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE, R

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P8-2 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE, RL

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P9 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE, DC

MOTOR
PRACTICES MANUAL
P10-1 THREE-PHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE, R

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P10-2 THREE-PHASE RECTIFIER, CONTROLLED, FULL-WAVE, RL

LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P11-1 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, SEMI-CONTROLLED, FULL-

WAVE, R LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P11-2 MONOPHASE RECTIFIER, SEMI-CONTROLLED, FULL

WAVE, RL LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P12-1 THREE PHASE RECTIFIER, SEMI-CONTROLLED, FULL

WAVE, R LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P12-2 THREE-PHASE RECTIFIER, SEMI-CONTROLLED, FULL

WAVE, RL LOAD
PRACTICES MANUAL
P13 CHOPPER
PRACTICES MANUAL
P14,15,16-1 MONOPHASE INVERTER WITH R LOAD

PRACTICES MANUAL
P14,15,16-2 MONOPHASE INVERTER WITH RL LOAD

PRACTICES MANUAL
P17-1 THREE-PHASE INVERTER, PWM CONTROL WITH R LOAD

PRACTICES MANUAL
P17-2 THREE-PHASE INVERTER, PWM CONTROL WITH RL LOAD

PRACTICES MANUAL
P18 THREE-PHASE INVERTER, PWM CONTROL WITH AC MOTOR

PRACTICES MANUAL
P19-1 REGULATOR WITH R LOAD

PRACTICES MANUAL
P19-2 REGULATOR WITH RL LOAD

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.6 APPENDIX A: CONSIDERATIONS WITH DC MOTOR
To obtain the proper working of the DC motor, do the following:
1. Connect to the rotor a serial variable resistor.
2. Adjust the value of the variable resistor Rvar = 30 ohm.
3. Load in the PC the practice corresponding to the Single-phase full-wave

rectifier with DC motor.
4. Set up the triggering angle α = 0º.
5. Progressively, decreases the value of the variable resistor to obtain the

maximum current in the rotor.
6. Modify the triggering angle. Check the speed of the motor for different
values of the triggering angle.
Figure shows the circuit we will be mentioning in this practice.

PRACTICES MANUAL
7.7 APPENDIX B: CONSIDERATIONS WITH IGBTS
If you do not see a proper working of practices with IGBTs involved,

restart the equipment and the problem will be fixed.

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PRACTICES MANUAL

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 1/159

PRACTICES MANUAL .................................................................................................................... 3

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 2/159

TO OBTAIN THE PROPER WORKING OF THE EQUIPMENT, SEE

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 3/159

7.1.1 Equipment description

The equipment has the following interface:

Figure 1.1.1: Equipment Interface

The SACED-TECNEL system is a Data Acquisition and Control System

The different configuration levels allow the instructor to design virtually

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 4/159

NOTE: The equipment is provided with two switches: a magnetic

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 5/159

7.2 THEORETICAL BASIS

7.2.1 Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers

Uncontrolled rectifiers are constituted by diodes that, as uncontrolled

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 6/159

To calculate the diode voltages and currents we should know that:

In figure 1.1, the single-phase half-wave rectifier is shown. It is the most

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 7/159

7.2.1.1 INFLUENCES OF LOAD TYPE

7.2.1.1.1 Resistive load

The input voltage is:

And the current will have a value:

The average value of the output wave will be:

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 8/159

The effective value will be calculated as follows:

If we repeat the same process for the currents, we will obtain:

The voltage in the diode will be:

Vdiode = Vinput − Voutput

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 9/159

7.2.1.2 R-L load

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 10/159

When we observe the waveforms of figure 1.3, we should notice the

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 11/159

Now the average value of the output voltage will be:

Vaverage V (1 − cos( wt1 )

In this load type, the rectifier works in discontinuous conduction. The

7.2.1.3 R-L load with Free wheeling Diode

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 12/159

− when the input voltage is inverted, a peak of negative voltage appears in

These two effects may be eliminated, as well as the reduction of the

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 13/159

7.2.2 Single-phase full-wave rectifier

The full-wave rectifiers can be presented in two ways:

− By a center-tap transformer (Figure 2.1).

− By a Graetz bridge (Figure 2.2).

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 14/159

The operation of the bridge circuit works as follows:

− The D1 and D4 diodes conduct when VR–VS is positive.

− The D2 and D3 diodes conduct when VR–VS is positive.

The fundamental pulsation of the output voltage is 2ω , where ω is the

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 15/159

determined by the load.

The average and effective voltage in the output will be:

And as we know the trigonometric relationship:

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 16/159

Therefore, the full-wave rectifier generates an average voltage value that

Vdiode = Vinput − Voutput

We must emphasize that the voltage blocking each non-conducting diode

We can choose between a phase-neuter or a phase-phase input. We may

Unit Ref.: TECNEL Date: June 2008 Pg: 17/159

Vinput = 3V ·sin ( wt)