Proceedings of the Institution of

Civil Engineers
Bridge Engineering 157
June 2004 Issue BE2
Pages 93^102

Paper 13601
Received 08/12/2003
Accepted 14/04/2004

Keywords:
Ronaldo C. Battista Miche'le S. Pfeil
bridges/steel structures/stress
Titular Professor at Adjunct Professor at
analysis/fatigue cracks
COPPE
Civil Engineering, COPPE
Civil Engineering,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Strengthening fatigue-cracked steel bridge decks

R. C. Battista and M. S. Pfeil
In slender orthotropic decks of steel bridges, the dynamic
interaction between vehicle tyres on flexible asphaltic
pavement and the deck structure plays an important role
on stress amplitudes. This involved interaction mechan-
ism is brought into the discussion on the main causes of
the pavement disruption and of the observed cracks in a
large steel bridge, which has been frequently damaged by
fatigue cracks in welded joints and geometric details
under random stresses produced by traffic loading.
Numerical modelling and experimental strain measure-
ments performed both in situ and in the laboratory on a
prototype scale model of the actual steel deck. Proposed
solutions include adding a reinforced concrete pavement,
either as a sandwich structure with a visco-elastic layer in
between the steel plate and the concrete slab, or as a
composite deck formed by fixing the concrete slab to the
steel plate with stud connectors. It is shown that visco-
damping and composite stiffness properties led to sub-
stantial reduction of both longitudinal and transverse
bending stresses, enhancing the fatigue performance of
these bridge decks.
NOTATION
E1 storage modulus of the visco-elastic material
E2 loss modulus of the visco-elastic matter
F longitudinal stress resultant
Li strain gauge installed in the longitudinal (L)
direction on the lower flange of the ith
trapezoidal rib
M bending moment
Ti strain gauge number i installed in the
transverse (T) direction underneath the deck
plate or on the webs of the trapezoidal ribs.
Z E2/E1 loss factor
a, b (subscripts) points at the deck top plate
r (subscript) rib
1. INTRODUCTION
Slender steel orthotropic decks having thin-walled longitudinal
stiffeners of trapezoidal cross-section are very common struc-
tural components often found in steel box-girders of highway
bridges, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 1. It refers to the
slender stretches of the orthotropic deck of the Rio-Niteroi
Bridge which has been, under stochastic traffic loading,
frequently damaged by fatigue cracks in the welded joints and
geometric details. Traffic on this bridge, which was brought
into service in 1974, has increased (see Fig. 2) at an average
rate of 8·7%,1 well beyond the initial 1·5 to 3·0% rate estimate,2
and has now reached over 50 000 vehicles per day one way,
with almost 15% of these being heavy vehicles. Fig. 3 displays
histograms of frequency of heavy vehicles per number of axles
in two periods of time since the beginning of service life. These
figures reveal the following traffic changes over the years: a
decrease in frequency of two-axle buses and trucks and a clear
increase for buses and trucks with three and trucks with five
axles.
With regard to the service life of the flexible pavement itself
the multi-mode vibration characteristic of these structures1 has
a deleterious effect on the performance of the asphaltic
concrete and its adhesive layer to the steel plate, leading to
premature fatigue damage and disruption of the pavement.
Its service life was often reduced to less than six
months.
Some other relevant studies reported in the technical litera-
ture3–6 have pointed out several aspects concerning welding
procedures in slender steel orthotropic decks commonly used in
bridge structures in many parts of the world.
To determine the main causes for the observed cracks and their
relationship with pavement disruption and traffic loading, a
team of researchers and engineers from COPPE’s laboratory for
testing structures and materials conducted a series of experi-
mental strain measurements during in situ campaigns1 and on a
prototype scale model (i.e. a model in 1 : 1 geometric scale
factor) of the steel deck.7 Refined numerical results from
parametric studies, obtained with experimentally calibrated
finite-element models of the orthotropic deck, were then used
to better understand the static and dynamic behaviour and
sensitivity of this structural component, which is subjected to
heavy vehicle loading.8–10 Two welded joint details in which
cracks occurred first and more frequently were considered:
(a) the connection between deck plate and the rib web; and
(b) the transverse splice of ribs with welded splice plates. With a
better insight into the specific problems, gained with the
experimental and theoretical data collected, the prototype
scale physical model was used to develop new solutions
to strengthen the fatigue cracked slender steel deck by
adding a reinforced concrete composite layer and, as a result,
enhance its ultimate fatigue life as well as that of its
pavement.

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 the peak amplitudes associ-
2920 6860 mm 3170 ated with the passage of each
327 327
Wheel tyres of the three wheel axles of
Dimensions: mm the truck under controlled
Pavement speed (60 km/h) and weight
Floor beams 10
T22 Fillet
(200 kN) can be seen. What
every 5 m 8 250
T23T24 shop can be readily observed in
weld
Web Box bracing 1:3 L8 L9 these figures is the sharp
Transverse Longitudinal
strain gauges strain gauges effect of the wheels on the
(a) (b) resultant stresses. These local
stresses resulting from the
interaction between pneu-
matic tyres, flexible asphaltic
pavement and the thin-walled
Transverse field
Splice plates weld joint steel structure, particularly
1.0 m Floor-beam those related to transverse
5.0 m
bending moments, are most
sensitive to

(c)
(a) the transverse location of
the contact area of the
Fig. 1. Steel orthotropic deck of Rio-Niteroi bridge: (a) bridge steel box-girder with
orthotropic deck; (b) detail of slender trapezoidal ribs and deck plate, with typical tyres with respect to the
instrumentation of strain-gauges; (c) longitudinal section of the deck, with transverse welded webs of the ribs; and its
joint and splice dependence on the radius
of the tyres, their hard-
ness and pneumatic pres-
2. ASSESSMENT OF THE STEEL DECK BEHAVIOUR sures and, of course, on the varying wheel axle loading
(b) the roughness, wearing, flaws and overall geometric
2.1. In situ experimental measurements irregularities of the pavement surface, which cause
In situ experimental measurements were of fundamental value dynamic variations of contact area and applied pressure,
for understanding the dynamic behaviour and for estimating and induce amplification of dynamic loading and therefore
the fatigue life of welded joints. Vibration modes and related of local stresses
frequencies were obtained through experimental measurements (c) the multi-mode vibration behaviour, with associated
taken on the actual bridge steel deck, by installing micro- clustered natural frequencies, typical of these easy-exciting
accelerometers underneath it. A typical frequency response slender orthotropic decks (see Fig. 4).
function (FRF) for vertical accelerations is shown in Fig. 4,
which displays a multi-mode behaviour in a large frequency 2.2. Numerical modelling
range with higher density peaks around 25–30 Hz and A finite element model of the orthotropic deck with three
50–70 Hz. The FRF shown was obtained by exciting the deck panels spanning on the transverse floor-beams (Fig. 6(a)) was
structure with an instrumented hammer: a thick steel cylinder initially calibrated in terms of natural frequencies and associ-
with a wooden cushion end weighing 0·5 kN, instrumented with ated modes with experimental results obtained from in situ
strain-gauges and transformed in a dynamic load cell, which measurements. Four node shell elements that combine separate
when dropped from a certain height onto a box with a layer of membrane and plate-bending behaviour were selected to model
sand could produce an adequate impact load having peak value the deck components. Additional refinement was further
around 10 kN. This device,
then called an ‘impactometer’,
is shown in Fig. 8 in a first 7000
Daily average number of heavy

plan view. Toll bridge

6000

In situ experimental strain 5000

vehicles

Actual average rate 8.7%

measurements were carried 4000
out on slender stretches of the
actual steel deck subjected to 3000
Estimated rate at design stage = 1.5%
both normal traffic of heavy 2000
vehicles and a controlled Rate adopted2 for fatigue estimates = 3%
1000
loading given by a three-axle
truck having a known 0
weight.1 Typical stress 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
responses obtained from Years
longitudinal and transverse
measured strains are shown Fig. 2. Increase in daily traffic volume along the service life of the bridge
in Fig. 5(a) and 5(b), in which

94 Bridge Engineering 157 Issue BE2 Strengthening cracked decks using composite layers Battista  Pfeil

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 Fig. 3. Histograms of frequency (%) of heavy vehicles per number of axles

very localised effect of the contact pressure of the wheels on

1.2 the transverse deformed shape is clearly illustrated in Fig. 6(b).
1.0
This same effect can be observed in Fig. 7, which depicts the
FRF: (m/s 2 )/10 kN

influence line of the transverse bending moment at the welded

0.8 connection (point r) of the rib web to the deck plate. It can be
noticed that a transverse shifting as small as 150 mm on the
0.6
contact area location of the wheel loading can raise the
0.4 bending moment, and therefore the resultant transverse stress,
from zero to its maximum absolute value (M M r in Fig. 7).
0.2

0 2.3. Laboratory tests on a prototype scale model

0 20
Fig. 4. Frequency response function for vertical acceleration
at the centre of the actual bridge deck panel with asphaltic
pavement under impact excitation
provided to the finite-element model in the locations in which
the wheel load pressure was to be applied. The wheel load
pressure was considered in two situations, namely soft contact
and hard contact, the latter by simulating the pneumatic
stiffness of the tyres. All analyses were performed with the
SAP2000 program.11
Refined numerical results from parametric studies were then
obtained and used to better understand the behaviour and
sensitivity of the deck when subjected to traffic loading. The
40 60 80 100
In order to have a better understanding of the previously listed
Frequency: Hz
sensitivity effects on local stresses and also to test solutions for
the problem of frequent occurrence of fatigue cracks, an
experimental programmme was carried out7 in which extensive
strain measurements were made on a well-instrumented proto-
type scale model (i.e. a model in 1 : 1 geometric scale factor) of
the actual deck. Fig. 8 shows an upper view of the model
already reinforced with a concrete slab on top of a thin layer of
visco-elastic material, which will be described below. The
model with plan dimensions 10 m wide and 10 m long
represents the portion of the deck between the webs of one
box-girder plus the adjacent cantilever (see Fig. 1(a)) with two
spans between the floor-beams.
The model was fabricated with ASTM A516 G70 steel
( f y ¼ 250 MPa), which has physical and chemical properties
similar to the BS 4360 G43A steel ( f y ¼ 240 MPa), used in a
stretch of the actual bridge deck. The model on the test slab was

30 2

Rear axles 0
20
−2
Stress: MPa
Stress: MPa

Front axle Front axle

−4
10
−6 Rear axles
0 −8
−10
−10 −12
53.0 53.2 53.4 53.6 53.8 54.0 53.6 53.8 54.0
53.0 53.2 53.4
Time: s Time: s

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Typical stress responses at mid-span of the deck panel due to a three-axled truck passing at controlled speed (60 km/h): (a)
longitudinal stress at bottom flange of a rib (L9 on Fig. 1(b)); (b) transverse stress at the rib web to deck plate welded connection
(T24 on Fig. 1(b))

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Z X
k) 5m
Y ec
lf d
(ha
m 5m
. 95
12
Floor-beams
Box-girder web
(a)
Web
Box-girder width
(b)
Fig. 6. (a) Finite element model of the slender orthotropic
deck; (b) local transverse deformation of the orthotropic
deck under wheel loading
Fig. 7. Influence line of the transverse bending moment at
the rib web to deck plate connection (point r)
loaded by a self-equilibrated system in which a twin-axle truck
on top of the model (see Fig. 8) was pulled down by a hydraulic
actuator anchored in the test slab as illustrated in Fig. 9. The
maximum applied front-axle and rear-axle loads were respect-
ively 100 and 150 kN. By applying the loads through an actual
truck the interaction between the thin-walled steel structure,
the pavement and the pneumatic tyres was properly represented
in the tests.
Figure 10 shows a lower view of the steel deck model with the
instrumentation used in the tests. The instrumentation shown
underneath the tyre contact area was composed of several
strain-gauges (see Fig. 1(b)), micro-accelerometers and displa-
cement transducers. Around 70 sensors were used in these tests,
most of which were strain-gauges.
2.4. Comparison between theoretical and experimental
results
Table 1 presents a comparison between theoretical and experi-
mental stresses at the indicated locations and directions in the
96 Bridge Engineering 157 Issue BE2 Strengthening cracked decks using composite layers
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structure (see Fig. 1(b) and 1(c)) obtained respectively from the
numerical model (see Fig. 6) and from tests on the actual deck,
the test being performed under controlled loading of a known
truck crawling along a marked alignment on the pavement
5m within a traffic lane. As can be seen in this table the theoretical
and experimental longitudinal stresses at the bottom flange of
the ribs compare very favourably, whereas the transverse
C
bending stresses show very poor correlations depending on
Box-girder web their actual locations. The latter results show once more the
sensitivity of the transverse bending stresses to some of the
previously cited random factors. With regard to the discrepan-
cies found, which were related to the transverse bending
stresses, it is worth saying that no significant contribution to
C of
bridge either global or local bending stiffness of the deck has been
Web deck found to come from the flexible asphaltic pavement. An
enlargement of the effective contact area to account for
pressure spreading through the pavement thickness is a
frequently employed but not necessarily correct effect con-
tribution. The effect of the hardness of the tyre contact is more
important.
For the experimental measurements made on the prototype
scale model reasonable control was achieved for some of these
factors—at least those associated with the size and location of
the contact area of the tyres of the wheels on the deck plate, in
addition to the rigidity of the tyre contact with the road
surface. By measuring both strains and the initial size and
precise location of the contact areas, together with the variation
of these areas with the progressive deformation of the
pneumatic tyres under increasing applied load, it was possible
to get a better understanding of the local structural behaviour
and a better correlation for the theoretical bending stresses.
Table 2 presents a comparison between theoretical and experi-
mental transverse bending stresses at the locations on the
model of the structure indicated in the enlarged detail in Fig.
11, which also shows the transverse bending moment diagram
obtained from the numerical model.
A better agreement (in comparison with the results shown in
Table 1) between theoretical and experimental results can now
be readily seen in Table 2. It can also be observed in Table 2
that a better correlation is achieved for the hard contact
simulation in comparison with the more traditional soft contact
simulation.
3. FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION
The fatigue life estimation for the welded joints of slender
orthotropic decks is not an easy task because the random local
stresses are sensitive to many factors. The randomness of the
local stresses is only captured during long-term measurement
campaigns on the actual steel deck under normal daily traffic
loading. This is shown in the histograms of stresses illustrated
in Fig. 12(a) and 12(b), respectively for the transverse and
longitudinal stresses generated at welded details by the
corresponding bending actions and vibration characteristics.
Direct comparisons between present1,8,9 and past2 measure-
ments taken around 20 years apart, the latter taken just after
the bridge was open to traffic, are also shown in these figures.
Both measurements were carried out using the traditional and
reliable strain-gauge instrumentation with the same accuracy
and at the same positions. What is noticeable in these figures is
the present greater percentage of lower stresses. This feature
Battista  Pfeil
 were obtained from measure-
ments performed around the
same date (in 1974) just after
the bridge was brought into
service. The intention here
with this straightforward
comparison is twofold: (a) to
show that traffic loading is
less adverse today than it was
in the past, as far as fatigue
problems are concerned—the
hints for that are given in the
previous paragraph; and (b) to
demonstrate the great sensi-
tivity of the transverse bend-
ing stresses (at the rib webs to
deck plate fillet weld with
partial penetration) to the
various random effects men-
tioned previously along with
the remarks made in the
Fig. 8. Upper view of the prototype scale model of the orthotropic deck at COPPE’s introductory paragraph of
Laboratory; the deck already reinforced by a concrete slab on top of a visco-elastic layer
this paper.

It should be observed that

seems to be related to the following attenuating effects that cracks initiated in the welded joints shown in Table 3 were first
have occurred over the years observed in the actual structure approximately within the
elapsed time intervals in years as given in the first line of
(a) reduction of wheel loads and contact pressure, respectively, this table, for estimations1 based on the data collected in
with the increase in number of axles and size of tyres of 1974.2
the heavy vehicles
(b) new and more effective suspension units on the vehicles It should be noted that both measurement data are related to
and the increase in speed of the modern heavy vehicles, relatively new pavement situations and that stresses are
reducing the excitation induced by the wheels rolling on affected by irregularities in the pavement surface. Therefore, in
the rough and uneven surface. the calculations of cumulative damage for estimating fatigue
lives of these details, as given in Table 3, a less conservative
The implications of these changes in the distribution and range multiplier coefficient (= 1·37) was considered to take into
of stress variations on consequent fatigue life estimates are account the increasingly deteriorated conditions of the pave-
remarkable. The large differences found in number of years for ment, according to the impact load factor (ABNT NBR 718813)
a crack to initiate at each of the most relevant welded joint f = 1·4 7 0·7% l = 1·37, for floor-beams spacing l = 5·0 m.
details (fillet welds with partial penetration) are summarised in
Table 3. The results were obtained by applying the Miner– 4. ENHANCING THE FATIGUE LIFE EXPECTANCY OF
Palgren rule for calculating cumulative damage, appropriate THE REPAIRED STRUCTURE
S–N curves12 and by taking either stress histograms as if they To avoid continued and extensive repair work, the peak values
of local random stresses
should be reduced to the
levels required to extend the
2920 6860 mm
service life of the structure.
P applied load
Tyres Loading frame
An important issue is the
Chassis Guide tubes for passing through the loading tie dynamic behaviour of the
deck. Attenuation of the
dynamic amplification effect
1000 mm caused by geometric irregula-
Loading tie
Servo-hydraulic actuator
P rities of the pavement surface
Another load position 1300 mm
Rigid beam to fix actuator can be achieved by improving
modal damping in a broad
Test slab 900 mm
range of the frequency spec-
Anchor ties trum, including high fre-
quencies (i.e. > 20 Hz) as the
Fig. 9. Cross-section of test set-up showing how the load was applied to the structural model associated low amplitude
stress variation makes an im-

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 Fig. 10. Detail of the instrumentation of the prototype model with strain gauges, micro-
accelerometers and displacement transducers

Analysis Stress values (MPa) at strain-gauge locations

L8 L9 T22 T23 T24

Experimental (actual deck) 13 20 8 79 713

Theoretical 11 18 78 748 745

Table 1. Comparison between experimental and theoretical stress values at strain gauge locations indicated in Fig. 1(b); the
experimental results were obtained from tests on the actual steel deck

Analysis Stress values (MPa) at strain-gauge locations (Fig. 11)

T18 T19 T20 T21 T22

Experimental (deck model Figs 8^10) 773 7111 119 779 730

Theoretical Soft contact 776 796 156 799 79

(Fig. 6) Hard contact 773 793 120 775 712

Table 2. Experimental versus theoretical transverse bending stresses for the prototype scale model

portant contribution to the cumulative damage of welded transverse bending moment in the middle of the anisotropic
joints.1,12 panel.

One of the first solutions proposed by the engineers involved
with the present problem was to increase the deck stiffness by
introducing intermediate floor-beams (see Fig. 1) thus reducing
each deck span from 5·0 to 2·5 m. With the aid of the calibrated
numerical model the transverse bending moments and long-
itudinal forces indicated in the enlarged detail of Fig. 11 were
obtained and are shown in Table 4, for rear axle wheel loading
at mid-span in between transverse floor-beams. It can be
readily noted from the results shown in Table 4 that a new
intermediate floor-beam, while reducing longitudinal forces at
the bottom of ribs, does not bring any significant reduction in
It was clear then, that the investigated solution should comply
with and enhance two concurrent properties: bending stiffness
and modal damping, to fulfil the desirable reduction of stresses
to extend the ultimate fatigue life of the welded details A and B
shown in Table 3.
5. STRENGTHENING THE FATIGUE CRACKED
ORTHOTROPIC DECK WITH COMPOSITE LAYERS
Rational solutions have been found by adding to the slender
steel orthotropic deck a reinforced concrete layer in two
alternatives (Fig. 13): (a) a sandwich structure with a visco-

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 Fig. 11. Details of the transverse bending moment distribution and gauge locations on the prototype scale model tested in the
laboratory

Fig. 12. Histograms of stress variations under daily traffic loading: (a) transverse bending stress at toe of fillet weld on rib web;
(b) longitudinal stress on rib flange at toe of fillet weld of the splice plate

Welded joints details (fillet weld)

Welded detail A*
Welded detail B**

Fatigue life: years

Estimatesa for 1974 measurementsb 2 6˝3 8˝7

Estimatesa for 1997 measurementsb 1 10˝6 43˝7
a
Estimation of cumulative damage made from 1975 onwards.
b
Measurements are related to a situation of a relatively new pavement patch.
* SN curve G and **SN curve W12 applied respectively to welded details A and B.

Table 3. Fatigue life estimates for welded details

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 Wheel loading for rear axle at Transverse bending moment: kN m/m Longitudinal force: kN/m
middle span
Ma Mb Mr F8 F9

5˝0 m span 72˝9 2˝8 1˝2 179 492

2˝5 m span 73˝1 2˝6 0˝9 90 351

The effects of tyre hardness and stress concentration at transverse fillet welding were not taken into account in these calculations.

Table 4. Theoretical force resultants at locations shown in Fig. 11 for 5˝0 and 2˝5 m span between transverse floor-beams

Fig. 13. Solutions to enhance the ultimate fatigue life of an orthotropic deck: (a) sandwich deck;
(b) composite deck structure

Longitudinal stresses: MPa Transverse stresses: MPa

L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 T18 T19 T20 T21 T22

Without pavement 69 38 48 135 12 773 7111 119 779 730

Sandwich structure 19 38 68 59 18 71 720 20 728 712
Composite deck 12 20 28 34 10 74 4 8 8 76

Table 5. Experimental results at the locations shown in Fig. 11, obtained for maximum load (150 kN) on rear axle at mid-span

elastic layer between the steel deck plate and a 100 mm thick
concrete slab; and (b) a composite deck formed by a concrete
slab cast directly on the thin steel plate (10 mm thick) and fixed
to it with stud connectors. The visco-elastic layer was 5 mm
thick and had elastic modulus E1
1·0 MPa and loss factor
Z = E2/E1
0·5 in the frequency range 0 to 10 Hz. The concrete
of the slab in both alternatives had characteristic compressive
stress f ck equal to 60 MPa and a double layer of steel bars for
reinforcement. Both arrangements, in which the reinforced
concrete slab itself becomes the proper pavement, were
extensively tested on the prototype scale model and their
performances are briefly discussed herein with the aid of the
experimental results obtained.7–10
Table 5 presents a comparison between experimental stresses at
the locations on the model of the structure indicated in the
enlarged detail in Fig. 11. What can be readily observed with
these experimental results obtained under controlled loading is
the redistribution of stresses resulting from the composite
stiffness properties in comparison with the bare steel deck,
leading everywhere to a substantial reduction of values of both
longitudinal and transverse bending stresses. Major reductions
in static stresses were obtained for the composite deck having a
reinforced concrete slab only 20 mm thicker than its sandwich
counterpart; the increase in thickness being needed to accom-
modate the height of the used connectors.
In situ and laboratory experimental measurements of vibration
modes and related frequencies and modal damping were carried
out on the slender stretches of the steel deck. Although the
composite deck leads to great reductions of static stresses in the
steel structure, it is the sandwich alternative that shows the best
vibration behaviour because of the visco-damping properties of
its intermediate adherent layer. The visco-damping properties
of the sandwich structure yielded results that were equivalent to
those of a new undamaged 70 mm thick flexible asphaltic
pavement on the actual bridge steel deck, for which modal
damping factors were found to range from 3 to 7% of the
critical damping.
Typical frequency spectra of vertical accelerations, obtained
from impact tests on the physical model at the laboratory,
display a multi-mode behaviour in a large frequency range as
seen in Fig. 14, which shows three superimposed spectra: one
for the bare steel deck (without any pavement) and the other
two for the sandwich and composite deck alternatives (Fig. 13).
What can be readily observed is that the visco-elastic layer in
the sandwich alternative damps out all frequency components,
particularly the higher ones which are the most responsible for

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0.8
0.7
Vertical acceleration spectrum: m/s2/Hz Without pavement
Composite deck
0.6
Sandwich pavement
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20
Fig. 14. Vertical acceleration spectra at mid-span of the
orthotropic deck obtained from impact tests performed on
the prototype scale model for distinct pavement alternatives
the premature loss of adherence of the conventional pavements
on the steel top plate of the orthotropic deck.7
One could then expect to face a dilemma in making a decision
between the two alternative solutions, involving questions not
yet fully answered. On the one hand the questions involving
material ageing and loss of original properties of the highly
adherent and shear resistant visco-elastic layer in the sandwich
solution. On the other hand the questions involving the loss of
adherence of the concrete slab to the thin steel plate and also
cracking in this slab caused by shrinkage and excessive
vibrations leading to deleterious effects of corrosion in both
steel reinforcement and thin deck plate. Care should be taken to
avoid a decreasing performance of either of the two composite
layer alternatives as it would at the least lead back to higher
stress variations in the existing welded joints, shortening the
ultimate fatigue life. The more conventional composite solution
was chosen by the bridge authorities and the construction of
the new concrete pavement (having 20% larger weight and
thickness than the original asphaltic layer), covering an area
846 m long by 24 m wide of the bridge steel deck, was
completed between October and December 2001. New in-situ
measurements have been carried out since then and the
performance of this composite deck under heavy traffic loading
and its effect on the global dynamic behaviour of the steel
bridge will be reported in the near future.
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper gives a short general account of the theoretical–
numerical–experimental work that has been performed to better
understand the phenomena of the dynamic interaction between
vehicle tyres–pavement–structure and to develop a rational and
effective solution to the fatigue problems that occur in existing
slender steel orthotropic decks commonly used in bridge
structures in many parts of the world.
It has been shown with the aid of careful experimental
measurements and numerical results from refined finite-
element models that fatigue life estimates of the welded joints
of these structures is not an easy designing task. This is so
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because the amplitudes of stress variations due to the inter-
action between vehicles’ tyres, flexible pavement and the deck
subjected to stochastic traffic loading has strong local and
random characteristics exacerbated by a high sensitivity to
inevitable deviations of certain given values of geometrical and
physical parameters.
From the obtained results it becomes clear that the very slender
deck lacks transverse bending stiffness and proper damping in
all multiple vibration modes with clustered frequencies. Any
alternative remedial measure for reducing crack initiation and
propagation in many welded details of this structure should
comply and satisfy these missing properties.
40 60 80 100
Alternative solutions have been developed and tested on the
Frequency: Hz
prototype scale model. In any of these alternatives a reinforced
concrete slab has been substituted for the flexible asphaltic
pavement in order to attenuate the stress amplitudes and
enhance the ultimate fatigue life of the deck together with the
durability of the new concrete pavement. It has been shown
that although the composite deck (concrete slab fixed to the
steel plate with stud connectors) leads to great reductions of
static stresses in the steel structures, it is the sandwich
alternative (with a visco-elastic layer in between the steel deck
plate and the concrete slab) that shows the best vibration
behaviour.
REFERENCES
1. BATTISTA R. C., PFEIL M. S., ROITMAN N. and MAGLUTA C.
Global Analysis of the Structural Behaviour of the Central
Spans of Rio-Niteroi Bridge. Ponte SA-Concessionaire of
the Rio-Niteroi Bridge, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, 1997,
Contract report COPPETEC ET-150747, 5 vol (in Portu-
guese).
2. OSTAPENKO A., DEPAOLI D. H., DANIELS J. H., O’BRIEN J. E., YEN
B. T., BHATTI M. E. and FISHER J. W. A Study of the Rio-
Niteroi Bridge During Construction and Service. Fritz
Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, USA, 1976,
Final Report No. 397.6.
3. MADDOX S. J. The Behaviour of Trapezoidal Stiffener to
Deck Plate Welds in Orthotropic Bridge Decks. Department
of Environment, Crowthorne, UK, 1974, TRRL Report SR96.
4. WOLCHUK R. Lessons from weld cracks in orthotropic decks
on three European bridges. Journal of Structural Engineer-
ing, ASCE, 1990, 116, No. 1, 75–84.
5. DEXTER R. J. and FISHER J. W. Fatigue cracking of
orthotropic decks. Proceedings of the IABSE Workshop:
Evaluation of Existing Steel and Composite Bridges,
Lausanne, Switzerland, 1997.
6. LEENDERTZ J. S., WEIJDE H. and KOLSTEIN H. Inspection of
bridges with orthotropic decks with particular attention to
fatigue. Proceedings of the IABSE Workshop: Evaluation of
Existing Steel and Composite Bridges, Lausanne, Switzer-
land, 1997.
7. BATTISTA R. C., BATISTA E. M. and PFEIL M. S. Experimental
Tests on a Prototype Scale Model of the Slender Steel
Orthotropic Deck of Rio-Niteroi Bridge. Ponte SA-Con-
cessionaire of the Rio-Niteroi Bridge. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil,
1998, Contract report COPPETEC ET-150771 (in Portu-
guese).
8. BATTISTA R. C. and PFEIL M. S. Fatigue crack induced by
traffic loading on steel bridge’s slender orthotropic decks.
Strengthening cracked decks using composite layers Battista  Pfeil 101
 Proceedings of the International Conference on Computa-
tional Methods and Experimental Measurements CMEM 99,
Sorrento, Italy. WIT Comp. Mech. Publishers, Southampton,
UK, 1999.
9. BATTISTA R. C. and PFEIL M. S. Enhancing the fatigue life of
Rio-Niteroi bridge’s orthotropic steel deck. Proceedings of
the IABSE Symposium, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, 1999, pp.
853–860.
10. BATTISTA R. C. and PFEIL M. S. Strengthening fatigue
cracked orthotropic decks with composite layers. Proceed-
ings of the Structural Stability Research Council—SSRC
2000 Annual Technical Session & Meeting, Memphis,
USA, 2000.
11. COMPUTERS AND STRUCTURES INC. SAP2000 Analysis Refer-
ence. Computers and Structures Inc. California, USA, 1996.
12. GURNEY T. R. Fatigue design rules for welded steel joints.
The Welding Institute Research Bulletin, 1976, 115–124,
13. ABNT. Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas.
NBR7188, 1960—Brazilian Code for Loads on Highway
Bridges (in Portuguese).

Please email, fax or post your discussion contributions to the secretary by 1 December 2004: email: kathleen.hollow@ice.org.uk;
fax: +44 (0)20 7665 2294; or post to Kathleen Hollow, Journals Department, Institution of Civil Engineers, 1^7 Great George Street,
London SW1P 3AA.

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