Water Supply and Sewerage

Theory and Applications

Authors
Prof. Dr. Sajjad H. Sheikh
Prof. Dr Javed A. Aziz

Institute of Environmental Engineering & Research (IEER)

University of Engineering & Technology (UET), Lahore
 Dedicated
to the young Environmental Engineers of
Pakistan
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Sajjad H. Sheikh did his BSc in Civil Engineering, MSc

and PhD in Environmental Engineering from UET, Lahore. He
started his career in 1991 as an environmental engineer in the
Public Health Engineering Department, Punjab. After 10 years of
practical experience in planning, design and construction of water
supply and sewerage projects, he joined UET in 2002. Currently, he
is Professor and Director of Institute of Environmental Engineering
& Research, UET. He has 17 years of teaching and research
experience at under and post graduate levels. He has authored/co-authored 3 books and
more than 60 research publications in international and national journals. Research work is
cited in more than 600 international journals and books. There are more than 14,000
downloads of his research papers worldwide. He has supervised research work of 4 PhD
and more than 30 MSc students, and also engaged as reviewer with 12 international
journals. Provided advisory/consulting services to various local and international
organizations including World Bank, Asian Development Bank, USAID, UNICEF and
KOICA and undertaken 80 advisory/consulting assignments during his professional career.

Prof. Dr. Javed A. Aziz did BSc Civil Engineering in 1966

from UET, Lahore, MSc Environmental Engineering in 1969 from
AIT, Bangkok and PhD Environmental Engineering in 1978 from
University of Birmingham, UK. He has served as Professor and
Director, Institute of Environmental Engineering & Research and
Dean, Faculty of Civil Engineering in UET, Lahore. Currently, he is
serving in University of Central Punjab, Lahore as Professor of
Environmental Engineering. He holds 49 years of teaching and
research experience at under and post graduate levels and has authored 85 research
papers in national and international journals. He has worked as consultant/advisor to
various local and international organizations including WHO, ADB, DFID, UNICEF and
UNDP. He has been member of Pakistan Environmental Protection Council, and
undertaken more than 30 design/consultation projects during his professional career.
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Population increase, rapid urbanization and industrialization have mounted stress on water
and sewerage systems. Water for municipal uses is becoming harder to find and more expensive to
develop. Effective design and efficient operation of engineering works ask, above all, for a fuller
understanding and application of scientific principles. This book has been written with an intention to
act as a text book for the course of water supply and sewerage for the students of Civil and
Environmental Engineering. The book also reflects current practice, and hence useful for practicing
environmental engineers working in Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), Water and
Sanitation Agencies (WASAs), municipalities and consulting firms.
Principal author of the book has more than 10 years of practical experience in planning,
designing, construction supervision, commissioning and troubleshooting water supply and sewerage
projects. Authors have academic experience of more than 15 and 49 years, respectively, in teaching
the subject on undergraduate and post graduate level.
Water supply engineering is divided into four components viz. (1) water source; (2) water
treatment; (3) transmission/rising main and (4) distribution system. Sewerage has three components
namely (1) collection; (2) treatment and (3) pumping stations. The authors wish to specially mention
that this book deals with 3 components of water supply engineering and 2 components of sewerage.
Water and wastewater treatment will be dealt with in a separate book, planned by the authors. It is
also important to mention that the terms sewerage and wastewater engineering are synonymous.
Both are used in the literature and represent the collection, treatment and sewage/wastewater
pumping.
Chapter 1 of this book gives an introduction to the water supply and sewerage and their
major components. Chapter 2 highlights the importance of clean drinking water and history of water
supply. Chapter 3 presents different water uses, factors affecting water consumption and design
period. Chapter 4 briefly overviews water supply in Pakistan with respect to coverage, policy and
regulatory framework and water operators. Chapter 5 discusses in detail the design criteria for water
supply systems. Population projection for water supply and sewerage is presented in Chapter 6.
Water sources based on groundwater and surface water are discussed in Chapter 7. Design of water
transmission lines/rising mains are focused in Chapter 8. Water distribution system and its
components are given in Chapter 9. Finally, water quality criteria and standards are presented in
Chapter 10.
Chapter 11 gives various terms used in sewerage systems. Design criteria for sewerage
system is presented in Chapter 12. Design and construction of sanitary sewers is discussed in detail
in Chapter 13. Sewer appurtenances are focused in Chapter 14. Sewage pumping station and its
design is presented in Chapter 15. Design of storm sewers is covered in Chapter 16. Wastewater
disposal and reuse is presented in Chapter 17. At the end, Chapter 18 discusses the operation and
maintenance of water supply and sewerage systems. Solved examples are added for the design of
each component. Ninety-two figures have been added to explain almost every detail of water supply
and sewerage components.
The authors seek feedback from academia and practicing engineers to further improve the
contents of this book.

Prof. Dr. Sajjad H. Sheikh

Prof. Dr. Javed A. Aziz
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Bushra Sajjad, the wife of the principal author, support and encouragement, is
worthy of special mention. She provided all the facilitation, help and environment conducive
to undertake this extensive task. The principal author is deeply indebted to his spouse.
Acknowledgement is due to all the senior colleagues of the principal author, during
his field job, who through discussions and by sharing their past experiences enriched the
knowledge of the principal author. Help of Mr. Mukhtar Ahmad, a senior sub engineer of
Public Health Engineering is also acknowledged.
Acknowledgement is due to Mr Mudasar Arbi, post graduate student of the principal
authors who meticulously reviewed the entire manuscript for improvements/corrections.
Help of Mr Amir Rizwan in preparing material on SCADA is also acknowledged. Gratitude
is due to Mr. Zahid Rafiq who developed the CAD version of all the hand drawn figures of
the authors, which are added in this book.
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 2
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Water Supply and Wastewater Engineering ....................................................................... 2
1.3 Components of water supply engineering ........................................................................... 3
1.4 Components of sewerage/wastewater engineering ............................................................ 4
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 5
IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN WATER AND HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY .............. 7
2.1 Clean water and public health ............................................................................................. 7
2.2 Water as a resource ............................................................................................................ 8
2.3 History of water supply ...................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 11
WATER USES AND CONSUMPTION ......................................................................16
3.1 Average water consumption .............................................................................................. 16
3.2 Different Water Uses ......................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Domestic use ........................................................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Commercial and industrial use ................................................................................................. 16
3.2.3 Public use ................................................................................................................................ 16
3.2.4 Unaccounted for water (Non revenue water) ........................................................................... 16
3.3 Factors affecting water consumption ................................................................................ 17
3.3.1 Climate ..................................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.2 Standard of living ..................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.3 Extent of sewerage .................................................................................................................. 17
3.3.4 Commercial/industrial activity................................................................................................... 17
3.3.5 Metering ................................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.6 Cost of water ............................................................................................................................ 17
3.3.7 Quality of water ........................................................................................................................ 17
3.3.8 Distribution system pressure .................................................................................................... 17
3.3.9 Size of city ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.10 Efficiency of the system ........................................................................................................... 18
3.3.11 Type of supply.......................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.12 Level of service ........................................................................................................................ 18
3.4 VARIATIONS IN WATER CONSUMPTION ...................................................................... 18
3.4.1 Monthly variations .................................................................................................................... 18
3.4.2 Daily variations......................................................................................................................... 19
3.4.3 Hourly variations ...................................................................................................................... 19
3.5 Some definitions ................................................................................................................ 19
3.5.1 Average daily consumption/demand ........................................................................................ 19
3.5.2 Maximum daily consumption/demand ...................................................................................... 20
3.5.3 Peak hourly consumption/demand ........................................................................................... 20
3.6 Design Period .................................................................................................................... 20
3.6.1 Life of structure ........................................................................................................................ 20
3.6.2 Ease of extension .................................................................................................................... 20

i
 3.6.3 First cost .................................................................................................................................. 20
3.6.4 Rate of interest......................................................................................................................... 20
3.6.5 Economy of scale..................................................................................................................... 21
3.6.6 Lead time (Gestation period) ................................................................................................... 21
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 21
WATER SUPPLY IN PAKISTAN ..............................................................................24
4.1 Coverage ........................................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Sustainable development goals (SDGs) ........................................................................... 24
4.3 Policy, legislative and regulator framework on water ........................................................ 25
4.4 Water operators in Pakistan .............................................................................................. 26
4.4.1 Construction ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.4.2 Operation and maintenance ..................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 27
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR WATER SUPPLY .............................................................30
5.1 domestic water consumption ............................................................................................. 30
5.2 Institutional water consumption ......................................................................................... 31
5.3 Variations in water demands ............................................................................................. 31
5.4 Tube wells ......................................................................................................................... 32
5.5 Working hours for tube wells (rural; urban) ....................................................................... 32
5.6 chlorination ........................................................................................................................ 32
5.7 Tube well pump house ...................................................................................................... 32
5.8 Pumping machinery........................................................................................................... 32
5.9 Water transmission lines/Mains ........................................................................................ 32
5.10 Water distribution system .................................................................................................. 32
5.11 Terminal pressure in the distribution system .................................................................... 33
5.12 Velocity of flow in pipes ..................................................................................................... 33
5.13 Minimum pipe size............................................................................................................. 33
5.14 Cover over pipes ............................................................................................................... 33
5.15 Fire hydrants ..................................................................................................................... 33
5.16 Sluice values and non-return valves ................................................................................. 33
5.17 Air valves and washouts ................................................................................................... 34
5.18 Overhead reservoirs .......................................................................................................... 34
5.19 Ground storage tanks (GST) ............................................................................................. 34
5.20 Water metering .................................................................................................................. 34
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 35
POPULATION PROJECTIONS.................................................................................37
6.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 37
6.2 Demographic trends in Pakistan ....................................................................................... 37
6.3 Different methods of population projection........................................................................ 39
6.3.1 Arithmetic growth method ........................................................................................................ 39
6.3.2 Geometric growth method ........................................................................................................ 40
6.3.3 Logistic method ........................................................................................................................ 40
6.3.4 Graphical method..................................................................................................................... 41
6.3.5 Upsets in population estimates ................................................................................................ 43

ii
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 46
WATER SOURCES...................................................................................................48
7.1 Significance ....................................................................................................................... 48
7.2 Investigations for suitable water source ............................................................................ 48
7.2.1 Groundwater source ................................................................................................................ 48
7.2.2 Surface water source ............................................................................................................... 49
7.3 Design discharge for water source.................................................................................... 49
7.4 Groundwater ...................................................................................................................... 50
7.4.1 Definitions of various terms related to groundwater ................................................................. 50
7.4.2 Types of wells (based upon flow conditions)............................................................................ 51
7.4.3 Types of wells (according to depth) ......................................................................................... 53
7.5 Tube wells ......................................................................................................................... 54
7.5.1 Components............................................................................................................................. 54
7.5.2 Construction ............................................................................................................................. 55
7.5.3 Major tests of tube well ............................................................................................................ 59
7.5.4 Strata chart (Well log) and conversion chart ............................................................................ 61
7.5.5 Design of tube well................................................................................................................... 61
7.5.6 Tube well troubles .................................................................................................................... 62
7.6 Pumps for water supply ..................................................................................................... 62
7.6.1 Pump head, system curve and pump performance curve ........................................................ 62
7.6.2 Pump selection process ........................................................................................................... 64
7.6.3 Vertical turbine pump ............................................................................................................... 64
7.6.4 Submersible pump: .................................................................................................................. 65
7.7 Springs .............................................................................................................................. 70
7.8 surface water sources ....................................................................................................... 71
7.8.1 Investigations for surface water sources .................................................................................. 71
7.8.2 Some definitions ...................................................................................................................... 71
7.8.3 Intake Structure........................................................................................................................ 72
7.8.4 Location of Intake..................................................................................................................... 72
7.8.5 Design Considerations for Intake ............................................................................................. 72
7.8.6 Typical inlets for surface water sources ................................................................................... 72
7.9 Water source protection .................................................................................................... 75
7.9.1 Localized measures ................................................................................................................. 75
7.9.2 Broader measures ................................................................................................................... 78
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 79
WATER TRANSMISSION MAINS OR RISING MAINS .............................................83
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 83
8.2 Design equation ................................................................................................................ 83
8.3 Velocities in transmission mains ....................................................................................... 83
8.4 Accurate levels .................................................................................................................. 84
8.5 L-Section or Profile ............................................................................................................ 84
8.6 Head losses ....................................................................................................................... 85
8.7 Choice of pipe material for transmission mains ................................................................ 86
8.7.1 For larger diameter rising mains (16 inch (400 mm) and above).............................................. 86
8.7.2 For smaller diameter rising mains (below 16 inch) ................................................................... 86

iii
 8.7.3 Merits and demerits of Steel and DI pipes ............................................................................... 87
8.8 Water Hammer .................................................................................................................. 87
8.8.1 Water hammer calculations ..................................................................................................... 87
8.9 Measures to control water hammer................................................................................... 88
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 89
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ...........................................................................92
9.1 Components of water distribution system ......................................................................... 92
9.2 Methods of Distribution --- Three Methods ....................................................................... 92
9.3 Layout of WDS .................................................................................................................. 93
9.4 Types of supply ................................................................................................................. 94
9.5 OHRs in distribution system .............................................................................................. 95
9.6 WATER SUPPLY PIPES .................................................................................................. 96
9.6.1 Cast Iron Pipes ........................................................................................................................ 96
9.6.2 Steel pipes ............................................................................................................................... 97
9.6.3 Asbestos cement (AC) pipe ..................................................................................................... 98
9.6.4 uPVC pipes .............................................................................................................................. 98
9.6.5 Galvanized iron (GI) pipes: ...................................................................................................... 99
9.6.6 Polyethylene (PE) pipes ........................................................................................................... 99
9.6.7 HDPE pipes (High density polyethylene) ................................................................................. 99
9.6.8 PPRC pipes (Polypropylene random co-poylmer).................................................................. 100
9.7 Nomenclature of pipes in WDS ....................................................................................... 100
9.8 Purpose and significance of valves in WDS ................................................................... 101
9.9 TYPES OF VALVES in WDS .......................................................................................... 101
9.9.1 Gate valves / Sluice valves .................................................................................................... 101
9.9.2 Check valve / Non-return valve .............................................................................................. 102
9.9.3 Butter fly valve ....................................................................................................................... 102
9.9.4 Pressure regulating valve (PRV) ............................................................................................ 103
9.9.5 Air valve ................................................................................................................................. 103
9.9.6 Wash outs .............................................................................................................................. 104
9.9.7 Altitude valve.......................................................................................................................... 104
9.9.8 Sluice gates/penstock ............................................................................................................ 104
9.9.9 Surge control valves .............................................................................................................. 105
9.9.10 Fire hydrants .......................................................................................................................... 105
9.10 Design of WDS ................................................................................................................ 105
9.10.1 Procedure of WDS design using simulation software ............................................................ 106
9.11 Laying of water distribution system ................................................................................. 108
9.12 Tests before commissioning of WDS .............................................................................. 109
9.12.1 Disinfection ............................................................................................................................ 109
9.12.2 Hydraulic Testing ................................................................................................................... 110
9.13 Leakage detection in distribution system ........................................................................ 112
9.14 House Connection ........................................................................................................... 112
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 113
WATER QUALITY, CRITERIA AND STANDARDS ................................................118
10.1 Potable water .................................................................................................................. 118
10.2 Water Quality................................................................................................................... 118

iv
10.3 Water related diseases.................................................................................................... 119
10.3.1 Water borne diseases ............................................................................................................ 119
10.3.2 Water washed diseases ......................................................................................................... 120
10.3.3 Water based diseases ........................................................................................................... 120
10.4 Protecting water quality-multi barrier approach .............................................................. 120
10.5 Common impurities in water and their effects ................................................................. 121
10.6 National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) .............................................. 124
10.7 Water Quality monitoring (WQM) Framework ................................................................. 126
10.7.1 The arrows within the framework ........................................................................................... 127
10.7.2 Develop monitoring objectives ............................................................................................... 127
10.7.3 Design monitoring program .................................................................................................... 127
10.7.4 Collect field and laboratory data............................................................................................. 127
10.7.5 Compile and manage data ..................................................................................................... 127
10.7.6 Assess and interpret data ...................................................................................................... 127
10.7.7 Convey findings and evaluate program.................................................................................. 128
10.8 Implementation of WQM framewrok................................................................................ 128
10.8.1 Regulatory standards (NSDWQ) ............................................................................................ 128
10.8.2 Organizational setup/arrangement ......................................................................................... 129
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 129
INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER ENGINEERING...........................................138
11.1 Some basic terms............................................................................................................ 138
11.2 Sources of wastewater .................................................................................................... 138
11.3 Types of sewers .............................................................................................................. 139
11.4 Types of sewerage system ............................................................................................. 140
11.5 Infiltration ......................................................................................................................... 141
11.6 Per capita sewage flow ................................................................................................... 141
11.7 Variation in Wastewater Flow .......................................................................................... 141
11.8 Invert level ....................................................................................................................... 142
11.9 Minimum and maximum Velocities in sewers ................................................................. 143
11.10 Sewer slopes to maintain self-cleansing velocities ......................................................... 143
11.11 Minimum Sewer Size....................................................................................................... 144
11.12 Manholes ......................................................................................................................... 144
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 145
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SEWERAGE (PHED & WASA) ......................................148
12.1 Location of disposal works .............................................................................................. 148
12.2 Design period .................................................................................................................. 148
12.3 average Sewage flow contribution .................................................................................. 149
12.4 Peak factor ...................................................................................................................... 149
12.5 Peak dry weather flow ..................................................................................................... 149
12.6 Storm water allowance (for partially combined sewers).................................................. 150
12.7 Infiltration ......................................................................................................................... 150
12.8 Design flow ...................................................................................................................... 150
12.9 Velocity at design flow ..................................................................................................... 151
12.10 Manhole spacing ............................................................................................................. 151

v
12.11 Minimum pipe size........................................................................................................... 152
12.12 Cover over pipes ............................................................................................................. 152
12.13 Pipe roughness coefficient .............................................................................................. 152
12.14 Disposal works ................................................................................................................ 152
12.15 Sewer bedding ................................................................................................................ 153
12.16 Class of RCC pipes ......................................................................................................... 153
12.17 Pipe reinforcement .......................................................................................................... 153
12.18 Slope of sewers ............................................................................................................... 153
12.19 Design flow for storm water (drainage) ........................................................................... 154
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 155
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SANITARY SEWER......................................157
13.1 Survey, mapping and data collection .............................................................................. 157
13.2 Design considerations ..................................................................................................... 158
13.3 Design ............................................................................................................................. 158
13.4 Study of sewers flowing partially full- its significance ...................................................... 161
13.5 Hydraulic statement......................................................................................................... 164
13.6 Carry over of invert levels ............................................................................................... 166
13.7 Preparation of drawings and BOQ .................................................................................. 168
13.8 Preparation of design report/feasiblity report .................................................................. 169
13.9 Subsequent modifications ............................................................................................... 169
13.10 Sewer profiles / L-sections .............................................................................................. 169
13.11 Sewer pipes ..................................................................................................................... 170
13.11.1 Un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) ............................................................................... 170
13.11.2 Asbestos Cement (AC) .......................................................................................................... 171
13.11.3 PCC (plain cement concrete) ................................................................................................. 171
13.11.4 Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) ....................................................................................... 171
13.11.5 HDPE pipes ........................................................................................................................... 171
13.11.6 CI (cast iron) and steel pipes ................................................................................................. 171
13.11.7 Spira pipe:.............................................................................................................................. 172
13.11.8 Manning’s co-efficient for different pipes ................................................................................ 172
13.11.9 Test for quality assurance of RCC pipes ................................................................................ 173
13.12 Load on pipes .................................................................................................................. 174
13.13 RCC sewer beddings ...................................................................................................... 176
13.14 Laying of Sewer under water .......................................................................................... 178
13.15 Sewer joints ..................................................................................................................... 178
13.16 Sewer construction .......................................................................................................... 180
13.16.1 Clearance of right of way ....................................................................................................... 180
13.16.2 Acquire construction drawings ............................................................................................... 180
13.16.3 Mark sewer lines at site ......................................................................................................... 180
13.16.4 Excavation of trenches........................................................................................................... 180
13.16.5 Dewatering for underwater sewers (optional) ........................................................................ 180
13.16.6 Shifting of levels ..................................................................................................................... 181
13.16.7 Laying and jointing of pipes ................................................................................................... 183
13.16.8 Backfilling ............................................................................................................................... 183
13.16.9 Construction of appurtenances .............................................................................................. 183

vi
13.17 Quality assurance............................................................................................................ 183
13.17.1 Possession of complete drawings .......................................................................................... 183
13.17.2 Due diligence during level transfer ......................................................................................... 184
13.17.3 Pipe quality ............................................................................................................................ 184
13.17.4 Special care for under water sewers ...................................................................................... 184
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 184
SEWER APPURTENENCES ..................................................................................187
14.1 Manholes ......................................................................................................................... 187
14.2 Street Inlets ..................................................................................................................... 190
14.3 Catch basins .................................................................................................................... 193
14.4 Oil and grease traps ........................................................................................................ 194
14.5 building connection with municipal sewer ....................................................................... 195
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 196
SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS ............................................................................199
15.1 Components of Sewage Pumping Station ...................................................................... 199
15.2 General Design Considerations ...................................................................................... 200
15.3 Typical diagrams showing section of pumping station .................................................... 200
15.4 Screening chamber ......................................................................................................... 203
15.5 Design of wet well ........................................................................................................... 208
15.6 Pumps for Sewage .......................................................................................................... 212
15.7 Force main ...................................................................................................................... 213
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 216
DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS ..............................................................................219
16.1 Assumptions and limitations of Rational Method ............................................................ 219
16.2 Rational Method .............................................................................................................. 219
16.2.1 Drainage area (watershed area) ............................................................................................ 220
16.2.2 Runoff coefficient (C) ............................................................................................................. 220
16.2.3 Time of concentration (Tc) ..................................................................................................... 221
16.2.4 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves ........................................................................... 222
16.2.5 Return Period ......................................................................................................................... 223
16.2.6 Rainfall intensity ..................................................................................................................... 224
16.3 Summary of procedure to find the design flow for storm sewer ...................................... 224
16.3.1 Using IDF curves ................................................................................................................... 224
16.3.2 Using PHED Design Criteria .................................................................................................. 225
16.4 Software for storm water management ........................................................................... 226
16.4.1 Storm water management model (SWMM) ............................................................................ 226
16.4.2 HEC-HMS .............................................................................................................................. 227
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 227
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND REUSE .............................................................230
17.1 Disposal in surface waters .............................................................................................. 230
17.2 On-land disposal of wastewaters .................................................................................... 230
17.3 Reuse of treatment sewage for irrigation ........................................................................ 231
17.4 History of wastewater reuse ............................................................................................ 231
17.5 Public health risks associated with raw sewage ............................................................. 231

vii
 17.6 Agronomic aspect of wastewater reuse .......................................................................... 232
17.7 WHO guidelines (1989) for reuse of treated wastewater in irrigation ............................. 232
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 233
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M) OF WATER SUPPLIES AND
SEWERAGE PROJECTS .......................................................................................235
18.1 O&M costs ....................................................................................................................... 235
18.1.1 Staff ....................................................................................................................................... 235
18.1.2 Energy bill .............................................................................................................................. 236
18.1.3 Repairs .................................................................................................................................. 236
18.2 Pumps ............................................................................................................................. 239
18.2.1 Water supply .......................................................................................................................... 239
18.2.2 Sewerage ............................................................................................................................... 239
18.3 Common maintenance issues ......................................................................................... 240
18.3.1 Water supply .......................................................................................................................... 240
18.3.2 Sewerage ............................................................................................................................... 240
18.4 SCADA ............................................................................................................................ 242
18.4.1 Components of SCADA system ............................................................................................. 242
18.4.2 Requirements of SCADA host software ................................................................................. 245
18.4.3 Security issues ....................................................................................................................... 245
18.4.4 Companies providing SCADA ................................................................................................ 246
18.5 occupational health and safety (OHS) issues ................................................................. 246
18.5.1 Water supply .......................................................................................................................... 246
18.5.2 Sewerage ............................................................................................................................... 247
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 248
ANNEX-1 .......................................................................................................................251
RCC sewer pipes reinforcement as per ASTM C-76 specifications ..................................................... 251
Subject Index ............................................................................................................................. 260

viii
 Chapter-1

Introduction

1
 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

Life on earth cannot exist without water. Man needs water for his daily requirements. These
include: drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and other miscellaneous uses. Water for
human consumption must be free from contaminants (pathogens, harmful chemicals) that
may harm the human health. In addition, its aesthetic quality may also be such that it is
acceptable to consumers. Groundwater, in many cases, may be used for public water
supplies, without treatment except chlorination. However, surface waters are invariably
contaminated and need treatment before supply to the consumers. In addition to water
quality, the quantity of water must be sufficient to meet the domestic and other water uses
in the community. Water supply systems are, therefore, designed to meet both, the water
quantity and quality requirements. The overall performance parameters are: adequate
quantity meeting the standards, sufficient pressure, continuity, reliability and financial
viability.
Water after its use, originates as wastewater. It must be collected and disposed of
in a way that the environment is not adversely affected. Wastewater collection and
treatment systems are designed for this purpose. These consist of network of pipes that
collects and conveys the wastewater to the treatment facility, before its final release into the
environment.

1.2 WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Water supply engineering deals with the development of natural sources of water,
its transmission to treatment facility (if required) and subsequent distribution to the
community. Water treatment may be essential if the raw water source does not meet the
specified quality standards.
Wastewater engineering refers to the collection of wastewater generated within a
community, because of water use, its collection through a network of pipes called sewers,
and wastewater treatment before its disposal in the environment like a water body (river,
lake, canal, ocean etc.) or reuse.
In Pakistan, the term Water Supply and Sewerage is also used by various
departments like Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) and Water and Sanitation
Agencies (WASAs). This are synonymous to Water Supply and Wastewater Engineering.
International funding agencies like Asian Development Bank, World Bank, United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) use the term Water and Sanitation
(WATSAN) while referring to water supply and sewerage facilities. UNICEF used the term

2
WASH (Water, sanitation and Health). The students/readers must be aware of all the terms
used in the literature.

1.3 COMPONENTS OF WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Water supply engineering (water supply system) consists of the following four
components.
1. Water source
2. Water treatment plant (WTP)
3. Transmission lines/rising mains
4. Distribution system
The water source provides water for further supply. The main sources of water are
(1) groundwater and (2) surface water. Groundwater may be high in dissolved solids, low
in suspended solids and has less chances of bacterial contamination. Good quality
groundwater sources require no elaborate treatment except disinfection. Groundwater
source is the first choice for water supply if it meets the chemical quality requirements,
especially in terms of dissolved solids. For example, municipal water supply for Lahore is
based on the groundwater source. It is extracted through tube wells. Similarly, a hand pump
may also be used to extract groundwater
The groundwater may be brackish (dissolved solids exceed drinking water quality
standards) or may not be available in many situations. Under these circumstances, the next
choice for the municipal water supply is surface water sources like reservoirs, rivers, canals,
lakes etc. Surface waters are high in suspended solids and bacterial contamination and
may contain less dissolved solids. Most often, these are situated at some distance from the
city. A part of water for Karachi is obtained from Kalari lake which is 122 Km away from
Karachi [1]. Similarly, a major part of water supply to Rawalpindi is taken from Rawal dam
reservoir, built on Korang river, through a 14 Km long transmission line [2]. The bulk of water
supply to Muree is from Haro river. Similarly, in southern Punjab, where underground water
is brackish, raw water is taken from nearby canal, treated and then supplied to the
community. Sometimes shallow tube wells of low discharge are installed along the canal to
intercept the seepage water from the canal. The water supply of Sargodha city is an
example, where shallow tube wells of 0.25 cusec (25 m3/hr) are installed along Lower
Jehlum canal passing near Sargodha city.
Transmission lines/mains deliver water from water source to the community, when
the water source is located at a distance from the community. For example, the water supply
pipe laid to convey water from Kalari lake to Karachi city is termed as transmission line/main.
Transmission lines have different types of valves located at appropriate points for its proper
functioning. Where the water source exists inside the city, transmission lines are not
required. Like in Lahore, since tube wells are installed in the city, therefore, no transmission
lines are required.

3
 Water is distributed within a city through a network of pipes called the distribution
system. It is laid along the roads and streets in the city. The distribution system has pipes
of different sizes depending upon the quantity of water to be distributed. These are
commonly referred to as (a) primary pipes, (b) secondary pipes and (c) distribution pipes
depending upon their sizes. Consumers normally take water connections from the
distribution pipes. Overhead reservoirs (OHRs) are also provided in the distribution system
for balancing demand and supply and storing water for emergencies.
Different components of water supply engineering (water supply system), based on
surface water source, are shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Components of water supply system

A water supply system may not necessarily have four components as shown above.
It is only true in case of surface water source, located at a distance from point of distribution
(community). In Lahore, water supply system has only two components i.e. (1) water source
and (2) distribution system. Because Lahore city is located over a rich aquifer, tube wells
may be installed at any point within the city. Hence no transmission lines are required. Water
quality is good and hence needs no elaborate treatment except disinfection.

1.4 COMPONENTS OF SEWERAGE/WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Sewerage system (wastewater engineering) is used to collect, treat and dispose the
wastewater generated, as a result of water use. It has the following three components (Fig.
1.2).
1. Collection system
2. Wastewater pumping station (WWPS)
3. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP)
Collection system consists of a network of underground pipes called sewers. The
sewers collect the wastewater from the point of generation and transport it to a disposal
point or place of reuse after proper treatment. These are laid along roads and streets, and

4
generally the flow is under gravity. For the wastewater flow to take place under gravity,
without the deposition of solids, pipes are laid at a proper gradient (slope). Additional
structures like manholes, drop manholes, vent pipes etc. are also added for the proper
functioning of the collection system.

Figure 1.2: Components of wastewater engineering (sewerage system)

The function of a wastewater pumping station is to lift the wastewater so that it can
be introduced either into another sewer, or into the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) or
to dispose it of into the receiving water. In Pakistan, WWTPs are yet to be constructed at
many places. Hence pumping station normally discharges wastewater directly into receiving
waters (rivers, lakes, canals, seepage drains, sea etc.) or on land without any treatment.
Wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contains pathogens and high
concentration of pollutants in the form of organic and inorganic substances, heavy metals
and suspended impurities. These must be removed before the wastewater is released into
the environment (river, lake, canal, sea, drains, etc.). This is achieved through wastewater
treatment. Discharge of untreated wastewater may seriously affect the water quality of
receiving waters and impair their beneficial uses. These uses include municipal water
supply, industrial use, irrigation etc. In addition, the pollutants present in wastewater may
seriously affect the aquatic ecosystem.

REFERENCES

1. Indus Ecogreen Program (IEP), (2014). Accessed on: 20-07-2014, Available at:
[http://foreverindus.org/ie_protectedareas_ramsar.php]

2. WASA, (2014), Water and Sanitation Agency Rawalpindi, [Personal

communication].

5
 Chapter-2

Importance of clean water

and history of water supply

6
 IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN WATER AND
HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY
2.1 CLEAN WATER AND PUBLIC HEALTH

A person, on average, living in temperate climate and doing sedentary work requires
about 3 liters of water daily for drinking purposes [1]. Whereas in hot climate, the people at
work may require up to 4.5 liters of water [2]. There are 12 diseases which are water borne
i.e. transmitted due to the use of unsafe water [3]. Bacteriological contamination may cause
Typhoid, Cholera, Hepatitis A, Dysentery, Gastroenteritis, Giardiasis and Polio. Estimates
show that lack of safe drinking water takes a greater human toll than war, terrorism and
weapons of mass destruction, combined [4].
Due to rapid industrial development and agricultural activity, many new
contaminants are finding their way into the water. These include: (1) heavy metals; (2)
organic pollutants and (3) emerging pollutants. Heavy metals (lead, chromium, mercury,
cadmium, nickel, copper, zinc etc.) can be lethal to aquatic as well as human life even at
low concentrations. These may result in liver, kidney, heart and nervous system dysfunction
[5]. There are more than 40 organic pollutants that may enter water from industrial and
agricultural activities (pesticides; herbicides). These may result in liver, kidney, nervous
system, glands and immune system dysfunction and cancer [6].
Emerging pollutants are those which have been found in the aquatic environment,
however, currently no regulations are established for their environmental monitoring. Their
number is reported in thousands [7]. Some of these originate from pharmaceuticals and
personal care products (PPCPs), illicit drugs, hormones and steroids discharged in aquatic
environment [8]. These may result in endocrine disruption, hormonal changes and affect
immune system [9, 10].
Globally, more than 3.4 million people die each year from water, sanitation, and
hygiene-related causes. Ninety nine percent of these deaths occur in developing countries
[11]. Lack of access to safe drinking water, poor sanitation and hygiene practices are
considered key contributing factors to the high rate of water borne diseases in Pakistan.
Every fifth citizen suffers from illness and disease caused by the polluted water [12].
Outbreaks of gastroenteritis and other water borne diseases have become frequent [13].
Estimates signify that more than three million Pakistanis suffer from waterborne diseases
each year, of which 0.1 million die [14]. Around 40 percent of the hospital beds in Pakistan
are occupied by patients suffering from water-related diseases, such as typhoid, cholera,
dysentery and hepatitis, which are responsible for one third of all deaths [15]. It has been

7
estimated that water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases cost Pakistan economy about
Rs 112 billion per year in terms of health costs and lost earnings. Out of this, the cost
associated with diarrheal diseases alone is estimated to range from Rs. 55 to Rs. 80 billion
per year [16].
Unfortunately, little attention is being paid to drinking-water quality issues and
quantity remains the main concern of water supply agencies in Pakistan. There is a lack of
drinking-water quality monitoring and surveillance programs in the country. Weak
institutional arrangements, lack of well-equipped laboratories and the absence of a legal
framework for drinking-water quality issues have aggravated the situation. The public
awareness of the issue of water quality is dismally low [17].

2.2 WATER AS A RESOURCE

During the last few decades, water has emerged as the most precious resource.
Two third of the earth sphere is covered with water. The global water classification is shown
in the Fig. 2.1(a) and 2.1(b) [18].
It can be seen in Fig. 2.1, that 97.2% of water on earth is salty and cannot be used
without elaborate and costly treatment. Only 2.8% is fresh water. Out of this 2.15% is
unavailable: locked up in glaciers and polar ice caps and therefore cannot be used. From
the leftover freshwater (i.e. 0.65%), 0.6% is groundwater and 0.05% is surface water. From
the 0.6% groundwater, only 0.3% is economically extractable, rest is not. Thus, the total
percentage of fresh water available is only 0.35% (0.05+0.3) serving most of humans' and
animals' water needs.

Figure 2.1(a): World water classification

8
 Figure 2.1(b): Classification of fresh water on the globe
Rapid population increase in the last 100 years has put stress on available water
resources. Their exploitation has increased manifold. The current world population stands
around 7.6 billion [19]. Around 1.2 billion people, or almost one-fifth of the world’s
population, live in areas of physical scarcity, and 500 million people are approaching this
situation. Another 1.6 billion people, or almost one quarter of the world’s population, face
economic water shortage (where countries lack the necessary infrastructure to take water
from rivers and aquifers) [20]. By 2025, two-thirds of the world’s population may be facing
water shortages- when waters run dry, people can’t get enough to drink, wash, or feed
crops, and economic decline may occur. [21].
Much of the water stressed population currently live in river basins where the usage
of water resources greatly exceeds the renewal of the water source [22]. In India there are
8000 villages that do not have their local water for use [23]. In Madras, due to acute water
shortage, water rationing has to be introduced i.e. measured amount of water is given to
the people [24]. In Beiging, one third of wells have gone dry due to over utilization to meet
increased water demands [25]. In Mexico city, groundwater table is going down by 3.5 meter
every year due to excessive abstraction [26]. The vice president of the World Bank, Ismail
Serageldin said in 1999 “ the wars of the next century will be on the possession of water
[27].

Per capita water availability in Pakistan has decreased from 5260 cubic meter per
year in 1951 to 1100 cubic meter in 2017. The minimum water requirement to avoid being
a “water short country” is 1,000 cubic meters per capita [28]. The above situation warrants

9
that water must be conserved. Its wasteful use must be discouraged. Community
awareness and willingness can play an important role in implementing water conservation
measures. There are many instances where an individual can conserve water by changing
habits. Table 2.1 suggests such measures. During bathing, water usage may be reduced
to one fifth if the method prescribed in the ‘conservative use’ column is adopted. Every toilet
flush uses around 20 liter of water. By avoiding frequent toilet flushing, water may be
conserved. Similarly, if the tap is kept running during brushing of teeth and shaving, water
usage increases manifold than if the tap is kept closed and opened only when required.

Table 2.1: Water conservation guide in daily life [29]

Normal use Household activity Conservative use

Bucket
Regular 8 minute shower
SHOWER Wet down,soap up,rinse
(165 liter)
(30 liter)

Minimize toilet flushing

Avoid frequent flushing TOILET
(20 liter per flushing)

Tap running
WASHING HANDS 1 liters
(4 liters)

Tap running
SHAVING 4 liters
(12 liters)

Tap running
BRUSHING TEETH 2 liters
(20 liters)

Tap running ABOLUTION BEFORE

(10 liters) 2 liters
PRAYER

Presently, water conservation sanitary fittings are also becoming popular. In flush
toilets, there are two modes of operations. Two different push buttons are provided; one to
be pushed after urination, and it uses around 3 liters water. Second button, for use after
defecation and it flushes 6 liters of water against 20 liters in normal flush toilets. Similarly,
water taps with sensor are now available; as soon as the hand is removed from below the
tap, water stops flowing. One does not have to open and close the tap; sensors do the
needful. Obviously, such fittings are costly.
In Australia, the flushing volume of water for toilet use is fixed at 3 and 6 liters for
use after urination and passing feces, respectively. Thus it is mandatory that flush tanks
should have two buttons, one for each discharge [30] . Sydney city fixed a target of using

10
80 billion liters rain and grey water (from bathing, washing etc.) for the year 2014 for non-
drinking uses (irrigation, watering lawns) [31]. In Pakistan, such practices may be adopted
to conserve drinking water.

2.3 HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY

In ancient cities, there was no concept of public water supplies. Most of the water
needs were met from shallow dug wells, ponds, rivers etc. Communities used to grow along
water sources like rivers. Many old civilizations are found along large rivers like Nile and
Indus.
People used to carry water in vessels to their homes. In the city of Rome and Athens,
open water channels (aqueducts) were built around 300 B.C [32]. It was the first planned
form of managing supply of water. Later clay and bamboo pipes were introduced. Clay pipes
may be seen in the Shalimar garden of Lahore, which was built in 1641 by Mughal emperor
Shah Jahan [33]. However, clay and bamboo pipes were not good in taking even moderate
pressures. In 18th century, caste iron pipes were used for the first time.
In 1855, Dr. John Snow proved that Cholera outbreak in London was due to
contaminated drinking water. Thus, need for water treatment was felt. In 1900, method of
chlorination was used to kill pathogens. It resulted in significant decrease in cholera in
England [34].
Water supply systems were improved with the passage of time. Now various new
pipe types are available. Software for the design and optimization of water distribution
networks are available, which significantly reduce the time utilized in the system design.
Use of plumbing systems (water supply and wastewater pipes inside houses) and
provisions of toilets inside houses have put an end to previous practice of open defecation,
to make life more comfortable.
Advancements in water treatment like reverse osmosis have made even the use of
sea water possible. New disinfection techniques like ultra violet radiations have also
emerged.

REFERENCES

1. National Academy of Sciences, (2005), Dietary intake for water, potassium, sodium,
chloride and sulfate, National Academies Press, Washington DC USA: p. 73.

2. A. Grandjean, (2004), Water requirements, impinging factors, and recommended

intakes. Accessed on: 21-07-2017, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutwaterrequir.pdf]]

3. Arizona Department of Health Services, (2015), Water borne diseases. Accessed

on: 05-05-2015, Available on: [http://azdhs.gov/phs/oids/epi/waterborne/list.htm]

11
4. J. Bartram, K. Lewish and R. Lenton, (2005), Focusing on improved water and
sanitation for health, Lancet, 365(9461): p. 810-812.

5. WHO, (2004), Guidelines for drinking water quality; 3rd Edition, Volume-1.
Accessed on: 7-07-2015, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq05-6.pdf]

6. US EPA, (2009), National primary drinking water regulations, Report No. EPA 816-
F-09-004. Accessed on: 26-7-2014, Available at:
[www.epa.gov/safewater/consumer/pdf/mcl.pdf]

7. N.S. Thomaidis, A.G. Asimakopoulos and A.A. Bletsou, (2012), Emerging

contaminats: A tutorial min-review, Global NEST Journal, 14(1): p. 72-79.

8. D. J. Lapworth, N. Baran, M. E. Stuart and R. S. Ward, (2012), Emerging organic

contaminants in groundwater: A review of sources, fate and occurrence,
Environmental Pollution, 163: p. 287-303.

9. S. Glassmeyer, (2007), Cycle of emerging contaminants, Water Resources Impact,

9(3): p. 5-7.

10. M. D. Anway, A. S. Cupp, M. Uzumcu and M. K. Skinner, (2005), Epigentic

transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility, Science 308: p.
1466-1469.

11. WHO, (2008), Safer water, better health: Costs, benefits, and sustainability of
interventions to protect and promote health, ISBN 978 92 4 159643 5, Geneva.

12. M. A. Kahlown, M. A. Tahir, H. Rasheed and K. P. Bhatti, (2006), Water quality

status, national water quality monitoring programme, Fourth Technical Report,
Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR).

13. G. Bridges, (2007), Asian water development outlook 2007, country paper Pakistan,
Asian Development Bank, Manila.

14. World Bank, (2005), Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services:
lessons from a workshop, Water and Sanitation Program. Available at: [http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/11/28/000
160016_20051128162902/Rendered/PDF/344430PK0Karachi0water0supply.pdf]

15. Husnain Haider and Waris Ali, (2009), Sustainability of sanitation systems in
Pakistan, The Pakistan Engineer, Journal of the institution of Engineers, Pakistan,
Jan - Apr (1): p. 9-17

12
16. World Bank, (2006), Pakistan strategic country environmental assessment: p. 53.
Available at: [http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEW-PDF/PK-SCE-FText-Oct-
2006%20.pdf]

17. Javed Anwar Aziz, (2005), Management of source and drinking water quality in
Pakistan, Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 11: p. 1087-1098.

18. P. H. Gleick, (1993), Water in crisis: A guide to the world's fresh water resources,
Oxford University Press, New York.

19. http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/.

20. FAO, (2007), Coping with water scarcity. Challenge of the twenty-first century, UN
Waters.

21. WWF Pakistan, Water Scarcity: Threats. Accessed on: 21-07- 2014, Available at:
[http://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/water-scarcity]

22. United Nations Development Program (UNDP), (2006), Human development report,
New York, USA.

23. K. S. Valdiya, (2004), Geology, environment and society, Orient Blackswan Private
Limited, New Delhi

24. S. H. Venkataramani, Water crisis in Madras city, residents issued ration cards.
Accessed on: 24-07-2014, Available at:
[https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/misc.news.southasia/D64k_tSOz18/CgEg
Ihx0d28]

25. L. Lin. Beijing water shortage worse than the Middle East. 2013 [Accessed on: 25-
07-2015]]; Available from: Available at:
[https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6319-Beijing-water-shortage-
worse-than-the-Middle-East].

26. C. Hernández and S. J. Gaskin, (2007), The basin of Mexico aquifer system:
regional groundwater level dynamics and database development, Hydrogeology
Journal, 15(8): p. 1577-1590.

27. M. Barlow. Blue Gold. 2001 [Accessed on: 25-07-2015]]; Available from: Available
at:[ www.ratical.org/co-globalize/BlueGold.pdf.

28. World Bank, (2005), Pakistan country water resources assistance strategy water
economy: Running dry, Report No. 34081-PK. [Accessed on: 29-07-2017,
Available at:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/PWCAS-
Title&Intro.pdf]

13
29. US Department of Interior Buerau of Reclamation. Reclamation: Managing water in
the west. [Acessed on: 25-07-2015]]; Available from: Available at:
[http://usbr.gov./mp/arwec/news/water_facts_worldwide.html].

30. Council of Standards Australia. Australian and New Zealand standsrds for plumbing
and drainage. [Accessed on: 27-07-2015]]; Available from: Available at:
[https://law.resource.org/pub/nz/ibr/as-nzs.35001,1,2003.pdf].

31. Metropolitan Water Directorate Sydney, (2014), Water planning for Sydney.
Accessed on: 27-07-2015, Available at:
[http://www.metrowater.nsw.gov.au/planning-sydney/recycling/recycled-water-
targets]

32. M. C. Monteleone, H. Yeung and R. Smith, (2007), A review of ancient Roman water
supply exploring techniques of pressure reduction, Water Science & Technology:
Water Supply, 7(1).

33. S. Mubin, I. A. Gilani and W. Hassan, (2013), Mughal gardens in the city of Lahore-
A case study of Shalimar Garden, Pakistan Journal of Science, 65(4).

34. US Environmental Protection Agency, (2007), The history and drinking water
treatment, Office of the Water, Report No. EPA-816-F-00-006.

14
 Chapter-3

Water uses and consumption

15
 WATER USES AND CONSUMPTION
3.1 AVERAGE WATER CONSUMPTION

It is the average amount of water consumed. It is usually expressed as liters/gallons

of water consumed by a person in one day. (LPCD/GPCD; liters/gallons per capita per day)

3.2 DIFFERENT WATER USES

Water supplied to a city can be classified according to its ultimate use. These may
be[1-3]:

3.2.1 Domestic use

This includes water furnished to houses, hotels etc. for sanitary, drinking, washing,
bathing and other purposes. Its quantity depends upon a number of factors, discussed
below. It normally varies in a range of 75 – 380 liters per person per day (LPCD).

3.2.2 Commercial and industrial use

It is the water furnished to industrial and commercial areas. Commercial areas

include markets, office buildings, workshops, garages private hospitals etc. Various
industrial processes also require water.

3.2.3 Public use

Public places such as city clubs, jails, schools, public parks, colleges, street flushing,
fire fighting etc. require water. Such use is known as public use.

3.2.4 Unaccounted for water (Non revenue water)

A portion of water is wasted due to leaks in the water mains and distribution system.
It is referred to as Unaccounted for Water (UFW) or Non-Revenue Water (NRW). NRW,
because no revenue is received against this water. It also includes un-authorized water
connections. It can be reduced by (1) careful maintenance of water supply systems and (2)
metering of all water services
In a system, 100% metered and moderately maintained, the NRW should not be
more than 10%. Studies show that NRW in Lahore is close to 40%. Same is the case for
Islamabad. This needs immediate attention of water operators in these cities.

Total consumption = Domestic use+ public use + commercial + NRW

16
3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING WATER CONSUMPTION

A number of factors affect the average water consumption. These are briefly
discussed as under [4-7]:

3.3.1 Climate

Where summers are hot and long, much water is used for watering lawns, bathing,
washing clothes etc. Use at public places also increases.

3.3.2 Standard of living

Water consumption will be more in high value residential areas and less in slums
[8].

3.3.3 Extent of sewerage

Absence of sewerage facilities will reduce the per capita water consumption to as
low as 40 LPCD.

3.3.4 Commercial/industrial activity

Well developed industrial / commercial areas within a community tend to increase

the water consumption, like in big urban areas.

3.3.5 Metering

Metering tends to reduce water consumption because people avoid wasteful use of
water. Metering may reduce water consumption as much as 50%. Comparison between two
similar cities in USA was made. One was 90% metered and had a water consumption of
366 LPCD. Whereas, other city was 20% metered and its water consumption was 800
LPCD [9].

3.3.6 Cost of water

Higher water cost tends to reduce the water use and tendency of wasteful use,
thereby reducing the water consumption [10].

3.3.7 Quality of water

It has been observed that if the quality of water supplied is good, it tends to increase
water consumption.

3.3.8 Distribution system pressure

If higher pressures are maintained in the distribution system, the water consumption
increases.

17
3.3.9 Size of city

It has been observed that bigger cities have more demand for public uses i.e. fire
fighting and gardens etc. Hence water consumption is higher for large urban centers.

3.3.10 Efficiency of the system

In more efficiently maintained water supply systems, water consumption tends to be

less due to less leakages.

3.3.11 Type of supply

In case of continuous water supply, water consumption increases. While in case of

intermittent supply (water supplied to a community 2-3 times a day), water consumption
decreases.

3.3.12 Level of service

Water consumption also depends upon the level of service. There could be different
service levels:
1. Stand posts (taps provided at selected places in a community)
2. Courtyard connections (water connection is provided at only one place in the
house e.g. in the courtyard)
3. Full plumbing system (water is available at multiple points in the house e.g. in all
bath rooms, kitchen, courtyard, laundry room etc.)
Stand posts are the lowest level of service and full plumbing is the highest level of
service. Water consumption is lowest in stand posts and increases as the level of service
increases.

3.4 VARIATIONS IN WATER CONSUMPTION

Average water consumption discussed earlier is based upon ANNUAL AVERAGE.

Variations in water consumption take place. Climatic conditions, a specific day or a specific
hour in a day may cause wide variations in water consumption.

3.4.1 Monthly variations

Water consumption tends to increase during summer. People take bath more
frequently. Similarly clothes washing is also frequent in summer season. More water is
required for watering lawns in summer. In winters, these activities reduce.
June, July High consumption
Dec, Jan Low consumption

18
3.4.2 Daily variations

On holidays, like Sunday, most of the commercial areas and industries are closed.
Hence water consumption reduces on holidays as compared to a normal working day.

3.4.3 Hourly variations

Water consumption keeps on changing thorough out the day. In the morning, when
the day’s activities start; when people go to offices and children go to schools, the water
consumption touches its peak. Thereafter, the consumption reduces. In the evening,
another peak is usually observed, however, it not so pronounced as it is in the morning. Fig.
3.1 shows this hourly variation during the day.

140
Water consumption (Liter/hour)

120

100 Average consumption

80

60

40

20

0
12 mid night 7:00 AM 4:00 PM 7:00 PM 12 mid night
Time of day

Figure 3.1: Hourly variation during the day

The figure is true for domestic areas. However, no pronounced peaks are observed
in commercial and industrial areas.

3.5 SOME DEFINITIONS

3.5.1 Average daily consumption/demand

It is the average amount of water used by a person in a community in one day.

Mathematically

 
   
Average daily consumption=
×   
 

19
3.5.2 Maximum daily consumption/demand

It is the maximum water consumption during any one day in the year. It is about 150
to 180% of the average daily consumption.
Max daily consumption = 1.5 × Average daily consumption

3.5.3 Peak hourly consumption/demand

It is the maximum consumption during any one hour of the year. It is around 150%
of the maximum daily consumption.
Peak Hourly = 1.5 ×Maximum daily consumption
= 1.5×1.5×Average daily consumption
= 2.25 × Average daily consumption

3.6 DESIGN PERIOD

It is defined as the number of years, in future, for which a proposed facility would
meet the requirement of a community. Selection of an appropriate design period for a
facility/component of water supply and sewerage system is very important and depends
upon the following factors.

3.6.1 Life of structure

Design period depends upon the life of a structure. It cannot be greater than the life
of the structure itself e.g. if a transmission line is to be laid from a lake up to the city for the
supply of water and life of pipe to be used is 15 years then design period for that
transmission line cannot be taken as 25 years.

3.6.2 Ease of extension

If a facility can be extended easily then a shorter design period may be used and
vice versa. For example, in case of groundwater it is easy to install a tube well. So the
design period may be 10-15 years. Whereas, in case of surface water requiring
impoundment (large storage structure) the design period would be longer perhaps as much
as 50 years. The reason being extension of such structure is not possible.

3.6.3 First cost

In case of high first cost for a facility (i.e. capital cost of the project), a shorter design
period may be adopted.

3.6.4 Rate of interest

If the facility is to be developed from loan money which is borrowed on high interest
rate; the tendency is to take a shorter design period. In Pakistan many water supply and
sanitation projects are developed by taking loan from Asian Development Bank (ADB),

20
World Bank (WB) and other foreign donors/countries. ADB/WB normally provide softer
loans for water supply and sewerage projects. These are on a lower interest rate i.e. 1-
1.5%. However, some countries may provide loan money on higher interest rates.

3.6.5 Economy of scale

Scale means size. Economy of scale means that the per unit production cost of a
facility (project) decreases with increase in scale (size). Consider Table 3.1 as an example.
Table 3.1: Example of economy of scale
Pipe Diameter Length People served Cost Cost/person
(mm) (Km) (Rs)
200 1 1200 300,000 250
400 1 4800 480,000 100

It may be observed that by using a larger diameter pipe, the cost/person of the
project reduces from Rs 250 to 100. Economy of scale sometimes attracts for longer design
periods. So one must be cautious in using this factor.

3.6.6 Lead time (Gestation period)

It is the time from start of the project up to its completion. It is also sometimes
referred to as gestation period. For example, if a large project would take 10 years to
complete then the design period must be more than 10 years.

REFERENCES

1. US Environmental Protection Agency, (2004), How we use water in the United

States. Accessed on: 18-06-2017, Available at:
[esa21.kennesaw.edu/activities/water-use/water-use-overview-epa.pdf]

2. B. Mohanty, (2012). Accessed on: 18-06-2017, Available at:

[https://www.slideshare.net/bibhabasumohanty/water-requirements]

3. B. C. Punmia and A. K. Jain, (1995), Water supply engineering, Laxmi Publications

(Pvt) Ltd, Delhi, India.

4. M. L. Davis, (2011), Water and wastewater engineering: Design principles and

practice, McGraw Hill, USA.

5. A. Gola, (2012), Water demand and factors affecting water demand. Accessed on:
18-06-2017, Available at: [https://www.slideshare.net/LUND456/water-demand-
and-factor-affecting-water-demand]

21
6. S. Verma, V. S. Kanwar and S. John, (2015), Water supply engineering, Vikas
Publishing, India.

7. M. J. Brandt, K. M. Johnson, A. J. Elphinston and D. D. Ratnayaka, (2017), Twort's

water supply, 7th Edition, IWA publishing, USA.

8. P. Darr, S. L. Feldman and C. S. Kamen, (1975), Socioeconomic factors affecting

domestic water demand in Israel, Water resources Research, 11(6): p. 805–809.

9. T. J. McGhee, (1990), Water supply and sewerage, McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

10. C. W. Howe and F. P. Linaweaver, (1967), The impact of price on residential water
demand and its relation to system design and price structure, Water Resources
Research, 3(1): p. 13–32.

22
 Chapter-4

Water supply in Pakistan

23
 WATER SUPPLY IN PAKISTAN
4.1 COVERAGE

Currently over 65 percent of Pakistan’s population is considered to have access to

improved water sources. This figure relates to the year 2011-2012 [1]. Huge disparities,
however, exist with respect to drinking water coverage between urban and rural areas and
provinces/regions. With respect to urban and rural coverage, the figures are 85% and 55%,
respectively [2]. Improved water source refers to piped supply, protected wells and springs.
It is likely to be protected from outside contamination, in particular from fecal matter [3].
The quality of the drinking water supply, in Pakistan, is generally poor, with bacterial
contamination, arsenic, fluoride and nitrate being the parameters of major concern[4, 5].
Sustainability of the existing water supply systems is also a major issue in the sector.

4.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGS)

The Millennium Summit was held in 2000 under the auspices of the United Nations
(UN). In this summit a declaration with the name of Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
was announced. MDG contain eight goals; (1) reduce poverty by half; (2) ensure universal
primary education; (3) eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education and
empower women; (4) reduce by two third under five child mortality rate; (5) reduce by three
quarters the maternal mortality rate; (6) halt HIV/AIDS; (7) halve proportion of population
having no access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation and (8) develop global
partnership for development; all eight by the target year of 2015 [6].
Thus Goal-7 of MDG fixes targets for water supply and sanitation. As per MDG, the
target for Pakistan is to increase access to improved water source to 93% by 2015 [2].
However, it could not be achieved.
World leader of 193 member states again rallied under the auspices of the United
Nations, in September 2015. Purpose was to review the progress and learn from the
experience of MDG. The outcome was 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of
the 2030. Development Agenda for 2030 is titled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development”. The SDGs are a new, universal set of goals, targets and
indicators that the UN member states will be expected to use to frame their agendas and
political policies over the next 15 years.
6th SDG is “clean water and sanitation” to all till 2030. Experts have stated that
without progress on Goal 6, the other goals and targets cannot be achieved. Safe drinking
water and hygienic toilets protect people from disease and enable societies to be
productive. Attending school and work without disruption is a precursor to education and
employment, both of which are the foundation of alleviating poverty. A study undertaken in

24
2016 concluded that sanitation, when done with a resource recovery and reuse focus would
contribute towards achieving at least fourteen of the SDGs, especially in an urban context
[7, 8].

4.3 POLICY, LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATOR FRAMEWORK ON WATER

Policy is the first tier of any action by the government. It gives the vision of the
government and broad guidelines and direction in which the government wishes to move
on an issue. For effective implementation of a policy, legislation needs to be done. Law in
addition to its own provisions also gives powers to the relevant institutions to make
rules/regulations to effectively implement the purposes of the law. These institutions may
frame rules/regulations from time to time for implementation of the provisions of the law and
to cater for any new situation that may arise. The whole concept is shown in Fig. 3.1.

Policy
(Vision, priorities and direction of Govt.)

Legislation
(Laws enacted by Parliament)

Regulations
(Rules by concerned minstries/institutions)

Figure 4.1: Concept of regulatory framework

On the policy level, National Drinking Water Policy was announced in 2009. It
recognizes provision of safe drinking water as a fundamental human right and the duty of
the state. It envisages to provide access to safe and sustainable drinking water supply to
the entire population of Pakistan by 2025 [9]. The policy lays emphasis on community
participation in planning, implementation and operation of water supply projects. In addition,
capacity building of water supply departments, public awareness on importance of clean
water, protection and conservation of water resources, research and development on

25
improved access, effectiveness and sustainability of water supply are also highlighted. It
also suggests establishing “surveillance agency” at national and provincial levels for
monitoring of water quality. It also targets to enact “Pakistan Safe Drinking Water Act” to
ensure compliance with the enforced drinking water quality standards[10].
On the legal side, the major piece of legation is “Pakistan Environmental Protection
Act, 1997 (PEPA, 1997)”. However, after 18th amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan in
2010, provincial governments have been given exclusive powers to legislate on the subject
of “environmental pollution and ecology [11]. Now each province would have its own
Environmental Protection Act. At the moment, most of the provinces have adopted PEPA,
1997 with minor modifications. Similarly, each province will now have its own environmental
quality standards as against National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS), which were
enforced all over Pakistan, before the 18th amendment. Environmental Protection Acts
ensure the protection of water resources against contamination through the enforcement of
Environmental Quality Standards.
Major breakthrough on legal side would be the Safe Drinking Water Act. However,
it is yet awaited from the federal government. Punjab has drafted Punjab Municipal Water
Act in 2013, however, it needs ratification from the provincial assembly before it comes into
force.
National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) were enforced in year
2010. However, after the 18th amendment, each province would have its own drinking water
quality standards. Without Water Act, and any punitive action on the violation of drinking
water standards, its implementation and compliance will remain a major issue. Punjab
Environmental Quality Standards for Drinking Water (PEQSDW) prescribe limits for 33
parameters. Complete details are given in Chapter-10.

4.4 WATER OPERATORS IN PAKISTAN

4.4.1 Construction

Different government agencies are involved in the construction and operation of

water supply facilities. Mostly Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) takes
responsibility of planning, designing and construction of water supply facilities in rural areas
and small towns. Water and Sanitation Agencies (WASAs) take the same responsibility in
big urban centers.

4.4.2 Operation and maintenance

Projects completed by PHED are handed over to the community based

organizations (CBOs) in rural areas, municipal committees in small towns and municipal
corporations in larger towns, for further operation and maintenance.

26
 CBOs are local Non Government Organizations (NGOs). Members belong to the
same village. These are usually involved from the start of the construction activity. Currently
many CBOs are operating water supply schemes in rural areas.
There are interesting examples of CBOs operating in semi urban areas. These may
be considered as the role models in Pakistan. One example is that of a locality named
Rehmatabad adjacent to Chaklala in Rawalpindi. CBO is operating the water supply
scheme since 2006. Total house connections are 5200. Total saving of the CBO is more
than Rs 10 million. It also has 4 diesel generator sets as alternate source of energy.
Community is satisfied with the service delivery and there are hardly any complaints as
against WASAs and Municipal Corporations (MCs). Water charges recovery is 100% due
to better service delivery and efficient complaint redressal system [12].
Second most successful example in private sector is that of Afzal Abad in
Rawalpindi. It is also a semi urban area adjacent to Chaklala. CBO is operating the water
supply scheme since 2006. Total house connections are 600.Total saving of the CBO is
more than two hundred thousand Rupees with 4 diesel generators [12].

REFERENCES

1. Government of Pakistan, (2012), Pakistan social and living standards measurement

survey, Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Islamabad: p. 10. Accessed on:15-07-2014,
Available at: [http://unesco.org.pk/education/documents/2013/pslm/PSLM_2011-
12.pdf]

2. Ministry of Finance and Planning Commission of Pakistan, (2005), Medium term

development framework (MTDF): p. 15. 10-07-2014, Available at:
[www.pc.gov.pk/mtdf/Foreword.../Overview.pdf]

3. WHO and UNICEF, (2014), Refining the definitions: an ongoing process and the
ladder concept, Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation. Accessed on: 27-07-2014,
Available at: [http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods]

4. Sajjad Haydar, Javed Anwar Aziz and Muhammad Arshad, (2009), Evaluation of
drinking water quality in urban areas of Pakistan: A case study of southern Lahore,
Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, UET Lahore, 5(2): p. 16-23.

5. Sajjad Haydar and Muhammad Qasim, (2013), A study of water quality of Sargodha
city, Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, UET Lahore, 13(2): p.
110-117.

6. United Nations, Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015. Available at:
[http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals]

7. G. R. Gupta, (2015), Opinion: “Sanitation, water & hygiene for all” cannot wait for
2030. Accessed on: 19-06-2016, Available at:

27
 [http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-
6-clean-water-and-sanitation.htm]

8. M. Batty, (2015), Beyond the SDGs: How to deliver water and sanitation to
everyone, everywhere. Accessed on: 19-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.devex.com/news/beyond-the-sdgs-how-to-deliver-water-and-
sanitation-to-everyone-everywhere-86975]

9. Government of Pakistan, (2009), National drinking water policy, Ministry of

Environment, Islamabad: p. 5. Accessed on: 22-07-2014, Available at:
[www.environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicyOct2009.pdf]

10. Government of Pakistan, (2010), National standards for drinking water quality,
Minstry of Environment, Statutory Notification 1062(I)/2010, The Gazette of
Pakistan, : p. 3207.

11. F. Pastakia, (2012), Environmental Protection and the Eighteenth Amendment:

Impact of constitutional amendments on environmental protection legislation,
analysis of laws in force, and assessment of implementation issues, National Impact
Assessment Program, IUCN. Accessed on: 23-07-2014, Available at:
[https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/pk_niap_impact_of_18th_amd___final_draft_
_19_may_2012__formatted.pdf]

12. Waqar Ahmad (Community Development Specialist), (2014), Private sector in water
supply operation and maintenance, [Personal Communication].

28
 Chapter-5

Design criteria for water

supply

29
 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR WATER SUPPLY
In most of the countries, laid down design criteria are available for the design of
public water supplies. The criteria usually specify different design parameters that must be
followed during the design process. The specified parameters are based upon scientific
knowledge and past experiences of the service providers (like PHED, WASA or any other
agency). Revisions are common in design criteria and may take place due to the changes
in consumer’s life styles, habits and new emerging ground realities. In Pakistan, local design
criteria for public water supply are available with most of the PHEDs and WASAs.
Design engineers are suggested to obtain and follow the locally available design
criteria. In the following sections, design criteria developed by Punjab PHED and followed
in Punjab are presented [1]. Other local/provincial design criteria are close to it with little
modifications.

5.1 DOMESTIC WATER CONSUMPTION

Punjab PHED design criteria prescribe water consumption with respect to

population slabs as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Per capita water consumption as per PHED Punjab design criteria[1]
Design population Per capita consumption (including unaccounted for water)
(LPCD) (GPCD)
Up to 5000 45 10
5,001-10,000 67.5 15
10,001-20,000 90 20
20,001-50,000 135 30
50,001-100,000 180 40
100,000-200,000 225 50
200,000-300,000 247.5 55
300,000-400,000 270 60
400,000-500,000 292.5 65
500,000-600,000 315 70
600,000-700,000 337.5 75
700,000-800,000 360 80
>800,000 382.5 85
LPCD=Liters per capita per day; GPCD=Gallons per capita per day; 1 Gallon=4.5 Liter
It can be seen in the above table that per capita water consumption is lower for
smaller communities having less population. In rural areas having less population, water
based amenities like showers, wash basins etc. are not used. In addition, due to modest life
style, per capita consumption is less. In urban areas, due to better life style, use of water

30
based amenities like showers, wash basins, and other miscellaneous uses, per capita water
use is higher. In view of the growing water scarcity, the values above 225 LPCD (50 GPCD)
appear to be on higher side and perhaps need revision in future by PHED.

5.2 INSTITUTIONAL WATER CONSUMPTION

Punjab PHED criteria suggest that for hospitals, hostels, schools etc. an allowance
of 45 liters (10 gallons) per boarder per day and 22.5 liters (5 gallons) per day-scholar per
day is to be made.
Building code of Pakistan suggests the following water requirements for different
buildings as given in Table 5.2 [2].
Table 5.2: Guide for water requirements in buildings
Type of building Water requirements
LPCD GPCD
Assembly buildings
Cinemas, concert halls, theaters 10-23/Seat 2.2-5/Seat
Mosques 3-5/Nimazi/Prayer 0.7-1.1/Nimazi/Prayer
Restaurants 23-100/Seat 5-22/Seat
Railway stations 23-45 5-10
Domestic and international air ports 45-90 5-20
Institutional buildings
Schools 23-70 5-15
Hospitals 225-500/Bed 50-110/Bed
Residential buildings
Hotels 135-300 30-88
Apartment houses 135-225 30-50
Dwellings and lodging houses 135-400 30-88
Boarding schools and colleges 70-135 15-30
Mercantile and business buildings 23-45 5-10

In Table 5.2, range of water requirement is given. Thus, one can select a value
depending upon the water availability in that area. If water is abundantly available, one may
opt for the higher limit. In case of limited water availability, the lower limit may be opted.

5.3 VARIATIONS IN WATER DEMANDS

Maximum day demand = 1.5 times average day demand

Peak hourly demand = 1.5 times maximum day demand

31
5.4 TUBE WELLS

Design discharge if overhead storage is provided in distribution system= Max day

demand
Design discharge in case of direct pumping (no overhead storage) = Peak hourly
demand
Design period = 10-15 years

5.5 WORKING HOURS FOR TUBE WELLS (RURAL; URBAN)

While designing tube well, the following pumping hours may be adopted;
Rural areas = 4-6 hours
Semi urban = 16 hours
Urban area = 18-20 hours

5.6 CHLORINATION

For water disinfection (killing of disease causing bacteria or pathogens), normally

hypochlorinators are used. Chlorine gas may also be used; however, it needs extensive
safety measures. It is advisable to maintain a residual chlorine concentration of 0.1 mg/L at
the consumer end. The purpose is to provide safety against contamination that may occur
during supply of water through water distribution system/network.

5.7 TUBE WELL PUMP HOUSE

It is a masonry structure to house the tube wells. It is a room which is normally 10 ft

by 10 ft.
Design period = 25 years

5.8 PUMPING MACHINERY

Design discharge= same as that for tube well mentioned in section 5.4.
Design period=10 years

5.9 WATER TRANSMISSION LINES/MAINS

Design discharge if overhead storage is present = Max day demand

Design discharge with no overhead storage = Peak hourly demand
Design period = 25 years

5.10 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Design discharge = Peak hourly demand

32
 Design period = 25 years

5.11 TERMINAL PRESSURE IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Rural area = 8 m (26 ft)

Urban area = 12 m (39 ft)

5.12 VELOCITY OF FLOW IN PIPES

Transmission line/mains = 0.46-2.13 m/sec (1.5-7 ft/sec)

Distribution system = 0.3 to 1.5 m/sec (1-5 ft/sec)

Terminal pressure is the control parameter for distribution system design. Velocity
lower than mentioned above may be used. Velocities higher than those aforementioned
should be avoided to prevent excessive internal wear of pipes.

5.13 MINIMUM PIPE SIZE

For plain areas = 80 mm (3 inch)

Hilly areas = 38 mm (1.5 inch)
Provide distribution pipes on both sides of street if street width is 9m (30 ft) or more.
In case of small water supplies, diameter lesser than 80 mm may be used as long as
required terminal pressures could be obtained throughout the water distribution system.

5.14 COVER OVER PIPES

Provide 3 ft (1 m) earth cover over pipes, except in hilly areas where soil is rocky
and pipe is to be laid in open. Road cuts are to be backfilled with pit/river sand.

5.15 FIRE HYDRANTS

Fire hydrants are to be provided in urban, semi urban and rural areas. The minimum
size of the fire hydrant should be 50 mm (2.5 inches). The location may be fixed as per site
conditions and requirements. Following factors be kept in mind for the location: (1) the type
of building construction, which influences the seriousness of the fire hazard and the chances
that fire may spread to adjoining premises; (2) the cost involved in providing and maintaining
fire hydrants and (3) sensitivity of the buildings in the area.

5.16 SLUICE VALUES AND NON-RETURN VALVES

Sluice valves will be located at main control points for balancing and regulating the
flows. The exact location may be fixed by the design engineer as per layout of the
distribution system and requirements. It is purely on the judgment of the design engineer.

33
However, sufficient number of sluice valves should be provided to have flexibility of
operations and closure of supply to specific areas, if required. For water supply schemes
with design population of up to 10,000 persons the fire hydrants are to be located at every
waterworks locations, and for larger schemes at appropriate locations.
Non return value must be provided outside the delivery main of the tube well. It
should also be provided in the rising main after 2000 meters to reduce the water hammer.

5.17 AIR VALVES AND WASHOUTS

Air valves must be provided at the summits and after 2000 m (6000 ft) intervals in
straight reaches to facilitate escape of the trapped air.
Washouts be provided at the lowest points to wash pipes from all kinds of debris
deposited, which normally occurs with the passage of time.

5.18 OVERHEAD RESERVOIRS

Overhead storage reservoirs should be essentially provided in all urban and rural
water supply schemes except in cases of such hilly / semi hilly areas where appropriately
located ground storage reservoirs can provide and maintain the requisite minimum terminal
pressure in the system.
Capacity of overhead reservoirs in case of communities having population more
than 10,000 persons should be based on 1/10th of average day demand. Minimum capacity
of overhead reservoir should not be less than 10,000 gallons.

5.19 GROUND STORAGE TANKS (GST)

When the length of the rising main is long, it may result in very high head losses. It
necessitates the use of a very high head pump. Sometimes it is not feasible. Thus,
intermediate pumping stations are advisable under such conditions. An intermediate
pumping station comprises of a ground storage tank and pumping machinery installed in a
pump house. The capacity of ground storage tank, at intermediate pumping station, is
recommended to be based on 6 hours storage of total average daily demand.

5.20 WATER METERING

For ensuring sustainability of water supply schemes both in rural and urban areas
water metering is mandatory. Metering avoid wasteful use of water. It also facilitates
equitable levy of water charges i.e. one that uses more water have to pay more and vice
versa.

34
REFERENCES

35
 Chapter-6

Population projection

36
 POPULATION PROJECTIONS
6.1 GENERAL

To design water supply and sewerage facilities for a community, population

projection needs to be done. Future population estimates should be made carefully. If the
forecasted population is on the lower side, engineering works will become inadequate early.
This will require early re-design and facility extension. Over-estimation on the other hand
will result in over-design and high costs.
Different methods are available to forecast future population. Each method results
in a different value for the future estimate. It is, therefore, important for the design engineer
to adopt a suitable method for a particular area.
Past population data are required for the estimation of future population. The best
source of population data is the census conducted by the government in the country. In
Pakistan census used to be conducted after every 10 years [3] . However, after 1981, the
next census was conducted in 1998 i.e. after a lapse of 17 years. It was the 5th census in
Pakistan. 6th census was conducted in 2017. Results have been announced. Census data
are published for every district in a province in the form of district census book. It contains
population figures including both rural and urban areas in the district.

6.2 DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS IN PAKISTAN

As per 2017 census, the average annual growth rate of Pakistan is 2.4%. The
demographic trends vary in urban and rural areas. Variations in the urban population
growth rate, for Pakistan, is shown in Fig. 6.1 [4, 5]. The data have been adopted from the
World Bank website. The figure shows the average values. It can be seen in Fig. 6.1 that
urban population growth rate touched its peak in 1975 to a maximum of 4.5%. Thereafter,
it decreased gradually. The possible reasons of reduction in growth rate are: (1) economic
pressure in supporting large families; (2) rising levels of awareness in the public about family
planning and (3) better access to contraceptives [6].

37
 Urban
5 4.5

Average annual growth rate (%)

4.5 4.3 4.2
4 3.8
3.5 3.4
3.5 3.2 3.2
3
3 2.8 2.7
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2017
Year

Figure 6.1: Urban population growth rate trend in Pakistan [4]

The trend in rural population growth rate is shown Fig. 6.2. It is the average for the
entire Pakistan [7]. Growth rate was maximum in 1975 and thereafter it decreased.

Rural
3 2.7
Average annual growth rate (%)

2.6
2.4 2.4 2.35 2.33 2.32 2.3
2.5 2.28 2.26 2.23

1.5

0.5

0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2017
Year

Figure 6.2: Rural population growth rate trend in Pakistan [7]

The overall average for Pakistan, urban and rural areas is available from 2017
census results. For designing, say, a water supply system, population for next 20 years
from 2017 census i.e. (2037) a careful projection of the average annual growth rate is made.
Here again, there is no other option but to extrapolate the previous trend of population
growth rate. A trend line may be fitted into the data to project it for future years. Most of the
time, designers use the growth rate in 2017 for future projection. Although, it is debatable,
but yet practiced.

38
6.3 DIFFERENT METHODS OF POPULATION PROJECTION

Different methods may be employed for population projection. Some of the

commonly used methods are discussed in the following sections [8].

6.3.1 Arithmetic growth method

This method is based upon the hypothesis that “rate of growth is constant” i.e. a
constant number of people are added to the city/village population in a certain period of
time.
Mathematically

=  Equation 6.1

Integrating the equation, results in

 =  +   −   Equation 6.2

Where
Pf= Future population
Pi= Population of last census
Ka= Arithmetic growth rate constant/year
tf= Future year in which population is required
ti=Year in which last census was held
In this method, population data for at least two previous census are required. These
data are used for finding the value of Ka as shown below

Census 1980 1990 …….. 2030

Year te ti
Population Pe Pi Pf

 − 
 =
 − 
Once value of Ka is known, it is used in equation 6.2 to find the future population Pf.
A plot between population and time will appear as a straight line on a simple graph paper.
The value of Ka is given by the slope of the line.

Suitability: This method is used for cities where there is limited industrial growth in
and around the city.

39
6.3.2 Geometric growth method

This method is based upon the hypothesis that “rate of growth is proportional to the
population.
Mathematically

=  Equation 6.3

Integration of equation (3) results in:

!  − !  =   −   Equation 6.4

Where:
Ln = natural logarithm
Kg = geometric growth rate constant/year. It can be calculated by using the following
equation.
"# $ %"# &
 = Equation 6.5
$ %&
Geometric growth formula may also be expressed in the following form.

 =  × (1 + )) Equation 6.6

Where
Pf = Future population
Pi = initial population
X = Annual population growth rate
n = Number of years after which population is required

Suitability: Future population of a city with large resources of land, power, job
opportunities and good transportation may be the best predicted by geometric growth
method.

6.3.3 Logistic method

This method assumes that the population has an S shape. The population of a place
may initially increase at geometric growth rate. Afterwards, it may follow arithmetic growth.
As space constraints increase, growth rate may further decline till saturation population is
reached. After that the increase in population is either zero or very minimal and the
population is more or less stabilized.

40
 Mathematically


 = ./+,-
,01∆-  Equation 6.7

Where
P=Future population
Psat=Saturation population

Now
34 5 6 %56 (4 /6 )
 = 4 6 %56
Equation 6.8

+,- %4
7 = 8 9 : Equation 6.9
4

. 4 (+,- %5 )
; = < 8 9 : Equation 6.10
5 (+,- %4 )

Previous census data are required for this method

Census year 1960 1970 1980 …….. 2030
Population Po P1 P2 P

N=10 i.e. census interval

∆t = 2030 - 1960

1960 is the base year corresponding to Po

Suitability: Suitable for areas where the boundaries of the city are limited by the
area available and the growth is not possible beyond these limits; for example, build-up
area like walled city in Lahore, being considered for extension or renovation of existing
water supply system.

6.3.4 Graphical method

This is another method of population forecasting. It may be used in two cases: first
one is the graphical method based on single city and second one is the graphical method
based on cities having similar growth conditions. The latter is also known as Curvilinear
Method.

41
 Graphical method based on a single city

In this method, the population of the last few decades of an existing city are plotted
to a suitable scale as shown in a Fig. 6.3. The population curve is smoothly extended for
estimating the future population. This extension should be done very carefully by
considering all factors which affect population growth in that area. It also requires proper
experience and judgment. This method is very simple but may not be accurate method for
estimating the future population [9].

0.6

0.5
Population in million

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 2031 2041 2051
Year

Figure 6.3: Graphical method of population forecasting based on single city

 Graphical method based on similar cities with similar growth pattern:

In this method, the population of similar cities, developed under similar conditions,
are plotted. These cities should have similar conditions of growth, geographical proximity,
likeness of economic base, access to similar transportation systems and other such factors
[8]. Afterwards, the curve of past population of the city, in focus, is plotted on the same
graph [1]. The curve is extended carefully by comparing it with the population curves of
similar cities.
The advantage of this method is that the future population can be predicted from the
present population even in the absence of some of the past census reports. The following
example will make it clear.
The population of a city X is given for census year 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 and
is 32000, 38000, 43000 and 50000, respectively. The cities A, B, C and D were developed
in similar conditions as that of city X. It is required to estimate the population of the city X in
the year 2020. The population of cities A, B, C and D, for different census years, is given
below in Table 6.1.

42
 Table 6.1: Population data of city A, B, C and D
City A City B City C City D
Year Population Year Population Year Population Year Population
1960 50,000 1962 50,000 1964 50,000 1961 50,000
1972 62,000 1970 58,000 1970 56,500 1973 54,000
1980 72,000 1981 69,000 1980 64,000 1982 58,,000
1990 87,000 1988 76,000 1988 70,000 1989 62000
.
Population curves for the cities A, B, C, D and X are plotted (Fig. 6.4). Then an
average mean curve is also plotted by dotted line as shown in the figure below. The
population curve X is extended beyond 50,000 matching with the dotted mean curve. From
the curve, the population obtained for city X is 68,000 in year 2020.

100

80 B
C
Population in thousands

X
D
60

40

20

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year

Figure 6.4: Graphical method of population forecasting based on similar cities having similar growth
pattern and local conditions [9]

6.3.5 Upsets in population estimates

Sometimes upsets in population estimates of a city may occur. Extra-ordinary events

such as (1) discovery of a nearby oil field; (2) sudden development of an industry and (3)
mass influx of people in a city due a natural disaster or immigration may upset the estimate

43
of future population and necessitate early extension of existing water and sewerage
facilities.

Solved example

The population data of a city are given below. Find the projected population for the
year 2025 using (1) arithmetic and (2) geometric methods.

1998 2017 2025

Year
(te) (ti) (tf)
Population 135,000 210,000 Pf=?
Arithmetic/ Pe Pi
Geometric

Solution
Arithmetic method
$ %&
Ka=
$ %&
3.=,===%.,===
Ka=
3=.?%.@@A
Ka=3947 per year

 =  +  −  
3=3 = 3=.? + (3=3 − 3=.? )
3=3 = 210,000 + 3947(2025 − 2017)
3=3 = 241,576 persons

Geometric method
!  − ! 
 =
 − 
! 3=.? − ! .@@A
 =
3=.? − .@@A

! (210,000) − ! (135,000)
 =
2017 − 1998

 = 0.023 per year

44
!  − !  =   −  

! 3=3 − ! 3=.? =  (3=3 − 3=.? )

! 3=3 = ! 3=.? +  (3=3 − 3=.? )

! 3=3 = ! (210,000) + 0.023(2025 − 2017)

3=3 =250,196 persons

The results using different methods are compared in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Comparison of population forecast using different methods
Sr. No. Method Design population
1 Arithmetic 241,576
2 Geometric 250,196

It can be seen that geometric method gives the maximum population when
compared with other methods. Hence it may be used for fast growing cities.

Solved example
The population of a city, in Pakistan, as per 2017 census was 350,000 persons. The
city has well developed industrial area having abundant job opportunities. An oil field also
exists near the city. All basic amenities of life are available. Find the population of the city
in 2037.

Solution

Geometric growth method will be used to find out the future population of the city in
the year 2037, because the city has well developed industrial area, having abundant job
opportunities. In addition, all basic amenities of life are available.

 = (1 + ))
Where;
Pf = Future population=P 2037 = ?
Pi = Population from the last census=P2017=350,000 persons
X = Per annum population growth rate
n = number of year from census year to the future year in which population is
required= 2037-2017=20 years.

45
 As per 2017 census, the average growth rate for urban areas is 2.7%.
∴  = 3=.? (1 + ))
3=? = 350,000(1 + 0.027)3=
3=? = STU, VWU persons.

REFERENCES

1. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water
supply and sanitation sectors.

2. Government of Pakistan, (1986), Building Code of Pakistan, Ministry of Housing and

Works, Environment and Urban Affair Division: p. 6-3.

3. Government of Pakistan, Population Census Organization. Accessed on: 22-08-

2014, Available at: [www.census.gov.pk/aboutus.php]

4. Trading Economics, (2014), Urban population growth (annual %) in Pakistan.

Accessed on: 02-08-2014, Available at:
[http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-
percent-wb-data.html]

5. Government of Pakistan, (2017), Press release on provisional summary results of

the 6th population and housing census-2017, Ministry of Economics.

6. S. E. Barkan, (2012), Sociology ; Population growth and decline, USA. Available at:
[https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociology-comprehensive-edition]

7. Trading Economics. Rural population growth (annual %) in Pakistan. 2014 August

2, 2014]; Available from: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/rural-
population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html.

8. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc.,
USA.

9. NPTEL IIT, (2010), Module 5: Population forecasting, Indian Insitutue of Technology

Kharagpur Accessed on: 25-12-2014, Available at:
[http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105048/M5L5.pdf]

46
 Chapter-7

Water sources

47
 WATER SOURCES
7.1 SIGNIFICANCE

As discussed earlier (Chapter-1), the first component of water supply engineering is

water source; the place from where water is obtained for further supply/distribution. Sources
for public water supplies will be focused in this chapter.
For public water supplies, there could be two possible water sources. These are: (1)
groundwater and (2) surface water (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, canals, springs). Groundwater
can be tapped using deep wells (tube wells). On the other hand, surface water sources may
be tapped using different methods depending upon the type of source. The site conditions
at a surface water source also affect the methodology for extracting the water. The site
conditions could be highly variable from place to place.
A dependable and reliable water source holds an important place in the success of
a water supply system. Failure of source could bring the whole system to a halt. Hence final
selection of a water source should be made with great care and after sufficient
investigations and data collection.

7.2 INVESTIGATIONS FOR SUITABLE WATER SOURCE

7.2.1 Groundwater source

Initial Reconnaissance: If a water source is to be based on groundwater by installing

deep wells, following investigations must be made before selecting a site: (1) gather
information on already installed tube wells in close vicinity of the project area; (2) investigate
discharge of the already installed wells; (3) note down capacity of the pumping machinery
installed; (4) inquire about the length of continuous run of the tube well (it gives clue about
the health of underground aquifer; short run shows weak aquifer and vice versa); (4) draw
down that occurs due to pumping, and (5) quality of water
Electric Resistivity Survey (ERS): Based on the initial reconnaissance, three or four
sites may be selected for the installation of tube well. Electric resistivity survey (ERS) may
be carried out through trained professionals on the selected points. It is the most widely
used method for groundwater profiling. A current is passed through the earth. The data
generated give the lithology and groundwater potential [1-5].
Mostly hydrogeologists conduct ERS surveys, interpret the results and give their
recommendation as to which site among those surveyed is the most suitable. Trial bores
are dug at the prospective site and strata are checked. If possible, pumping tests are run to
check the robustness of the aquifer. If results are encouraging with respect to water quality

48
and quantity, the trial bore is converted into tube well. However, if none of the ERS site is
prospective, new ERS probes are made in the surrounding area.
Electric Well Logging (EWL): It is always preferable to run electric well logging
before developing conversion plan (location of strainer and blind pipes) for the tube well [6-
8]. It is a technique that determines exact locations of different type of strata encountered
in the bore hole; driller manual record may be in error and hence not reliable to take a final
decision on conversion. Electric well logs are run and interpreted by hydrogeologists. They
also provide proposed conversion chart for the tube well and estimated yield.

7.2.2 Surface water source

Surface water sources (dams, lakes, rivers, canals) have different investigation
requirements. Normally, following data are collected [9-13].
1. Yield of a stream/river
2. Maximum flood levels (to locate water supply structure at places that are safe
from flood damage)
3. Maximum and minimum flow levels in a stream/river
4. If source is to be based on canal, canal closure time and duration be known.
5. Dead storage levels in case of dams/lakes
6. Quality of water (for details on water quality, see chapter 10)
The above data help in estimating total quantity of water available from surface
water source, finalize location of water supply installations and type of treatment to be
provided.

7.3 DESIGN DISCHARGE FOR WATER SOURCE

As discussed in Chapter-5, the design discharge adopted for water source depends
whether water storage in the form of overhead reservoirs (OHRs) is provided in the water
supply system or not. Thus, there could be two choices to fix design discharge of a water
source [14]:
(a) Design discharge = maximum day demand (with OHR)
(b) Design discharge = peak hourly demand (without OHR)

When OHRs are provided, water during off-peak hours (during night time when
water demand touches its lowest) pumped water goes to OHR. Thus, it is filled during the
off-peak hours. Therefore, when the peak demand comes, water is being pumped, both
from water source and is drawn from OHR. In this way, peak demand is met. Hence there
is no need to design the source on peak demand. However, when no OHRs are provided
in the system, the withdrawal from source must be based on peak demand.

49
 In the following sections, first, the groundwater will be discussed. Various terms
related to groundwater, different methods for the extraction of groundwater and the design
of tube wells will be discussed in detail. Later, surface water source will be reviewed.

7.4 GROUNDWATER

7.4.1 Definitions of various terms related to groundwater

Few terms that relate to the water source need to be defined for better
understanding of the reader. These terms are defined with reference to Fig. 7.1.

Figure 7.1: Natural phenomenon and terms related to groundwater

Aquifer (zone of saturation) is the portion of earth in which all the pores are filled
with water. Upper surface of the aquifer is called water table. Aquiclude is the impervious
stratum through which water cannot pass. Stratum is a layer or set of successive layers of
any deposited substance. Perched Water Table is a small pocket of water in a basin of
impermeable material above the zone of saturation. Porosity is the ratio of total pore
volume to the volume of stratum. Porosity alone is not sufficient to evaluate stratum. If
porosity is high but pores are small, then water is not easily transmitted through such
stratum e.g. clay. Permeability is the capacity of a stratum to transmit water. Porosity and
permeability are two fundamental properties of a stratum that decide its suitability. Sand,

50
gravel and sandstone are considered the best aquifers to draw water for public water
supplies.
Figure 7.2 shows a typical well installed in an aquifer. Terms used in the figure are
defined here. Cone of Depression is the space in the aquifer from where water has been
removed by pumping. Radius of Circle of Influence is the radius of the base of the cone
of depression. Draw Down is the distance from the original water surface to the lowered
surface of water in the well, because of pumping. Draw down depends upon the robustness
of aquifer and rate of water drawn. It may range from 10 ft to 30 ft under normal conditions.
In extreme cases, it may go up to 70 to 80 ft. Hydraulic grade line (HGL) is the line joining
the piezometer levels in the direction of flow and the slope of the line is called hydraulic
gradient.

Figure 7.2: A typical well installed in an aquifer

7.4.2 Types of wells (based upon flow conditions)

 Gravity well

In this case the water surface is at atmospheric pressure and well is vertical. It is
also known as water table well (Fig. 7.3(a)).

 Pressure Well

It is a well, which passes through an aquiclude to an aquifer holding water under

pressure greater than the atmospheric. If the water is self-flowing then it is called artesian
well (Fig. 7.3(b)).

51
 (a) Gravity Well (b) Pressure Well
Figure 7.3: Gravity and pressure wells

 Horizontal Wells

They are also known as “infiltration galleries” and are usually installed in the bed
of nullah having perennial flow (Fig. 7.4). Normally, PVC pipes with perforations in upper
half of pipe are laid by excavating trench in nullah bed. It is then filled with filter material,
normally rounded gravel over pipe overlain by sand. Water flowing in nullah enters trench
and subsequently perforated PVC pipe. Pipe is laid in slope to a sump well along the bank
of nullah. Water collected in sump well is then pumped to the community, after disinfection.
Fig. 7.4(a) shows the plan of a typical infiltration gallery; it is meant to explain the layout of
the gallery, which of course depends upon the site conditions. While Fig. 7.4 (b) shows the
typical sectional details.

52
 Figure 7.4: Horizontal wells or infiltration galleries

7.4.3 Types of wells (according to depth)

 Shallow wells

Wells less than 100 ft (30m) in depth are called shallow wells. These are normally
used in rural areas where water table is high. They are easy to dig and involve little cost but
have some draw backs [15-17].
(a) Water table of shallow wells is likely to fluctuate thus quantity of water from such
wells is not certain.
(b) Sanitary quality of water is likely to be poor if open. Hence shallow wells must be
covered.

53
 Deep wells (Tube
(Tube wells)

These are wells with depth greater than 100 ft (30 m)). Cities with good quality
groundwater depend upon deep wells.
These have certain advantages [15].
(a) These tap water from extensive aquifers, thus no quick fluctuation in water table
takes place.
(b) Such wells result in large uniform yield.
(c) The water obtained usually needs no treatment except chlorination.
Yield: It is defined as safe amount of water that can be drawn from an aquifer, using
a tube well, without excessive drawdown.

7.5 TUBE WELLS

Tube wells (also called deep wells) are normally used for public water supplies,
provided a good aquifer with acceptable water quality is available.

7.5.1 Components

Figure 7.5 shows different components of a tube well. On the top is Electric motor.
It rotates the shaft that spans from electric motor to the pump. When pump rotates, the
impellers, inside the pump, suck the surrounding groundwater and push it up, through
column pipe. The water from column pipe passes through the Discharge Head (shown in
Fig. 7.15), and enters into the water pipes laid in the water supply system.
Discharge head is designed to support the weight of the pump and column pipe
along with the shafting. It connects the pump column to the discharge piping and
contains the stuffing box that allows the pump shaft to pass into the column pipe.
Water transmission pipe, connected to the discharge head, is provided with
pressure gauge, non-return valve and an air valve. Pressure gauge gives the pressure
in the pipes. Non-return valve avoids reverse flow in the tube well, which may damage the
pumping machinery. Air valve is provided to entrap and release any air in water pipes. If not
released, it results in air lock and hinders free flow of water in the transmission line.
Strainer is perforated pipe used to draw water from the aquifer. Usually corrosion
resistant material like brass, PVC, or fiber glass is used. Diameter of strainer is normally
8 inch (200 mm) or 10 inch (250 mm). Shape of opening should always be flared towards
the inside to prevent packing of fine particles in them. Area of opening in the strainer is
normally 10-12 % of area of the strainer. Net total area of the strainer openings should be
such that the entrance velocity of water should not exceed 1 to 8 inch/sec (20-200 mm/sec)
[15]. Low velocities will tend to prevent clogging of the strainer by sand which would be
carried by great velocities. Blind pipe is mild steel pipe used to support the bore.

54
 Bail plug is at the bottom of the tube well and used to store sand particles that enter
in the initial running of the tube well and later bailed out before the tube well is put to its
normal operation. It is a mild steel pipe piece. Pumping chamber is a masonry room to
house the tube well and other electrical installations associated with it. Usually a square
room of 10 ft x 10 ft (3 m x 3m) is sufficient.

Figure 7.5: Components of a tube well

7.5.2 Construction

Drilling rigs are used to bore tube wells for water supplies. Different methods used
for the purpose include: (1) percussion method; (2) reverse rotary and (3) straight rotary.
The bore diameter normally lies in a range of 15 to 26 inch (375 to 650 mm). Percussion
method is mostly used for sandy soils. The speed of boring is slow. A tripod is used to lift
up and lower down a plunger with a cutting edge and tied with a steel rope (Fig. 7.6). The
strata keep filling in the plunger, fixed with a one way flap. After the plunger is filled, it is
emptied and the process is resumed. As the borehole proceeds, a mild steel casing is also
lowered to stop the hole to cave in. The process is repeated till the required depth is
achieved. Afterwards, the bail plug, strainer and blind pipe is lowered in the dug bore.
Conversion of a bore hole into a tube well means installing blind pipe and strainer in the

55
bore hole. The annular space between the bore and lowering (bail plug, strainer and blind
pipe) is filled with pea gravel and the mild steel casing is pulled out.

Figure 7.6: Percussion boring method

Reverse rotary method can be used both for sandy strata and sandstone. A boring
rig with diamond bit is used (Fig. 7.7). It can cut even the hard rocks. Bentonite mud slurry
is used to keep the bore sides intact. As the bore proceeds, the drilled material is collected
in a dug ditch. After the bore reaches its required depth, the lowering (bail plug, strainer and
blind pipe) is placed in the bore. Afterwards washing is done with clean water and pea gravel
is filled among the annular space between lowering and the bore, simultaneously with
washing process.

56
 Figure 7.7: Reverse rotary method

Straight rotary is suitable for sandy strata only. Bore could be drilled and put to
operation in less time as compared to percussion and reverse rotary. The process is just
opposite to reverse rotary. The diamond bit cuts the soil, water present at a higher elevation
is used to apply hydrostatic pressure to sustain the hole (Fig. 7.8). Once required depth is
achieved, the lowering is placed in the hole and pea gravel is filled in the annular space
between the lowering and the bore.

57
 Figure 7.8: Straight rotary method

Pea gravels packing is filled in the annular space between bore hole and lowering
(Fig. 7.9) and has the following advantages: (1) increase yield of tube well and (2) eliminate
sand pumping.

58
 Figure 7.9: Pea gravel packing in tube well

7.5.3 Major tests of tube well

(a) Verticality of tube well

For proper functioning of tube well and pumping machinery, a tube well should not
be out of plumb by more than 0.5 inches (12 mm) in 100 ft (30 m) [18-21]. For verticality
test, the arrangements are shown in Fig. 7.10. A plunger is lowered in the tube well. The
diameter of plunger is 0.5 inches (12 mm) less than the diameter of the lowering (blind pipe
and strainer). The length of the plunger is 25 ft (7.5 m). While lowering, it should not touch
the sides of tube well hole (blind pipe or strainer). If a tube well does not pass the verticality
test, it should be rejected and no payment should be made to the contractor.

59
 Figure 7.10: Verticality check of tube well

(b) Development and discharge test

To remove the fine sand particles, in the vicinity of the strainer, a new well is over
pumped i.e. at a rate greater than the design discharge; normally around one and half to
two times the design discharge [15]. However, during this process bridging of fine particles
may occur over the screen opening and between large particles. Therefore, a reverse
motion of water is needed to break the bridges and promote the flow of fine particles to and
through the screens. Following methods can be used to this effect: (1) plunger is raised and
lowered in the tube well; this creates a surge, which breaks the bridges; (2) by applying air
pressure against the strainer; using air compressors and (3) a turbine pump without a foot
valve is used to pump the water. When the pump is stopped, the water column falls and
break bridges.
During development, the drawdown at various discharges is also measured. It helps
to fix the pump setting depth (it is the depth to which pump is lowered in the tube well) of
the pumping machinery. The pump should be set at a depth where it remains submerged
during pump operation at which the draw down occurs. All this information is very important
for placement of pumping machinery at the suitable depth. Another benefit of discharge
testing and development is that it increases the yield and life of the tube well.

60
7.5.4 Strata chart (Well log) and conversion chart

During drilling of tube well, samples of strata encountered are taken and preserved
in a wooden box. A record of the strata is kept and called well log or strata chart (Fig. 7.11
(a)). The driller’s record is likely to be inaccurate and should be checked by an “electric log”.
It is carried out through an electric well log machine, which is lowered in the bore up to its
bottom. It identifies the strata layer with exact depth at which it is encountered and the type
of the strata. Electric log helps in correct placement of strainer and is essential to conduct.
It is done by the firms which specialize in this work. Hydrogeologists usually carry out both,
the electric resistivity survey and electric well logs.
Conversion chart (Fig. 7.11(b)) shows the location of strainer and blind pipes. It is
based upon information obtained from electric well log and as proposed by hydrogeologist.
Both strata and conversion chart must be placed in the pump house as an important record.

(a) (b)
Figure 7.11: Typical strata chart and conversion chart

7.5.5 Design of tube well

Design of tube well refers to: (1) discharge of the tube well; (2) finding the length of
strainer to give design discharge: (3) find the head of the pump to deliver the water at the
required height or place and (4) Break horse power (BHP) of the motor to drive the pump.
Design is further explained in the solved example.

61
7.5.6 Tube well troubles

Sometimes tube wells fail due to great reduction in their yield. It is not uncommon.
The main cause may be prolonged over-pumping i.e. more than the safe pumping rates
depending upon the health of aquifer. Sometimes another tube well installed in close
vicinity, of an already installed tube well, may profoundly affect its yield.
Casing or screen may cave or collapse, partially or completely. Once it happens in
an installed tube well, there is no remedy but to install a new tube well.
The casing or screen may corrode or leak at some point of time during the service
life of the tube well. If the tube well is of large diameter, a smaller casing and screen may
be placed inside the larger one, if possible. This could avoid installing a new tube well.
However, it must be ensured first, that this change would meet the water requirements. In
case of corrosion and subsequent collapse of strainer/well screen, there is no remedy, but
to install a new tube well in place of the old one [15].
The normal life of tube well ranges from 15 to 20 years [14]. With the passage of
time, the screens corrode or clog and the yield is significantly reduced.

7.6 PUMPS FOR WATER SUPPLY

7.6.1 Pump head, system curve and pump performance curve

A pump is used to transfer water from source to destination. This may be for filling
a reservoir at a higher elevation or pumping the water in the laid piping system. In either
case, some pressure is required to make this happen. This is generally referred to as Head.
Head may be of two types; (1) the static head and (2) friction (or dynamic) head.
Static head is the vertical distance to which the water must be lifted. The friction head
depends upon (1) inner pipe roughness; (2) pipe length; (3) pipe diameter and (4) fittings
and valves employed. The friction head increases approximately as a square of the increase
in flow. When static head and friction (or dynamic) head are added, these end up in the
form of a system curve (Fig. 7.12). This is primarily a graph between two parameters viz.
pump head and discharge. The system curve starts from static head; it rises and reaches
the friction/ dynamic head point. That point is known as the duty point (head and discharge
needed for the water supply system to run)

62
 System Curve
System Head (ft or m) Duty point

Dynamic Head

Static Head

Flow (gpm or m3/hr)

Figure 7.12: System curve

Pumps have bladed impellers. These rotate and add energy into water. The pump
converts this energy into pressure (head). Fig. 7.13 shows performance curve of a pump.
It is also referred as pump curve. It can be seen that as discharge increases, pump head
decreases. These curves are developed by manufacturer and vary widely from pump to
pump. The curve depends upon size and shape of the impeller. From performance curve,
one can see how a pump will perform at any given point within its performance range. If the
flow and head required fall on or below the pump performance curve, that particular pump
can be considered to meet the requirements.
Pump Head (ft or m)

Performance Curve

Flow (gpm or m3/hr)

Figure 7.13: Pump performance curve

For pump selection, system and performance curves of different pumps are
superimposed. The point, where performance curve of a pump cuts the system curve, is
the pump that may be the best for the purpose (Fig. 7.14). Even if the point of system curve
falls below the pump curve of a particular pump, that pump would be suitable for use.

63
 Performance Curve

Pump Head (ft or m)

System Curve

Flow (gpm or m3/hr)

Figure 7.14: Superimposing system and performance curves

Pumps may be of fixed and variable speed. A fixed speed pumps works only on its
curve i.e. combination of head and discharge available on its curve. While variable speed
pumps can adapt to the system requirements (varying discharge and head); however, they
have higher prices.

7.6.2 Pump selection process

Normally, an environmental engineer finds out the required discharge and head of
the pump. This data are provided to the pump manufacturer (KSB pumps, Grundfos pumps
or equivalent). A suitable pump is selected by the manufacturer using software, and pump
curves.
Best efficiency point of a pump is the operating region or point along
the pump performance curve [22, 23]. It is the region at which the pump operates at the
highest or optimum efficiency for a given impeller diameter.
In the pump selection process, the best one is that whose curve lies close to the
duty point in its maximum efficiency range. For more information, watch videos on YouTube.
Different types of pumps are used to pump water in water supply projects. A very
brief overview of these pumps is discussed in the following sections.

7.6.3 Vertical turbine pump

In case of vertical turbine pump, the motor is installed on the ground and the pump
is submerged in the water. A shaft from motor goes down to the pump and rotates the
impellers in the bowel assembly of the pump (Fig. 7.15). This rotation pushes the water up
from the pump into the water supply system. Vertical turbine pumps are water lubricated.
Before starting, water is poured into the column pipe. The rubber bushes supporting the
shaft are wetted with water. It is done through a drum attached to the discharge head. It
reduces friction when the pump initially starts and pump shaft rub against the rubber
bushes. Rubber bushes are used to keep the pump shaft in the center of column pipe.

64
 When the pump impellers are rotated through the pump shaft, water rises in the
column pipe and comes out through the discharge head. A pipe is connected with the
discharge head to supply water to the water distribution system.

Figure 7.15: Details in a vertical turbine pump

7.6.4 Submersible pump:

In it, motor is coupled with the pump and both pump and motor are submerged in
water (Fig. 7.16). These pumps are used when water table is quite deep; greater than 100
ft. Under such circumstances, if a vertical turbine pump is installed, the shaft length
becomes quite long. This significantly add to the operational and maintenance cost of the
pump.

65
 Figure 7.16: Details of a submersible pump

Solved Example

Village A exists at a place where underground water is available at a depth of 60 ft.

Water quality was tested and found satisfactory. The population of the village as per 2017
census is 4000 persons. The tube well has to deliver water to an overhead reservoir (OHR)
situated at a distance of 1000 ft from the tube well. The pipe used to deliver water from tube
well to OHR is PVC with a diameter of 3 inches (75 mm). Base slab of OHR is at a height
of 50 ft. The depth of reservoir water container is 10 ft. The reduced level of tube well is 100
ft and that of OHR site is 120 ft.
Design the water source for the village based on a tube well. Find the (a) design
flow for the tube well; (b) length of the strainer; (c) head of pump and (d) BHP of motor.
Assume a drawdown of 20 ft at the design discharge of tube well.

Solution

It is better to draw a hand sketch for such problems. It helps in carrying out the
design. A hand sketch for this problem is shown in Fig. 7.17.

66
 Figure 7.17: A hand sketch of the field situation
(a) Design flow of tube well
First, find out the design population of the village. The average rural population
growth rates of 2.23% as per 2017 census may be adopted (Figure 6.2). A design period of
15 years (year 2032)may be adopted for the tube well.. Equation-6.6 (Chapter-6) is used
for projection.

 =  × (1 + ))

Pf = Population in 2032
Pi = Population in 2017
X = 2.23% per annum
n = 15
substituting values
3=3 = 4000 × (1 + 0.023).

3=3 = 5,625
Average water consumption value could be adopted from Table 5.1 (Chapter
5) and it comes out to be 70 LPCD. Since OHR is present, therefore, the design
discharge of tube well will be equal to the maximum day demand.
Average water demand = 5,625 x 70=393,750 L/day=16.4 m3/hr

67
 Maximum day demand = 1.5x16.4=24.6 m3/hr
Pumping hours = 8 hr (PHED design criteria; Chapter-5 section 5.5)
∴ Total flow in 24 hour = 24.6 x 24 = 590.4 m3
Flow rate of the pump that delivers above volume of water in 8 hours
= 590.4/8 = 73.8 m3/hr
Therefore, design flow of pump = 73.8 m3/hr
=0.0205 m3/sec
= 0.73 cusec (100 m3/hr = 1 cusec)

Check velocity is rising main

Q = Ax V
X×Y 6
0.73 = Z
×[
..Z3×=.36
0.73 = ×[
Z
V = 14.89 ft/sec ( not meeting upper limit of 7 ft/sec; PHED Design Criteria)
Hence, there is a need to increase the diameter of rising main. Adopt 6 inch diameter
pipe and check velocity again.
..Z3×=.6
0.73 = ×[
Z
V = 3.56 ft/sec (OK)

(b) Length of tube well strainer

Q = Aslots x V
Where
Q= discharge of tube well (cusec)
Aslots= area of slots in the strainer pipe (normally 12% of area of pipe)
V= velocity of entrance of water into strainer=0.06 ft/sec (0.02 m/sec); Since strata
to be encountered in not know before hand, therefore, design it is always better to be on a
safer side. Hence lower entrance velocity is adopted as it gives strainer length on a higher
side.

∴ the length of strainer to take 0.73 cusec discharge would be

Q = A x V
(0.73) (0.12xπ x D x L) (0.06)

Where
Q = 0.73 cusec
D=dia of strainer; 10 inch (0.83 ft),

68
 L=length of strainer, ft
Substituting values in the above equation, we get
L= 39.3 ft
Add 20% as factor of safety
∴L = 1.2 x 39.3
= 47 ft (14.4 m)
(c) Design of pump head

Pump head= static head + friction or dynamic head

Static Head =(Depth of W.T)+ (draw dawn)+(height of OHR top)+(difference in
elevation between TW and OHR)
Friction/ Dynamic head = (head losses in pipe) + (losses in chamber) + FOS
Usually losses in chamber are taken as 5 ft. and Factor of safety (FOS) is adopted
as 10-15 ft.
Now, water is to be pumped from a depth of 60 ft. And when a draw down of 20 ft
occur then water has to be pumped from a depth of 80 ft. The level difference between
ground elevations of tube well and OHR is 20 ft. In pumping chamber, head losses occur
due to sharp turns of pipe and they may be assumed as 5 ft. Height of the OHR is 50+10=
60 ft i.e. the height of its base slab plus the height of water container. Normally a factor of
safety of 15-20 ft is adopted. The only thing to be determined is head losses in the pipe.
These can be determined by using Hazen William equation given below

] ..A "
\ = 10.68 9 : ×
 _.`a
Equation 7.1 (SI version of equation)
^
Where:
H= head loss, m
Q=Discharge, m3/sec
C= Hazen William Constant (140 for PVC pipes)
d= Diameter of pipe, m
L= Length of pipe, m

] ..A "
\ = 4.73 9 : ×
 _.`a
Equation 7.2 (FPS version of equation)
^
Where:
H= head loss, ft
Q=Discharge, Cusec(ft3/sec)
C= Hazen William Constant (140 for PVC pipes)
d= Diameter of pipe, ft
L= Length of pipe, ft

69
 Substituting values in FPS version,
=.? ..A .===
\ = 4.73 9 : × -----------------(FPS version of equation)
.Z= =._.`a

= 8.3 ft
Add 10% for specials in the rising main (valves, bends etc). Therefore, total head
losses in rising main
= 8.3x1.1 = 9.1 ft

Design head = Static head + Dynmaic head + FOS

= (60+20+20+60) + (9.1+5) + 10
= 184 ft

(d) Design of motor BHP

γ ×Q×Η
BHP = Equation 7.3
550×η
where γ = density of water = 62.4 Ib/ft3
Q= discharge of tube well, cusec
H= head of pump, ft
η = efficiency of motor ( 60% for electric motor, 40% for diesal engine)
62.4 × 0.73 × 184
b\ =
550 × 0.6
= 25.3
Rounding to higher side = 30
Electric motors are normally available in market with BHP of 5, 10, 15, 20 i.e. with
an increment of 5. Therefore, BHP is always rounded to the higher value, which is available
in the market.

7.7 SPRINGS

They appear at places where groundwater table crosses the surface of the earth or
from a fissure (Fig. 7.18)

70
 Figure 7.18: Springs

7.8 SURFACE WATER SOURCES

If either groundwater is not available, or it is of poor quality, the alternate is to switch

to a surface water source. Thus, the nearest surface water source (lake, dam, river, canal)
is considered to obtain water for a public water supply. In Pakistan, cities like Faisalabad,
Karachi and Rawalpindi utilize the surface water for their urban water supply system. In
Faisalabad, Rakh Branch Canal is used for this purpose and the water is transported to the
two water treatment plants in Jhal Khano. Capacity of the treatment plants is 10 Million
Gallons per Day (MGD) and 2 MGD respectively. The water is drawn from the canal, using
an intake channel /weir. Since surface water sources are more prone to contamination,
therefore, prior treatment is a must before the distribution.

7.8.1 Investigations for surface water sources

Some preliminary investigations must be carried out before the site for a surface
water source is made final. These are:
1. Take flow data for at least last 20 years. It may be obtained from Irrigation
Department if surface water source is a canal, river or dam.
2. Minimum yearly flow may be determined from the data
3. Site of the surface water source may be selected in such a way that it is not
affected by the flood.

7.8.2 Some definitions

Yield of a Stream: It is the flow in a stream that can be collected for use. Yield is
time specific and keeps on changing with time. Safe Yield: It refers to the flow in the stream,

71
that is always available for use. Theoretically, safe yield is equal to the minimum flow during
the year. Flow data for streams (rivers, canals) are available with the Irrigation and Power
Department. Similarly, data on dam volume, maximum and minimum dam levels are also
available with Irrigation Department.
Draft: It is the actual quantity of water drawn from a stream for use. If draft is less
than safe yield of a stream, then a storage reservoir is not needed. However, if draft is more
than safe yield, a storage/impounded reservoir is to be constructed.

7.8.3 Intake Structure

It is used to withdraw water from a surface water source (e.g. river, dam, lake etc.).
Intake structure consists of three parts
1. An opening, strainer or grating through which the water is taken from a surface
water source.
2. A conduit or channel, which is used to convey water to a sump/well by gravity.
3. A sump or well from where water is pumped to the treatment plant and
subsequently to the community.

7.8.4 Location of Intake

Following points should be kept in mind, while fixing the site of an intake structure.
1. Location should be away from the wind currents.
2. Location should be safe from flood damage. Above the highest flood level
with 50 years frequency.
3. Should be located on up-stream side of the community.

7.8.5 Design Considerations for Intake

Following design considerations may be kept in mind:

1. An intake may draw water from more than one level to cope with water
fluctuation.
2. Entrance velocity must be low to avoid excessive amount of floating matter,
fish etc. to come into the well (≤0.5 ft/sec) [24].
3. The intake conduit should be at least 0.5m below minimum water surface.
4. To avoid choking of intake, strainer should be used at the head of the conduit.

7.8.6 Typical inlets for surface water sources

Two different types of inlet, for streams (rivers, canals), are shown in Fig. 7.19. It
may be seen that either multiple ports to draw water may be provided (Type-1) or a floating
inlet that rises or lowers with water level (Type-2), may be used. Sometimes, a weir structure

72
is also constructed, across the channel, to raise the water levels and create ponded area
with sufficient water depth, at intake site. This is shown in Fig. 7.20. This type of intake has
been used at many surface water sources in Azad Jammu and Kashmir [25].

Figure 7.19: Two types of inlet for river/canal

Another type of intake may be a protected side intake (Fig. 7.21). The structure is
made up of reinforced concrete and consists of valves or sluices to flush sediments. The
structure also has weirs combined with it to keep the required water level. It provides a
stable place in the bank of a river/canal or lake, from where water can flow into a channel
or enter the suction pipe of a pump. This structure is sturdy and can withstand floods and
sediment flow [26].

73
 Figure 7.20: Protected side intake[26]
In case of Dams, irrigations channels are made for watering crops. Water, for
community supplies, may be drawn from them. For this purpose, an additional channel
termed as escape channel is made from irrigation channel up to the location where water
treatment plant is built.

For a natural lake, a floating platform with pumps may be placed in the lake to take
water.
In summary, the type of inlet may vary considerably from one surface water source
to the other and from one location to the other for the same type of surface water source.
Engineering judgement and previous experiences play important role in the suitable design
of an intake. Hence, it is suggested to carefully survey the area, select different options and
weigh their merits and demerits and also gather data on already in use successful intake
structures, before taking a final decision.

74
7.9 WATER SOURCE PROTECTION

Prevention of water contamination is always preferable and cheaper to treatment

afterwards. Protection can be on two scales; (1) localized and (2) on broader scale [27-30].

7.9.1 Localized measures

Localized measures are restricted to the immediate vicinity of a water source.

Surface water sources are far more open to contamination and the potential catchment
areas of contamination are generally far larger than those for groundwater. Thus, localized
measures are focused, generally, to groundwater sources. Various measures used for
groundwater protection, as applied in Pakistan are briefly presented. These include: (1)
construction of spring boxes; (2) wellhead protection and (3) provision of sanitary seals for
tube wells.

Springs: Localized protection for springs includes construction of “Spring Boxes”

and “Diversion ditches” to prevent surface water run-off from entering the spring box (Figs.
7.21, 7.22 )

Figure 7.21: Typical Diagram of Spring Box [31]

75
 Figure 7.22: Aerial view of diversion ditch and hedge [31]
Hand Pumps/Shallow Wells: Localized protection on the first instance includes
careful location of these sources away from the sources of contamination such as pit-
latrines and soakage pits. Secondly, a proper well-head protection be provided at the top of
boreholes to avoid the entry of contaminated surface water and water spills [31]. Shallow
well should be properly covered and provided with a concrete or brick apron slopping away
from the well (Fig. 7.23 & 7.24).

76
 (a) Well-head protection arrangements (b) Safe withdrawal method from shallow well

Figure 7.23: Protection for shallow wells [31]

Tube Wells: For tube wells, localized measures include the provision of a sanitary
seal. It is achieved by filling the upper 50 ft (15 m) with 1:2 cement sand mortar or clay slurry
to prevent penetration of contaminated water along the tube well bore (Fig. 6).

77
 Figure 7.24: Tube well protection with sanitary seal [31]
Once a groundwater aquifer is contaminated, as the movement of water through
sub-surface systems relative to their volume is slow and residence times are lengthy, the
natural processes of contaminants removal by dilution and discharge to surface waters may
be extremely long (decades, centuries or millennium).
Localized measures for the protection of surface water sources include proper
design and siting of intake structures away from potential sources of pollution.

7.9.2 Broader measures

Broader measures generally focus on surface water sources. However, these may
also be applied to groundwater. Surface waters are particularly vulnerable to contamination
from agricultural, industrial and municipal sources. Surface water bodies receive
wastewater from industrial and municipal sources, agro-chemicals may leach into them and
air-borne pollutants may also get dissolved in surface waters. These also receive overland
run-off that washes surface debris. Thus, all surface waters require elaborate treatment
before they are supplied for any municipal/industrial use.
There are a number of interventions which could help to protect the quality of
surface-waters, principal amongst these are [32-34]:
(a) land-use control within the catchments;
(b) proper siting of intake structures away from potential sources of pollution and
preferably upstream of them;

78
 (c) treatment of effluent from industrial plants and the municipal wastewater.
(d) the establishment and enforcement of effluent quality standards.

REFERENCES

1. O. Anomohaman, (2013), Geophysical investigation of groundwater potential in

Ukelegbe, Nigeria, Journal of Applied Sciences, 1: p. 1-7.

2. M. O. Alile and S. I. Jeged, (2008), Undergrormd water exploration using electrical

resistivity method in Edo State, Nigeria, Asian J. Earth Sci 1: p. 38-42.

3. E. Otobo and S. O. Ifedili, (2005), The vertical electrical sounding: A viable tool for
the investigation of fresh grormdwater in the saline water environment with
particular reference to the commmrities along Warri river, J. Nig. Assoc. Math. Phys
5: p. 437-442.

4. A. M. Sirhan and P. Andrieux, (2011), Electrical resistivity tomography, an

assessment tool for water resource: Case study of Al-Aroub Basin, West Bank,
Palestine. , Asian J. Earth Sci., 4: p. 38-45.

5. D. K. Todd, (2004), Groundwater Hydrology, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

6. C. Lao, F. L. Peterson and D. C. Cox, (1969), Application of electric well logging and
other well logging methods in hawaii, , Technical Report No. 21. Accessed on: 18-
06-2017, Available at:
[https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/7603/1/wrrctr21.pdf]

7. E. G. Patten and G. D. Bennett, (1967), Application of electrical and radioactive well

logging to ground-water hydrology, Geological survey water-supply paper 1544-D,
Washington, USA. Accessed on: 18-06-2017, Available at:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1544d/report.pdf

8. G. I. Alaminiokuma, T. Warmate and J. E. Emudianughe, (2017), Geoelectrical

logging for well screening in prolific aquifers in Ubima, Ikwerre Local Government
Area, River State, Nigeria, African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, 11 (6): p. 324-330.

9. CH2M Hill, Water supply needs and sources assessment alternative water supply
strategies investigation surface water availability and yield analysis; Special
Publication SJ97-SP7 Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[www.sjrwmd.com/technicalreports/pdfs/SP/SJ97-SP7.pdf]

10. B. Vergara, (1994), Water supply needs and sources assessment, Technical
Publication SJ94-7. Palatka, St. Johns River Water Management District, Flourida,
USA.

79
11. CH2M HILL, (1996), Water supply needs and sources assessment, an alternative
water supply strategies investigation surface water withdrawal sites, Special
Publication SJ96-SP4, Flourida, USA. Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[www.sjrwmd.com/technicalreports/pdfs/SP/SJ96-SP4.pdf]

12. CH2M Hill, Water supply needs and sources assessment alternative water supply
strategies investigation surface water data acquisition and evaluation methodology;
Special Publication SJ96-SP1. 1996: Flourida, USA.

13. The Oklahoma Water Resources Board, (2017), Surface water studies; hydrologic
investigations. Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.owrb.ok.gov/studies/surface/investigations.php]

14. Punjab Public Health Engineering Department, (2008), Technical and service
delivery standards for water supply and sanitation sectors: p. 44.

15. T. J. McGhee, (1990), Water supply and sewerage, McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

16. National Center for Environmental Health-Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, (1998), A Survey of the quality of water drawn from domestic wells in
nine midwest states. Accessed on: 18-06-217, Available at:
[https://www.cdc.gov/.../A%20Survey%20of%20the%20Quality%20ofWater%20Dr
aw..]

17. J. Okotto, H. Price, S. Pedley and J. Wright, (2015), A longitudinal study of long-
term change in contamination hazards and shallow well quality in two
neighbourhoods of Kisumu, Kenya, International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health 12: p. 4275-4291.

18. Madhya Pardesh Water Resources Department, India, (2010), Drilling of tube wells.
Accessed on: 18-06-2017, Available at:
[www.mpwrd.gov.in/documents/18/06516554-5071-45db-acea-de266ca25fff]

19. Bureau of Indian Standards, (1999), Code of practice for construction and testing of
tubewells. Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[https://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/nN6sHyXuedZOCIfIKQ--/...AGKVFp/.../2800_2.pdf]

20. American Water Works Association, Standards for water wells (AA100-060).

21. R. J. Sterrett, (2007), Groundwater and wells, Smyth Co Inc., USA.

22. DAB water technologies, Quick guide for pump selection. Accessed on: 18-06-
2017, Available at:
[https://www.dabpumps.com/.../60118741_QUICK%20GUIDE%20FOR%20PUMP
%2...]

80
23. D. Ramaswamy, M. A. Suryawanshi and R. Bhasha, (2010), Principles of pumps
and pumping installation, Indian Institution of Railway Electrical Engineers,
Maharashtra, India. Accessed on: 18-06-2017, Available at:
[www.irieen.indianrailways.gov.in/.../1302522604445-
Principles%20of%20Pumps%2]

24. Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, (2013), Design criteria for
potable water system. Accessed on: 22-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.colorado.gov/.../WQ-ENG-
POL%20Design%20Criteria%20for%20Potabl...]

25. Syed Tassaduq Hussain-Chief Engineer Central Design Office, (2015), Surface
water sources in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, [Personal communication].

26. World Health Organization (WHO), (2010), Water sanitation and health. Accessed
on: 22-08-2015, Available at:
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/om/linkingchap3.pdf

27. Sajjad Haydar, (2004), Source protection for water supplies, Engineering News:
Quarterly Journal of Pakistan Engineering Congress, 42(2): p. 5-12.

28. Y. Mogheir and G. Tarazi, (2010), Comparative identification of wellhead protection

areas for municipal supply wells in Gaza, Journal of Water Resource and Protection,
02(02): p. 105-114.

29. M. Tamas, T. E. Man, G. N. Pelea and R. Beilicci, (2016), Study on water source
protection - Case study of Lake Buhui – Anina City, Caras – Severin County,
Romania, Procedia Engineering, 161: p. 2203-2208.

30. F. Folifac, L. Lifongo, G. Nkeng and S. Gaskin, (2009), Municipal drinking water
source protection in low income countries: Case of Buea municipality-Cameroon,
Journal of Ecology and Natural Environment 1(4): p. 73-84.

31. S. Cairncross and R. Feachem, (1978), Small water supplies-Ross Bulletin No. 10,
The Ross Institute Information and Advisory Service, London School of Hygiene and
Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London.

32. R. J. Burby and E. J. Kaiser, (1983), Drinking water supplies, protection through
watershed management, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, USA.

33. M. Newson, (1992), Land, water and development, Routledge, London.

34. J. Chilton, (1996), Water Quality Assessments (in) Groundwater; D. Chapman (ed),
Chapman and Hall, London.

81
 Chapter-8

Water transmission mains or

rising mains

82
 WATER TRANSMISSION MAINS OR
RISING MAINS
8.1 INTRODUCTION

Sometimes, water source is located away from the community (point of distribution).
Pipeline laid, to convey water from water source to point of distribution, is referred to as
transmission main/rising main. As discussed in Chapter-1, a portion of total water, supplied
to Karachi, is obtained from Kalari Lake, situated 122 Km away from Karachi. Water from
the lake is thus transmitted through a transmission main/rising main [1]. Similarly, a major
part of water supply to Rawalpindi is obtained from Rawal Dam, built on Korang river,
through a 14 Km long transmission main [2].

8.2 DESIGN EQUATION

The following equation is used to design transmission main/rising main.

c =d×[ Equation 8.1

Where
Q = flow (cusec, ft3/sec)
A = Area of pipe (ft2, m2)
V = Velocity of water (ft/sec; m/sec)

Above equation may be used for manual design. Alternately, computer simulation
software may also be used for the design of the transmission mains/rising mains. Use of
computer software is discussed in detail in Chapter-9.

8.3 VELOCITIES IN TRANSMISSION MAINS

As per PHED Punjab, WASA Lahore and other international design guidelines, the
velocity in transmission mains/rising mains is normally maintained in a range between 2-7
ft/sec (0.6-2 m/sec) [3-7].
The value of velocity is initially adopted from the above limit. Equation-8.1 is used
to find out the area of pipe required for a given flow and adopted velocity. Once area is
determined, the pipe diameter can be determined using the following equation.

83
 X 6
d= Equation 8.2
Z

Where, “d” is the diameter of the transmission main/rising main. Adoption of a lower
velocity results in larger diameter pipe. Larger diameter pipes, obviously, would be costly.
However, friction loses in the pipe would be lower due to large diameter and less resistance
to water flow. Consequently, pump head required would also be less. This, in turn, would
result in lower energy costs in pumping and lower energy bills.
If higher velocities are adopted, pipe diameter would be smaller. This reduces
capital cost. But on the other hand, friction losses would be more due to greater resistance
to water flow in smaller diameter pipes. Thus, higher head pumps would be needed. This
would increase energy bills to run the system. Thus, there is always a tradeoff between
capital cost and operation cost while selecting a suitable velocity in transmission
mains/rising mains.
Generally, velocities up to 5 ft/sec may be selected. Velocities, higher than this may
result in wear and tear of the internal pipe surface and hence are not advisable.

8.4 ACCURATE LEVELS

It is very important to have accurate levels of the route of transmission main/rising

main. It helps in its trouble free operation, especially, when laid on an undulating surface.

8.5 L-SECTION OR PROFILE

It is a vertical profile of the route of rising main. It is a graph with distance along x-
axis and levels along y-axis. An accurate L-Section is possible only when accurate levels
of the exact route of rising main are known. It is used for the placement of air valves (AV)
and wash outs (WO), which play a key role in trouble free operation of long rising mains.
Air valves are placed at summits and washouts at the lowest points. Air valves
release the air entrapped in the pipes and thus avoid air locking. Air enters pipes during: (1)
pump startups; (2) during low flow conditions when pipe may be flowing partially full. Air is
usually accumulated in downward sloping pipe, downstream of a high point (Fig. 8.1).

84
 Figure 8.1: Air entrapment in downward sloping pipe [8]

Wash outs are used to drain sediments during routine cleaning and flushing of lines.
Valves are discussed in detail in Chapter-9. A typical L-Section of a transmission main/rising
main is shown in Fig. 8.2.

AV
AV
Level (ft)

AV
WO
WO

Length of transmission main in ft

Figure 8.2: Typical L-section of transmission main/rising main

8.6 HEAD LOSSES

Head losses in transmission main/rising main are evaluated using Hazen William
equation. Both SI and FPS versions are given in Chapter-7. These are reproduced again.

] ..A "
H=4.73 9 : ×
 _.`a
(FPS Version) Equation 8.3
^

] ..A "
H=10.68 9 : ×
 _.`a
(SI Version) Equation 8.4
^

Different terms have already been defined in Chapter-7. The value of ‘C’ varies with
pipe material. Normally, value of ‘C’ for new pipe is higher than as reported in Table 8.1. As
pipe grows old, the value of ‘C’ reduces and thus friction losses increase. It is evident from

85
the above equations that C is inversely proportional to head loss. Given values may be
adopted for different pipe materials. These values are for 20 year old pipes, and used for
design purpose.
Table 8.1: Hazen William Coefficient for different pipe materials[9, 10]
Type of pipe Value of C
Galvanized Iron (GI) 100
Steel and Ductile Iron 100
Mild steel 100
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 140
Asbestos Cement (AC) 120
Polypropylene Random Copoylmer 140
(PPRC)
Polyethylene (PE) 140
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) 140

8.7 CHOICE OF PIPE MATERIAL FOR TRANSMISSION MAINS

Choice of pipe material for transmission main/rising main depends upon: (1) the size
of the pipe and (2) the pipe length. For larger diameters and longer lengths, water hammer
is high, hence stronger pipe material is used. For smaller diameter and shorter lengths,
water hammer is less, hence cheaper material may be used. Water hammer is discussed
in section 8.8.

8.7.1 For larger diameter rising mains (16 inch (400 mm) and above)

Different pipe materials used are:

1. Ductile iron (DI):
2. Steel pipes: Outer side of the pipe is coated with three coats of polyethylene sheet.
Inner side is coated with fusion bonded epoxy (FBE; it an epoxy based powdered
coating) to avoid corrosion [11]. Outer coating is carried out at site while inner
coating may be carried out in the factory. If proper outer and inner coating is done,
the pipe life ranges from 50 to 100 years [12, 13]

8.7.2 For smaller diameter rising mains (below 16 inch)

Different pipe materials that may be used are:

1. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
2. Galvanized Iron (GI)
3. Asbestos Cement (AC)

86
 For details on other pipe types, jointing methods, suitability and other characteristics,
the reader is referred to Chapter-9 (section-9.6). However, a brief discussion on the merits
and demerits of Steel and DI pipes is briefly given in this chapter.

8.7.3 Merits and demerits of Steel and DI pipes

Steel pipes [14]

Merits
• High pressure rating.
• Light in weight and minimum damage to pipes in transportation.
• Economical as compared to other high strength pipes.

Demerits
• Less corrosion resistance.
DI pipe
Merits
• High pressure rating.
• Corrosion control is easier and inexpensive.
• Ductile iron pipe is easier to install.
• Push-on (spigot and socket/bell) type jointing system.

Demerits
• Higher cost as compared to other available pipes.

8.8 WATER HAMMER

Especially, in rising mains of longer lengths and bigger diameter, water hammer
becomes quite critical and must be examined and evaluated during design of rising mains.
This process is generally referred to as surge analysis. If ignored, it results in severe
operational problems and malfunctioning of the transmission/rising mains.
Water hammer is referred as ‘the pulsation of pressure above and below operating
pressure’. The possible reasons may be:
1. Quick opening/closing of the valve
2. Sudden starting/stopping of the pump

8.8.1 Water hammer calculations

The choice of pipe materials for rising main is dictated by the pressure. The pipe
should be safe against both, the working pressure and when water hammer acts.

87
 Software are available for surge analysis under complex conditions. In simple
cases, formulae given in American Water Works Association (AWWA) manual for steel
pipes may be used [15]. The procedure to find water hammer is illustrated as under:

a = pressure wave velocity

.3
a = fps
f 5 i
e (9 / :
g h jk
lm
Water hammer pressure = ft
n
Calculation of water hammer pressure for 24 inch (600 mm) AC and MS pipe is
shown in the Table 8.2.

Table 8.2: Water hammer calculations

Value
Description Symbol Unit
AC MS
1. Maximum Working Pressure 290 290 ft
Sp. Wt of Water W 62.4 62.4 lb/ft3

Bulk Modulus of Compressibility of

Water K 317,361 317,361 psi
Young Modulus of the Material E 3,472,222 29,999,998 psi
Inside Diameter of Conduit d 24.00 24.00 in
Thickness of Conduit Wall e 2.36 0.31 in
Acceleration due to Gravity g 32.2 32.2 ft/sec2
Max. Velocity of Flow v 6 6 fps
Pressure Wave Velocity a 3,497 3,613 fps
2. Water Hammer Pressure (av/g) ft 652 673 ft
942 963 ft
Total Pressure (1+2) h
408 417 psi

MS pipe may sustain up to 1000 psi pressure (refer to manufacturer brochure for
exact information).

8.9 MEASURES TO CONTROL WATER HAMMER

There exist several techniques to control water hammer in rising mains, which
includes provision of
1. check valves,

88
 2. surge control valves,
3. surge tanks and
4. stronger pipe material that can bear the water hammer.
The selection of a specific remedial measure depends on factors such as: (1)
capital cost and (2) terrain of the area.
Surge tank is a feasible option in hilly terrain. The tank may be built on the top of a
ridge. When hammer comes, the water pulsates in the tank. Hence pipes are saved from
the surge. In flat topography surge valves may be used. For smaller diameter pipes, non-
return valves may also be used with a spacing prescribed in Chapter-5 in Design Criteria
for water supplies, by PHED [3].

REFERENCES

1. IEP, (2014), Indus Ecoreigon Programme. Accessed on: 20-07-2014, Available at:
[http://foreverindus.org/ie_protectedareas_ramsar.php]

2. WASA, (2014), Water and Sanitation Agency Rawalpindi, [Personal

communication].

3. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water
supply and sanitation sectors.

4. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1976), Design criteria for sanitary sewer,
water supply and drainage, Lahore Development Authority.

5. California Department of Public Health (CDPH), Design criteria for water supplies.
Accessed on: 22-06-2017, Available at: [lbwater.org/sites/default/files/domestic.pdf]

6. World Bank, (2012), Design manual, volume-1, rural water supply. Accessed on:
22-06-2018, Available at:
[siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPINES/Resources/RWSVolIDesignManual
.pdf]

7. Mississippi State Department of Health-Bureau of Public Water Supply USA, (2017),

Minimum design criteria for Mississippi public water systems: p. 62. Accessed on:
21-06-2017, Available at:
[www.emwd.org/home/showdocument?id=742msdh.ms.gov/msdhsite/_static/reso
urces/1583.pdf]

8. M. L. Weber-Shirk, Gravity water supply design, Cornell University, School of Civil

and Environmental Enginnering. Accessed on: 22-06-2017, Available at:

89
 [ceeserver.cee.cornell.edu/mw24/cee332/Lectures/015%20Transmission%20Line.
ppt]

9. The Engineering Toolbox. Accessed on: 22-06-2017, Available at:

[http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/hazen-williams-coefficients-d_798.html]

10. Marley Pipe Systems, (2010), HDPE design considerations. Accessed on: 22-06-
2017, Available at:
[https://www.marleypipesystems.co.za/images/pdfdownloads/productbrochures/hd
pe-design-considerations.pdf]

11. 3M™ Scotchkote™ USA, (2013), Fusion bonded epoxy coating 6233P. Accessed
on: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[http://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/880258O/3mtm-scotchkotetm-fusion-
bonded-epoxy-coating-6233p-technical-information.pdf]

12. American Iron and Steel Institute, (2007), Welded steel pipes, Design Manual: p. 5.
Accessed: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.steeltank.com/Portals/0/pubs/Welded%20Steel%20Pipe%2010.10.07
.pdf]

13. A. L. Mamish, (2010), Tape coating system for pipeline corrosion protection, Berry
Plastics Corp., Lexington, MA. Accessed on: 23-06-2018, Available at:
[www.pstc.org/files/public/mamish09.pdf]

14. Ductile iron pipe research association, (2015), Ductile iron pipe Vs steel pipe,
Birmingham, UK. Accessed on: 20-07-2018, Available
at:[https://www.dipra.org/ductile-iron-pipe/dipra-facts-and-figures/ductile-iron-vs-
steel]

15. American Water Works Association (AWWA), (2004), Manual of water supply
practices—M11, Steel Pipe—A guide for design and installation: p. 51.

90
 Chapter-9

Water distribution system

91
 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
9.1 COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Water distribution system (WDS) refers to the network of pipelines laid along the
streets/roads within a community, with the purpose of providing water supply to the people.
Service connections are provided to the consumers from WDS. It also includes various
appurtenances/accessories essential to run the WDS. Thus, it may have the following
components;
i. Pipes
ii. Valves/fire hydrants
iii. Overhead reservoirs (OHRs)
iv. Specials (Tees, bends, thrust blocks etc.)
This chapter covers a discussion on the above mentioned components of WDS. In
addition, the chapter also contains material on design and construction of WDS.

9.2 METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION --- THREE METHODS

Distribution of water to consumers may be carried out in three different ways [1, 2].

(a) Direct pumping (pumps without storage)

Pumps at water source directly pump water into the distribution system. Multiple
pumps having average, maximum and peak flows are required. Thus, constant attendance
is required to start and shut down multiple pumps. Operational cost is high due to high
capacity pumps that use more energy. This system is not practical for 24-hour supply. Direct
pumping was used by WASA in certain areas of Lahore (e.g. Garden Town). However, it
was later not practiced.

(b) Pumps with storage

Pump in combination with OHR are used for distribution. During period of low
demand, especially at night, excess water pumped goes into the OHR. During period of
high demand water is also drawn from OHR, in addition to that pumped into the WDS by
pumps at water source.
This method has some advantages; (1) pumping rates are fairly constant; (2) it is
economical with respect to operation and maintenance cost as compared to direct pumping;
(3) it is more reliable for firefighting, as some storage is available even during electricity
outage periods.

92
 (c) Gravity method
No pumping is required in this method of distribution. This method may be employed
in hilly areas. Water is collected, may be through a spring, into a storage reservoir located
at sufficient height from WDS. Thus, water flows under gravity. This method is feasible only
if the topography of the area supports. It is the most economical method. It has no
associated energy cost.

9.3 LAYOUT OF WDS

Layout of WDS depends upon layout of city roads and streets. Two systems are in
common use [1, 3].
(a) Tree branch or dead end system
It is normally used in irregularly developed areas (Fig 9.1). The advantages include:
(1) easy to design and (2) less number of valves. However, there are some disadvantages
as well; (1) large areas may be cut off in case of valve closure (during maintenance works)
and (2) stagnation of water at dead ends may occur.

Figure 9.1: Tree branch layout

(b) Grid iron or loop system
It is used for planned area (Fig. 9.2). Its merits include; (1) dead ends are eliminated
by forming loops; (2) no stagnation occurs in this system; (3) due to interconnection of pipes,

93
supply and pressures are balanced and (4) small areas are cut off in case of valve shut off.
However, number of valves needed are more as compared to tree branch system.

Figure 9.2: Loop system/layout

9.4 TYPES OF SUPPLY

Water supply to consumers may be of two types; (1) continuous or (2) intermittent
[2].
In continuous system, consumers are provided water for 24 hours. It has certain
merits; (1) water is available for firefighting at all the times and (2) no infiltration of
undesirable water would occur in water distribution system as WDS pipes are always
pressurized. However, this system has more operational cost. In addition, consumers tend
to use more water.
In intermittent system, water is supplied twice or thrice a day during period of high
water consumption. In general, it is considered economical with respect to operational cost
and water usage. Paradoxically, more water is needed for such systems due to high
wastage. Firefighting may be an issue during period of no supply. Infiltration of dirty water
may take place during no supply period when pipes may not be in pressurized condition.
Pipe maintenance costs (in case of galvanized iron pipes) are higher in intermittent supply
systems as the pipes are alternately exposed to air and water and corrode faster. They
need to be repaired and changed more often to control leakage. Because of the poor

94
service provided and the low quantities of water, tariffs are often low in such systems.
Intermittent supply also poses health risk [4-8].

9.5 OHRs IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Overhead reservoirs (OHRs) in distribution system are provided to equalize

pumping rates over the desired pumping period. These also equalize supply and demand.
They are useful at the time of emergencies i.e. fires, accidental break downs (especially of
electricity).
OHRs may be of two types. One is pour and draw OHRs; these are normally used
for small communities (villages). As the name shows, water is first poured into OHR and
later drawn for gravity supply to the consumers.
Second type is known as balancing OHRs; these are used for big urban centers.
When the supply from the source is continuous for all the 24 hours, the water
transmission line/rising main is connected directly to the distribution system as well as to
OHR. During the low demand period, the excess water pumped goes to OHR. During peak
demand in the distribution system, water from the source as well as from the OHR will be
supplied. The OHR under this condition is called Balancing OHR. Only one pipe is
connected to the reservoir, which will act as inlet as well as outlet [9].
The only difference between balancing OHR and pour and draw OHR is the inlet
and outlet arrangement. The balancing reservoir has a single connection to serve as inlet
as well as outlet, while pour and draw OHR has separate inlet and outlet connections. Other
components are the same in both.
The concept of a balancing reservoir is shown in Fig. 9.3 [1]. The figure shows the
hydraulic grade lines (HGL) under different conditions when OHR is placed away from the
pumping station (PS). Thus, even during period of high consumption, HGL is higher than
the buildings. This ensures supply with sufficient pressure to the consumers. However, if
the OHR is placed close to PS, HGL, during high consumption period is pulled down and
many areas may not get water. The placement of OHR as shown in Fig. 9.3 is referred to
as balancing reservoir [1].

95
 Figure 9.3: Concept of balancing reservoir

9.6 WATER SUPPLY PIPES

Different types of water supply pipes are available in the market. While selecting a
particular type of pipe, following points must be considered [10].
1. Cost of pipe
2. Durability
3. Maintenance cost
4. Type of water to be conveyed (corrosive/normal)
5. Ease of handling
6. Ability to withstand pressure from supply source
7. Degradation when exposed to environmental and physical conditions

A brief review of various pipes is given below [11-15].

9.6.1 Cast Iron Pipes

Life: Average life is 100 years

Hazen William Coefficient (C) : 100
Jointing: Mostly flanged joints are used with rubber gasket (Fig. 9.4).

96
 Figure 9.4: Cast iron pipe; flanged joint
Common Use: Water and wastewater treatment plants, pumping stations, and
where rigidity and strength is required. Mostly exposed pipes in water and wastewater
treatment plants are CI pipes.
Dis-advantages: Rusting can reduce its capacity by 70%, therefore, internal surface
is lined with 1:2 cement sand mortar, if required.

9.6.2 Steel pipes

Life: 25-50 years

C: 100
Jointing: by welding
Pressure rating (PN): Generally greater than 1000 psi (3280 ft). To be exact, it is
better to refer to manufacturer’s brochure.
Common Use: Frequently used for large size rising mains. Owing to difficulty in
making joints, these are seldom used for distribution system. External and internal coatings
significantly increase their life. External coating is usually of polyethylene sheet. Nowadays,
most commonly used inner side coating is fusion bonded epoxy (FBE; it an epoxy based
powdered coating) [16]. Outer coating is carried out at site while the inner coating may be
carried out in the factory. If proper outer and inner coating is done, the pipe life range from
50 to 100 years [17, 18].
Dis-advantages: More susceptible to corrosion and hence maintenance cost is high.
Both corrosive water and corrosive soil damage steel pipes. In addition, it is difficult to make
connection in steel pipes.

97
9.6.3 Asbestos cement (AC) pipe

It is generally known that AC pipes cause cancer. However, there is not yet any
conclusive evidence that asbestos fibers ingested cause cancer. Nevertheless, it has been
established that workers in AC pipe factories, that inhale asbestos fibers are exposed to
lung cancer [19-25].
Life: ≈ 30 years
C: 130
Length available in market: 13.2 ft (4 m)
Sizes: 80mm to 600mm (to be exact, refer to manufacturer’s brochure)
Pressure rating: B (200 ft), C(300 ft), D(400 ft)
Jointing: Collar Joint (Fig. 9.5)
Common Use: Distribution system, rising mains
Advantages:
(a) Immune to action of salts, no corrosion
(b) Easy laying and jointing
(c) Less pumping cost due to less friction

Figure 9.5: Collar joint in AC pipes

9.6.4 uPVC pipes

uPVC (un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride) doesn’t contain phthalates or biphenols A

(BPA) usually used to make PVC pipes stronger. This makes it safer for transporting water,
as well as making it fire-resistant. Because of the concerns of plasticizers being ingested
by people, it is better to ensure that only uPVC pipe is used in potable water
applications[10]. For drain pipe, it is acceptable to use PVC pipe.
Life: ≈ 50 years
C: 140
Jointing: z-joint (Fig. 9.6)
Sizes: 1.5 inch to 24 inch dia (12mm to 600mm)
(To be exact, refer to manufacturer brochure)
Pressure rating: B (200 ft), C (300 ft), D (400 ft), E (500 ft)
Common Use: Widely used in distribution system

98
 Advantages:
(a) Easy to install
(b) Cheap
(c) Small pumping cost

Figure 9.6: Z-Joint in PVC pipes

9.6.5 Galvanized iron (GI) pipes:

Life: ≈20 years

C: 100
Jointing: Socketed joints up to 6 inch. Welding for larger diameter
Sizes: 1/2 – 24 inch (12mm to 600mm)
Pressure rating (PN): 1000 ft to 3000 ft (To be exact, refer to the manufacturer’s
brochure)
Common Use: Distribution system, rising mains. Especially where soil is rocky and
excavation can’t be done and pipe is to be laid in open e.g. in hilly areas

9.6.6 Polyethylene (PE) pipes

Life: 50 years
C: 140
Pressure rating: PN: 8 Bar to 16 Bar (250 to 525 ft) (where 1 Bar = 10 m)
Diameter: 1 inch to 10 inch (20 to 250 mm)
Jointing: Socket fusion upto 4 inch and Butt fusion1 for larger diameters. Special
welding machine is used. It is essential to strictly follow the time and temperature for proper
jointing/welding of pipes as recommended by the manufacturer (see videos on YouTube for
better understanding)
Common use: For water distribution system

9.6.7 HDPE pipes (High density polyethylene)

Life: 50 years

1 Fusion or heat welding is a thermofusion process which involves the simultaneous

heating of the ends of two pipe/fitting components which are to be joined, until a molten state is
attained on each contact surface. The resultant joint is fully resistant to end loads and has
comparable performance under pressure to the pipe itself

99
 C: 140
Size: 1 inch to 32 inch (20 mm to 800 mm)
Joint: Heat fusion
Pressure rating: PN: 4 to 32 bar
Common Uses: May be used for water supply and wastewater collection. These can
be used on surface and underground.

9.6.8 PPRC pipes (Polypropylene random co-poylmer)

Life: 50 years
C: 140
Diameter: 1 inch to 4 inch diameter (20 to 110 mm)
Joints: Heat fusion
Pressure rating: 20 Bar (200 m or 656 ft)
Common use: In household plumbing system for hot and cold pipes

Pressure rating in some brochures is denoted by PN (nominal pressure). At some

places PN is given in Bar (1 bar = 10 m), at other places it is given by pipe class like B
Class. B class can take 200 ft pressure. Thus, the reader must be aware of different
nomenclatures used.

9.7 NOMENCLATURE OF PIPES IN WDS

Water supply pipes in WDS may be named according to their size and function they
perform (Fig. 9.7).
1. Primary Feeders
They form the main skeleton of WDS. They convey water from source/storage tanks
to various parts of the city area. Preferably they should form LOOPs for continuous service
and adequate fire flows. They are the largest in size and may be up to 24 inch (900 mm) in
diameter.
2. Secondary Feeders
They carry large quantities of water from primary feeders to various areas to cater
for normal supplies and firefighting. They form smaller loops within the loops of primary
feeders. These are generally 10 to 12 inches in diameter. In Lahore secondary feeders are
12 inch (300 mm) in size.

3. Small Distribution Mains

They form the grid over the area to be served and supply water to fire hydrants and
service connections to building. They are generally 3 to 6 inches diameter (75 mm to 150
mm)

100
Note: Service connections are never provided from primary and secondary feeders.

Figure 9.7: Nomenclature of pipes in WDS

Velocities in WDS feeders may be up to 1 m/sec. In extreme cases these may go
up to 2 m/sec.

9.8 PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF VALVES IN WDS

Different types of valves are provided in WDS with the following purpose.
1. To regulate flow
2. To regulate pressure
3. To cut off supply for repair purposes
Sufficient number of properly located valves are essential for the proper operation
and control of the pipe network.

9.9 TYPES OF VALVES IN WDS

9.9.1 Gate valves / Sluice valves

These are used to shut off water mains for repairs and to regulate flow. These are
generally placed at street intersections (Fig. 9.8). The placement is such that a minimum of
area is cut-off during maintenance.

101
 Figure 9.8: Location of sluice/gate valves

9.9.2 Check valve / Non-return valve

These allow uni-directional flow of water. These are generally used in pumping
stations. One valve is placed on the suction line of the pump to prevent loss of water when
pump is stopped and one valve is used on delivery line of the pump to avoid water hammer
(Fig. 7.5), in case of sudden stoppage of pump due to power failure. They are also placed
in smaller diameter along the rising mains to reduce water hammer (≤ 8 inches; for details
see chapter-5 on Design Criteria)

9.9.3 Butter fly valve

These have same function as sluice valve. Usually these are used in bigger diameter
pipes (diameter > 300 mm (12 inch)). Butterfly valve has a disc that slowly rotates in the
pipe to regulate/open/close the flow to reduce the water hammer (Fig. 9.9). Head losses
take place even when the valve is fully open.
Sluice valve (SV) has a sliding gate that retracts into the bonnet when it is open (Fig.
9.10). Hence there are no head losses when valve is fully open. As the pipe diameter
increases, the size and cost of a gate valve increases manifold than that of a butterfly valve.
The reason is the larger size of bonnet to accommodate the sliding gate. Hence butterfly
valves are used when pipe size is greater than 12 inches (300 mm).

102
 Bonnet

Rotating Disk

Figure 9.10: Butterfly valve Figure 9.9: Sluice valve

9.9.4 Pressure regulating valve (PRV)

These are used to reduce pressure automatically on the downstream side of their
point of fixing to any desired magnitude. These are employed where there is a large
elevation difference. Due to it, the head become so high (Fig. 9.11), that the plumbing fixture
may be damaged due to the high head. Hence PRVs are used to bring down the pressure.

Figure 9.11: Use of PRV to reduce pressure/head

9.9.5 Air valve

It is used to allow the accumulated air in the pipe system to escape and the external
air to enter pipe system to avoid the creation of vacuum. These are placed at the highest
points or summits of pipes (Fig. 9.12).

103
 Figure 9.12: Double action air valve, placed at the pipe summit

9.9.6 Wash outs

These are employed to drain a pipeline or to remove accumulated sediments. These

are located at the lowest points. The wash out consists of a brick masonry chamber. A tee
is used to take an off shoot from the main pipe line. A sluice valve is fixed at the end of pipe
protruding from the main pipe. When valve is opened, it drains the entire water in the pipe
located between the two summits. (Fig. 9.13)

Figure 9.13: Wash out

9.9.7 Altitude valve

It is used to close a supply line automatically, especially in OHR to cut off supply
when it is full. It is also used in flush tanks.

9.9.8 Sluice gates/penstock

These are sluice valves of bigger size and are employed in barrages and water
channels and screening chambers at wastewater disposal stations to regulate flow (Fig.
9.14).

104
 Sluice Gate/Penstock

Figure 9.14: Sluice gate/penstock

9.9.9 Surge control valves

These are used to take the surge and avoid bursting of pipes in transmission mains.

9.9.10 Fire hydrants

Fire hydrants are employed to draw water for firefighting. The diameter of the pipe
on which a fire hydrant is placed should be at least 6-8 inches [26].

9.10 DESIGN OF WDS

In the design of a WDS a designer has to ensure two basic requirement; (1) the
community gets required quantity of water and (2) the water is supplied with adequate
terminal head [1, 2].
Design and analysis of water distribution network involve complex calculations.
Hence software is generally used. The basic algorithm used in the software is generally,
Hardy Cross [27, 28]. It is based upon the following two assumptions: (1) at a node, the
water flowing into the node is equal to water flowing out of the node and (2) the sum of head
losses around a loop is zero. The schematics of the algorithm is shown in Fig. 9. 15. Nodes
are points from where water is withdrawn for distribution. Nodes 1, 2, 3 and 4 are connected
through pipes to form a loop. Arrows show the direction of flow in the connecting pipe.

105
 Figure 9.15: Hardy Cross algorithm schematic diagram

The design equation used is normally Hardy Cross Equation. A number of

simulation software are in use by the consultants and professionals for the design of the
distribution network. These are:
1. EPANET (freeware from USEPA)
2. WaterCad
3. Water Gem
EPANET is developed by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
and is freely available. This software is widely used in Pakistan. WaterCad is a licensed
software. Water Gem is also licensed and the latest that integrates with Geographical
Information System (GIS). All above stated software have a graphical user interface.
WDS network may be manually fed into the software. However, in case of very large
networks, having hundreds of pipes, it is easy to import the network from CAD drawings. All
software have this functionality. It saves a lot of time.

9.10.1 Procedure of WDS design using simulation software

Following procedure is adopted for WDS network design, using a software.

1. In case of manual feed of WSD network, the map of the area is taken. Lines are
drawn in streets/along roads showing water distribution network. Each junction of
two or more pipes is designated as node. The next step is to find water demand at
each node called nodal demand.
2. There are two ways to find out nodal demands. One: in case of small housing
societies, number of plots are assigned to each node. This should be done in a
careful way. Plots, close and around the node must be assigned to the node. In this
way an area is fixed that will be fed by that node. It helps in finding out the nodal

106
 demands. Most commonly, number of persons per plot is fixed and thus the number
of total persons fed from the node is calculated. From the per capita water
consumption (adopted from design criteria), total average flow to be drawn from the
node is calculated. It is multiplied by peak factor (usually 2.25) to get the peak
demand at the node. Note that WDS network is designed on peak demand (refer to
chapter-5). The above procedure is repeated for all nodes. Thus, peak demand at
all nodes is determined and written on the map. Length of all pipes is also written on
the map. The above data are fed to the software as input file. Alternately, average
demand at each node is written on the map and while data are fed in the input file
the peak factor is mentioned along. The designer may adopt any of the above
method to feed the data in software input file.
3. Second method to find nodal demands is to project the population for design year.
Divide the population with area covered by WDS network. Find the population
density. Assign area to be served by each node. From population density find the
population served by the node. From average water consumption determine nodal
demand and then find out the peak demand at each node. Later feed the data in
software as input file. The input file contains nodal demand, node number assigned
to each node, pipe length and pipe number assigned to each pipe and Hazen Willian
Coefficient for the pipe.
4. The first trial run is made with assumed pipe diameters. The results show head at
each node, flow, velocity and head loss in each pipe. The results are examined to
see that the requirement of minimum residual head (also called terminal head) is
achieved at each node. If not, additional trials are made by changing pipe diameter.
If residual heads are lower than the required, pipe diameter are increased and vice
versa. After a number of trials, most optimum pipe network is reached.
5. At the end, the print out of output file is taken to be attached in the design report.
6. All software have the capacity to simulate OHRs, tube wells, ground storage
reservoirs, sluice valves, pressure reducing valves etc.
7. Residual chlorine modeling may also be performed in EPANET. If wall coefficient
for the pipe material is known, a trial dose of chlorine may be fed into the software
to see the amount of chlorine at different points of WDS network. It is a very useful
feature in EPANET [29].
8. Reader is referred to the User Manual of EPANET, or any other software used by
the reader to learn how to use the software.

107
9.11 LAYING OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Following steps are followed.

1. Excavation
Trenches are excavated to lay the pipes. Minimum depth is 3 ft (1 m) to protect pipe
against traffic loads. Width of trench should be sufficient to provide enough working space
to the plumber to lay and join the pipes.
Excavation is necessary at the bells. Bell holes are required in the trench at each
joint so that the pipe is supported by full length of its barrel and not on the bells. Pipe may
be damaged if the above instruction is not followed (Fig. 9.16).

Figure 9.16: Excavation at the bell of pipe

If rock is encountered during excavation, then in case of PVC and AC pipes a sand
cushion of 6 inches (150 mm) must be provided below the pipe.
2. Laying and Jointing
This includes removal of pipes from vehicle, conveying it to the site of work, storage
in a yard or at street and placing it in a trench and making a proper joint.
3. Provision of Thrust Blocks
Plain cement concrete (PCC) blocks at all tees, bends and dead ends are provided
to nullify water thrust (Fig. 9.17). Complete details may be obtained from the internet.

108
 Figure 9.17: Thrust blocks
4. Backfilling
After the laying and jointing of the pipe is over, the trench is backfilled. Backfill
material should be free from large stones. First 1 ft of trench should be manually backfilled
and slowly tamped (force down by repeated blows). It is done to avoid any damage to pipe,
and afterwards, any mechanical mean i.e. tractor etc. may be used for the rest of filling.

9.12 TESTS BEFORE COMMISSIONING OF WDS

Two tests are performed before the WDS is put to operation. These are (1)
disinfection and (2) hydraulic testing.

9.12.1 Disinfection

In the process of handling and placing, it is inevitable that the newly laid water mains
will be polluted due to:
1. Storage on the street
2. Mud at the bottom of the trench
3. Wastewater which may run into the trench.
Steps for disinfection are:
1. Flush the lines with water at a velocity of at least 2.5 ft/sec (0.76 m/sec).

109
 2. After flushing, pipe is filled with water having free residual chlorine with a
concentration of at least 1.0 mg/L. After 24 hours, water sample is drawn and it must
contain 0.5 mg/L of chlorine. After chlorine test, bacteriological analysis of water is
also conducted.
3. If any coliform bacteria are found, then fill the pipe with water containing 50 mg/L
available chlorine. After 24 hour holding period, chlorine concentration should not
reduce below 25 mg/L.
4. Flush the pipes with water.

9.12.2 Hydraulic Testing

It is a very important test and must be carried out before backfilling of trenches [30-
33]. Allowable leakage depends upon:
(1) pipe diameter and
(2) test pressure.
AWWA specifications say that actual leakage should not exceed as indicated by the
following formula.

√
! = op Equation 9.1
.ZA,===
L = allowable leakage, gallon/hr
S = Length of pipe in feet
D = nominal dia of pipe, inches
P = average test pressure, psi
Average test pressure is usually 1.5 times the working pressure of pipe. For
example, for a PVC B class pipe, which has a working pressure of 200 ft, the test pressure
will be 300 ft.
Testing is usually carried out upon lengths of pipe not exceeding 1000 ft (300m). It
is illustrated in Fig. 9.18 and complete procedure is also given below.

110
 Figure 9.18: Schematic showing hydraulic testing of pipes

Complete procedure for hydraulic testing is outlined below:

1. The pipe is filled with water. Sluice valve is kept open during filling so that air
is released while the pipe is being filled.
2. After all the air is released the water will starts coming out of the sluice valve.
The valve is then closed.
3. Use the hand pump to push water into pipe. Read the pressure from the
gauge. Keep pumping. The needle on pressure gauge will start moving.
4. Continue pumping till the required test pressure is reached on the gauge.
5. Leakage is defined as the volume of water that is pumped into the newly laid
pipeline to maintain pressure within ± 5 psi of the test pressure after it is filled
and purged of air, for a duration of 2 hours.
6. The water gauge installed will indicate the amount of water leaked.
7. If the pipeline, under test, contains sections of various diameters, the
allowable leakage will be the sum of the computed leakage for each size.
8. In case there are weak joints or leaking joints, the pressure will suddenly drop
and pipe could be examined for the point of leakage. Necessary repair is
made and the above procedure is repeated.
9. If the leakage lies within the allowable range, the pipes are then backfilled

Note: Leakage survey for big transmission lines/rising mains, is important. After
initial hydraulic testing, this survey must be repeated at regular intervals, may be once a
year.

111
Solved Problem

Determine allowable leakage in gallons/hr in B class PVC pipe having 6-inches

diameter and 1000 ft long. Test pressure is 300 ft (9.3 bar; 135 psi).
Solution
P = 135 psi (9.3 Bar; 300 ft)
D = 6 inch
√P
L = SD
148,000
√135
L = 1000 × 6
148,000

L = 0.47 gallon/hr

9.13 LEAKAGE DETECTION IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Different methods may be employed for leakage detection in WDS. These are:
1. Presence of green grasses over water pipe, during a drought on the ground. It shows
presence of moisture due to pipe leakage.
2. Insert a steel rod in ground and check its tip whether it is wet or dry.
3. A serious leak may be guessed by a sudden drop in pressure on a pressure gauge.
4. Use of aquaphone.

9.14 HOUSE CONNECTION

A proper house connection from a distribution main is very important. However, it is

mostly neglected and becomes a cause of leakage and pressure problems in WDS.
House connection is given with the help of a cast iron clamped fixed on the
distribution line. The clamp has a hole on which a 1/2 inch socket is welded. A rubber ring
is placed between the water supply pipe and cast iron clamp, where socket is welded. It
makes the connection leak proof. A hole 3/8 inch diameter is drilled in distribution pipe to
get service connection. A ferule is fixed on the socket. A 1/2 inches service line is connected
to ferrule. This service line supplies water to the house (Fig 9.19).

112
 Figure 9.19: Typical house connection from WDS

REFERENCES

1. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc.,
USA.

2. K. N. Dugal, (2013), Elements of environmental engineering, S. Chand and

Compnay (Pvt) Ltd, Delhi.

3. O. O. Adeosun, (2014), Water distribution system challenges and solutions, Water

online. https://www.wateronline.com/doc/water-distribution-system-challenges-
and-solutions-0001

4. F. Faure and M. M. Pandit, (2013), Intermittent water distribution, Sustainable

sanitation and water management. Accessed on: 24-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.sswm.info/content/intermittent-water-distribution]

5. K. Choke, R. C. Varley and H. U. Biilani, (1996), Coping with intermittent water

supply: Problems and prospects. Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India EHP Activity
Report No. 26, USAID. Accessed on: 24-06-2017, Available at:
[http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnabz958.pdf]

6. A. C. McIntosh, (2003), Asian water supplies reaching the urban, IWA publishing,
USA. Accessed on: 26-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.adb.org/documents/books/asian_water_supplies]

7. N. Sunna, (2003), Water quality and intermittent water supplies, World Health
Organization Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities (CEHA), Amman.

113
 Accessed on: 20-08-2017, Available at:
[http://www.emro.who.int/ceha/media/powerpoint/quality.pps]

8. M. M. Pandit, (2010), Nanded water transmission and intermittent distribution study.

Accessed on: 24-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/PANDIT%202010
%20Nanded%20Water%20Transmission%20Study.pdf]

9. Water Treatments, (2017), Service reservoirs. Accessed on: 24-06-2017, Available

at: [http://www.thewatertreatments.com/water/service-reservoirs-function-type-
volume/]

10. W. W. Amon, (2015), The use of different types of pipes for transmision of water in
Kenya, BSc Thesis, University of Nairobi.

11. Civilblog.org, (2015), Pipes for water supply system. Accessed on: 24-06-2017,
Available at: [http://civilblog.org/2015/08/25/7-types-of-pipes-used-in-water-supply-
system-of-buildings/#]

12. E. Gur and D. Spuhler, (2014), Water distribution pies, Sustainable sanitation and
water management. Accessed on: 24-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.sswm.info/content/water-distribution-pipes]

13. Ahmed, (2017), Water supply and various types of pipes. Accessed on: 24-06-2017,
Available at: [http://www.gharexpert.com/tips/articles/Construction/1804/Drainage-
,-Sanitary-System-Plumbing-1804-Water-Supply-Various-Types-Pipes_0]

14. P. Scott, (2011), Types of water supply pipes, Nevada: wiseGEEK. Accessed on:
24-06-2017, Available at: [http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-water-pipe.htm]

15. BS 3505, (1986), Unplasticized polyvinylchloride (uPVC) pressure pipes for cold
portable water.

16. 3M™ Scotchkote™ USA, (2013), Fusion bonded epoxy coating 6233P. Accessed
on: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[http://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/880258O/3mtm-scotchkotetm-fusion-
bonded-epoxy-coating-6233p-technical-information.pdf]

17. American Iron and Steel Institute, (2007), Welded steel pipes, Design Manual: p. 5.
Accessed: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.steeltank.com/Portals/0/pubs/Welded%20Steel%20Pipe%2010.10.07
.pdf]

18. A. L. Mamish, (2010), Tape coating system for pipeline corrosion protection, Berry
Plastics Corp., Lexington, MA. Accessed on: 23-06-2018, Available at:
[www.pstc.org/files/public/mamish09.pdf]

114
19. American Cancer Society, (2015), Asbestos and cancer risk. Accessed on: 24-06-
2017, Available at: [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/asbestos.html]

20. National Cancer Institute Spain, (2017), Asbestos exposure and cancer risk.
Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available at: [https://www.cancer.gov/about-
cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/asbestos/asbestos-fact-sheet]

21. National Toxicology Program, (2016), Asbestos: Report on carcinogens, U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.

22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1984), Health effects assessment for
asbestos, EPA/540/1-86/049 (NTIS PB86134608). Accessed on: 30-06-2017,
Available at:
[https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_Report.cfm?dirEntryID=40602]

23. K. M. A. O’Reilly, A. M. McLaughlin and W. S. Beckett, (2007), Asbestos-related

lung disease, American Family Physician 75(5): p. 683-688.

24. M. Goldberg and D. Luce, (2009), The health impact of nonoccupational exposure
to asbestos: what do we know?, European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 18(6): p.
489-503.

25. International Agency for Research on Cancer, (2012), Evaluation of carcinogenic

risks to humans, No. 100C, IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic
Risk to Humans. Arsenic, Metals, Fibres and Dusts.

26. Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC), (2008), Water design

guidelines. Accessed on: 24-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.wsscwater.com/files/live/sites/wssc/files/PDFs/W-24-2008_18415.pdf]

27. , Network hydraulics. Accessed on: 29-07-2017, Available on:

[www.innovyze.com/bookstore/cwbsa/Chap5.pdf]

28. A. M. G. Lopes, (2004), Implementation of the Hardy-Cross method for the solution
of piping networks, Comput Appl Eng Educ 12: p. 117125.

29. L. A. Rossman, (2010), EPANET 2 Users Manual, EPA/600/R-00/057, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. Accessed on: 24-06-2017,
Available at:
[https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryId=95662]

30. AWWA, (2004), Standard C600 and C605; Appendix C, Procedures for pressure
and leakage testing of water mains.

31. AWWA, (2003), Principles and practices of water supply operations: water
transmission and distribution, Denver, CO.,.

115
32. AWWA, (2002), PVC pipe-design and installation, Manual of Water Supply Practices
M23, Denver, USA.

33. AWWA, (2005), Underground Installation of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pressure pipe
and fittings for water, AWWA Standard C605, Denver, USA.

116
 Chapter-10

Water quality, criteria and

standards

117
 WATER QUALITY, CRITERIA AND
STANDARDS
Water can be brought into different uses such as:
1. Water supply: municipal and industrial
2. Recreational: swimming, boating etc.
3. Fisheries
4. Commercial
5. Sports
Each use requires a specific quality of water if that use is to be continued. In this
chapter, water quality for municipal water would be in focus. Municipal water is the one that
is furnished for domestic and commercial use by any government agency (municipality,
WASA) or private non-governmental organization (NGO) (see Chapter-4). Municipal water
is also used for drinking purposes. Hence its quality is related to human health.

10.1 POTABLE WATER

Water which is safe to drink, pleasant to taste and useable for domestic purposes is
called potable water. Whereas contaminated water is the one which causes ill health effects.

10.2 WATER QUALITY

It defines those chemical, physical and biological characteristics by which one can
evaluate the acceptability of water for a specific use. Surface water (rivers, springs, streams,
lakes, etc.) carries suspended particles of sand, silt and clay and microorganisms -- pathogenic
(disease causing) and non-pathogenic (non-disease causing) [1]. Groundwater contains
dissolved substances like minerals e.g., calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and dissolved
salts of these minerals like sulfates, chlorides, carbonates, bicarbonates, and dissolved metals.
Nutrients like phosphorous and nitrogen etc. are also present in surface and groundwater. A
variety of trace elements like heavy metals (chromium, cadmium, lead, mercury etc.) and organic
pollutants (pesticides, phenols etc.) may also be present in surface and groundwater.
Human impacts, that include; increase in human population, industrialization, agriculture
and urbanization, have seriously affected water quality globally [2-10]. Pakistan is not an
exception [1, 11-16]. Water pollution has serious implications not only for human race but also
for all other flora and fauna.
Water pollution, from human sources, comes from a variety of ways. These include [11]:

118
 (a) Release of untreated industrial wastewaters into environmental (like water bodies,
on land, oceans).
(b) Use of fertilizers and pesticides on agricultural lands. Runoff mobilizes fertilizers
and pesticides. Thus, these may seep into ground and join shallow groundwater
sources or enter water bodies.
(c) Oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff.
(d) Eroded sediments from construction sites, crop fields, forest lands and stream
banks.
(e) Bacteriological contaminants from poorly maintained water supply system.
Various reasons of contamination are: poor workmanship in laying transmission lines
and distribution system; poor maintenance of water transmission and distribution
pipes; cross connection between water pipes and sewers laid close enough and
impounded storm water seeping into poorly maintained water pipes.
(f) Soakage pits in rural areas where groundwater table is high.

Compromised drinking water quality has serious health implications in the form of
different diseases. Other effects are aesthetic related to colour, taste and odour in water.

10.3 WATER RELATED DISEASES

Water and diseases have a close relationship [17-20] . The water related diseases
can be classified into 3 categories.
1. Water-borne diseases
2. Water-washed diseases
3. Water-based diseases

10.3.1 Water borne diseases

A water-borne disease is communicated by drinking microbially contaminated water.

Water borne disease may be due to: the presence of bacteria (typhoid, para typhoid,
cholera, bacillary dysentery, gastroenteritis (vomiting, severe abdominal cramps,
and diarrhea)), presence of virus (Polio, Hepatitis-A (jaundice), many gastrointestinal
(related to stomach and intestines) infections and presence of protozoa (Amoebic
dysentery). Groundwater is generally free of bacteria, however, surface water is not.
Global statistics of these diseases are alarming. There are 24 million cases of
diarrhea, annually, and death toll is 2.2 million [21, 22]. Typhoid cases are 21 million with
0.2 million deaths [23, 24]. Bacillary dysentery cases are120 million with 1.1 million deaths
[25, 26]. Cholera cases range from 1.3 to 4 million with deaths in a range of 21,000 to 143,
000 [27, 28]. No doubt, these figures would change each year, yet the numbers show how
widespread these are. Quality of water, thus matters a lot.

119
 The laboratory procedure to determine the bacteriological quality of water is through
Escherichia Coli (EColi) test. EColi bacteria live in human gut and are excreted with the
feces. These are referred to as indicator microorganisms. Their presence in water indicate
that the water has come in contact with human feces. There are chances that a person
suffering from a water borne disease may be present in the community. If it is true, then the
wastewater stream containing feces would bear disease causing microorganism. Thus,
person using water having EColi, may suffer from a water-borne disease.

10.3.2 Water washed diseases

A water-washed disease is the one that is caused by skin or eye contact with
contaminated water. These include; trachoma, scabies and flea, lice and tick borne
diseases [29]. Water washed diseases may also be caused due to severe lack of adequate
water supplies.

10.3.3 Water based diseases

A water-based disease is the one caused by the parasites living in water. Diseases
like Schistosomiasis, Dracunculiasis (also called guinea worm disease), and other
helminthic (worms) diseases, fall in this type. Schistosomiasis is caused by a small worm,
a parasite recognized as Fluke which enters human body by drinking contaminated water.
Or it may also enter through skin if one swims or baths in the contaminated water. Global
figures show 243 million cases per year of Schistosomiasis [30]. Guinea worm has
dramatically reduced from 3.5 million cases in 1986 to almost negligible in 2015, by
educating people through community based programs led by WHO and UNICEF [31, 32] .
Helminths are reported to cause diseases in 1 billion people per year [33, 34]. Similarly,
diseases caused by mosquitoes such as malaria, dengue fever etc. are also water based
diseases.
Many water based diseases follow the fecal-oral route ( from excreta to water and
water taken by a person; flies sit on excreta and then on food and food taken by a person;
from infected hands after defecation if food is taken without washing contaminated hands)
[35, 36].

10.4 PROTECTING WATER QUALITY-MULTI BARRIER APPROACH

Water quality may be protected by adopting a multi barrier approach. Firstly: raw water
sources, both surface and groundwater, must be safeguarded against contamination. For details
see Chapter-7. Secondly, appropriate water treatment may be rendered, if raw water does not
meet the specific quality standards. Reader is referred to books on water treatment methods.
Thirdly, protection of water distribution system (WDS) is of critical importance. For WDS,
surrogate measures monitored are: residual chlorine, water pressure and turbidity. If these
remain within prescribed limits, water quality may be reasonably ensured. Water must have at

120
least 0.2 mg/L of residual chlorine when it reaches consumer end. Maintaining adequate water
pressure saves intrusion of contaminated water present in the surroundings of water pipes. Low
level of turbidity ensures effective disinfection and good aesthetic quality.

10.5 COMMON IMPURITIES IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECTS

Table 10.1 delineates various impurities/contaminants in water and their health and
general impacts.

Table 10.1: Ingredients of concern in water and their impacts

Sr
Type Pollutant/contaminant Impact
No.
1. Suspended Bacteria Some cause diseases
Algea, Protazoa, Fungi Colour, odour, taste, turbidity (aesthetically
unacceptable), gastrointestinal diseases [37]
Silts Turbidity (aesthetically undesirable)
2. Dissolved Ca, Mg Cause hardness in water. Hard water does
not produce lather with soap. Removal of
soap while washing hands and bathing is
difficult. Deposition of scales on utensils and
faucets [38].There are no health impacts
associated with hard water [39, 40].
Total Dissolved Solids Higher levels, greater than 1000 mg/L, make
(TDS) water increasingly bitter/brackish/saltish to
drink. Values greater than 1000 mg/L cause
excessive scaling in water pipes, heaters,
boilers and household appliances. No health-
based guideline value for TDS has been
proposed [40, 41]
SO4 Laxative effect (loose motions) [40, 42]
Fe, Mn Produce color, hardness and taste. May
cause stains in laundry, plates and plumbing
fixtures [43]
Fluoride Levels greater than 1.5 mg/L may cause
dental fluorosis. Fluorosis is mottling or
spotting of teeth with yellow or dark brown
marks and teeth become brittle[40, 44].

121
Sr
Type Pollutant/contaminant Impact
No.
Iodide causes goiter if < 1 mg/L [45]

Nitrates Cause blue baby disease

(methemoglobinemia) in infants. High levels
produce oxygen deficiency and thus skin
colour becomes blue due to oxygen
deficiency. In extreme cases death may
occur [46]

Lead Acute (short term exposure to high

concentrations) lead poisoning causes
headache, irritability, abdominal pain and
various symptoms related to the nervous
system. Chronic exposure (long term
exposure to low concentrations) causes
memory deterioration, prolonged reaction
time and reduced ability to understand [47,
48] and lung and stomach cancer [49].
Chromium(III) WHO place it in Group 3 carcinogens (not
classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to
humans)[50]
Chromium (VI) May result in stomach and lung cancer [50,
51].
Mercury Acute mercury exposure may give rise to
lung damage. Chronic poisoning is
characterized by neurological and
psychological symptoms, such as tremor,
changes in personality, restlessness,
anxiety, sleep disturbance and depression,
kidney damage, nervous system damage
[47] and coronary heart disease [52].
Cadmium May cause kidney harm, skeleton damage
and is carcinogenic [47, 53]
Arsenic It has chronic effects and may cause
mortality from lung, bladder and kidney
cancer. May promote increased risk of skin

122
Sr
Type Pollutant/contaminant Impact
No.
cancer and other skin lesions, such as
pigmentation changes [47, 54].
Aluminum (Al) May give rise to alzheimer, dementia and
cognitive impairment [55].
Antimony (Sb) At given concentration, normally found in
natural water, has no harmful impact [56].
Barium (Ba) For drinking water the maximum contaminant
level set by the USEPA is 2.0 mg/L. Barium
(Ba+2) can cause an increase in blood
pressure, gastrointestinal problems, muscle
weakness and affect the nervous and
circulatory system [57, 58].
Boron (B) Affects male testes at concentration level of
2.0 mg/L [59, 60].
Copper (Cu) Cause nausea, abdominal pain, or vomiting
[61, 62]
Cyanide (CN) Lowers Vitamin B12 levels and increases
incidence of goiter [63, 64].
Nickle (Ni) No significant health impacts through water
[65].
Selenium (Se) Causes loss of hair, weakened nails, mental
symptoms [66].
Zinc (Zn) zinc levels greater than 5 mg/L can lead to
stomach cramps, nausea and vomiting [67,
68]
Phenolic compounds Act as carcinogens and cause damage to
the red blood cells and the liver, even at low
concentrations [69].
Polynuclear aromatic Carcinogenic [70].
hydrocarbons (PAH)
Total Pesticides Acute* effects include diarrhea, nausea,
(There is a long list of vomiting, abdominal pain, profuse sweating,
pesticides. Normally total salivation, blurred vision, irritation of skin,
pesticides are reported) eyes, and upper respiratory tract. However,
no chronic effects are observed [71, 72].

123
 Sr
Type Pollutant/contaminant Impact
No.
E-Coli Indicator of fecal contamination.
3. Gases Oxygen Causes corrosiveness to metals
H2S Malodourous
CO2 Produces acidity
*Acute toxicity is defined to be the amount needed to kill 50 percent of a population of laboratory rats. It is
expressed as milligrams of pesticide per kilogram of body weight. Ranges are defined as follows: high toxicity:
<500 mg/kg; moderate toxicity: 500 - 5000 mg/kg; low toxicity: >5000 mg/kg

10.6 NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY (NSDWQ)

Pakistan announced its National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) in
2010 [73]. Primary aim of these standards is the protection of public health and elimination
or reduction to a minimum of constituents of water that are known to be hazardous to health.
After the 18th amendment in the constitution, each province would have its own drinking
water standards. Mostly NDWQS have been adopted by most of the provinces.
These standards can be categorized under 6 major headings.
1. Microbiological (E-coli)
2. Physical (colour, taste, odour, turbidity, pH, TDS, total hardness)
3. Chemical; Essential inorganic (aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, boron,
cadmium, chloride, copper, chromium)
4. Chemical; Toxic inorganic (cyanide, lead, fluoride, manganese, nickel, mercury,
nitrite, nitrate, selenium, zinc)
5. Organic (pesticide, phenolic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH))
6. Radioactive (Alpha emitters; Beta emitters)
The values of various drinking water quality parameters prescribed in NSDWQ are
given in Table 10.2. However, the reader is suggested to look for any latest
updation/changes, before referring to the values given.

Table 10.2: Water quality parameters and prescribed limits in NSDWQ [73]
Type Sr No. Quality parameter Upper limit
Microbiological 1. E-Coli or Zero/100 mL
Thermotolerant
Coliform
Physical 1. Colour ≤15 TCU1
2. Taste Non objectionable/acceptable
3. Odour Non objectionable/acceptable

124
 Type Sr No. Quality parameter Upper limit
4. turbidity <5 NTU2
5. Total hardness < 500 mg/L
(as CaCO3)
6. TDS < 1000 mg/L
7. pH 6.5 – 8.5
Chemical 1. Aluminum (Al) ≤0.2 mg/L
(Essential inorganic) 2. Antimony (Sb) ≤0.005 mg/L
3. Arsenic (As) ≤0.05 mg/L
4. Barium (Ba) 0.7 mg/L
5. Boron (B) 0.3 mg/L
6. Cadmium (Cd) 0.1 mg/L
7. Chloride (Cl) < 250 mg/L
8. Chromium (Cr) <0.05 mg/L
9. Copper (Cu) 2 mg/L
Chemical 1. Cyanide (CN) 0.05 mg/L
(Toxic inorganic) 2. Fluoride* (F) ≤ 1.5 mg/L
3. Lead (Pb) 0.05 mg/L
4. Manganese (Mn) 0.5 mg/L
5. Mercury (Hg) 0.001 mg/L
6. Nickle (Ni) 0.02 mg/L
7. Nitrate* (NO3) ≤50 mg/L
8. Nitrite* (NO2) ≤3 mg/L
9. Selenium (Se) 0.01 mg/L
10. Residual chlorine 0.2-0.5 mg/L at consumer’s end
0.5-1.5 mg/L at source
11. Zinc (Zn) 5 mg/L
Organic 1. Pesticides NSDWQ give no standard value.
However, refer to PSQCA3 No.
4639, page no. 4, Table no.3,
serial number 20-58.
2. Phenolic NSDWQ give no standard value.
compounds (as WHO recommends ≤0.002 mg/L
Phenols)
3. Polycyclic aromatic NSDWQ give no standard value.
hydrocarbons (as However, WHO4 recommends
PAH) mg/L 0.01 g/L by GCMS5 method
Radioactive 1. Alpha emitters 0.1 bq/L6 or pCi7
2. Beta emitters 1 bq/L
* indicates priority health related inorganic constituents, which need regular monitoring
1
True colour units
2
Nephelometric turbidity units

125
 3
Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority
4
World Health Organization
5
Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy
6
becquerels per litre (unit of radioactivity)
7
pico Curie (unit of radioactivity)

10.7 WATER QUALITY MONITORING (WQM) FRAMEWORK

Framework illustrates a systematic approach/process adopted to achieve certain

objectives. It facilitates to perform the task in an organized way. Water quality monitoring
(WQM) is an important task. It may encompass all uses of waters, including the municipal
use. However, in this text book, the discussion is focused on monitoring the water quality in
municipal water supplies. Nevertheless, the framework proposed (Fig. 10.1) is general in
nature and may also be applied to other water uses.

Figure 10.1: Proposed framework for water quality monitoring [74]

126
 Various components of the framework are briefly discussed as follows.

10.7.1 The arrows within the framework

The out ring/wheel contains “3 Cs” i.e. collaboration, coordination and

communication. Collaboration indicates inclusion of all stakeholders [75]; water providers
(PHED, WASA, NGOs), community representatives, community activists, volunteers,
academia, private sector and environmental groups, who are directly or indirectly affected
by water quality. Coordination hints to close working of all the above stated actors.
Communication refers to sharing of knowledge and data among the stakeholders.

10.7.2 Develop monitoring objectives

Objectives of monitoring need to be clearly defined, before starting the process [76].
Questions that need to be answered while framing the objectives include: What is the
purpose of the monitoring effort; who will use the data; and how will the data be used?

10.7.3 Design monitoring program

Monitoring must be designed to meet the monitoring objectives. Following points

may be kept in mind [77, 78]: location of sampling sites; frequency of sample collection, the
constituents to be measured, and the methods to be used in the field and the laboratory.

10.7.4 Collect field and laboratory data

Field data, during sampling and laboratory data, after testing, may be collected at
one place. Lab data would give the state of water quality. Accurate and complete
documentation of procedures is essential at this stage of the process [78, 79].

10.7.5 Compile and manage data

Lab and field data must be in a form that it is usable and accessible. Sufficient
descriptive information must be added to the data to make these understandable to all the
stakeholders [80].

10.7.6 Assess and interpret data

Data after compilation and giving essential description become information.

Findings and conclusions drawn from assessment and interpretation may be documented.
Assessing and interpreting include comparing the data against standards, running various
statistical analysis on the data, summarizing spatial patterns, comparing data under
different conditions, forecasting of unsampled times or places and detecting trends [78, 81].

127
10.7.7 Convey findings and evaluate program

Findings and conclusions are to be disseminated by various means for use by all
stakeholders, including water quality managers, academicians, policy makers and the
public. Thus, format is important. It should be easily understood by the target audience.
Simple, clear explanations and graphics are essential for effective communication.
In designing a suitable format, one must seek answers to the questions like; What
is our objective? Who is our targeted audience? What is the overall message to be
conveyed? What format is to be used to convey the message? How will the message be
distributed? How will the success of this strategy be evaluated? [82]
There should be a strong system of feedback to examine the effectiveness of all the
above processes/steps. It would improve the processes and thus, help to understand and
protect and restore the water quality.

10.8 IMPLEMENTATION OF WQM FRAMEWROK

After the formulation of WQM framework, the implementation is the next steps. It
requires regulatory standards and an organizational setup (Fig 10.2)

1. Regulatory
Standards

2. Organizational
Setup/arrangements

Figure 10.2: Requirements for implementing WQM framework

10.8.1 Regulatory standards (NSDWQ)

The first step in implementing WQM framework is to have regulatory standards.

These standards define the water quality in terms of maximum contaminant levels in the
public water supplies. Pakistan announced its National Standards for Drinking Water Quality
(NSDWQ) in 2010. Public water supplies must meet these standards to conform that water
is fit for human consumption.
After the 18th amendment in constitution in 2010, environment is no more on
federal list. It has been devolved to the provinces. Now each province can frame its own
drinking water quality standards.

128
10.8.2 Organizational setup/arrangement

Routine monitoring of water quality is conducted by water providers (WASAs, TMAs,

NGOs). However, the water providers may be biased in reporting the results, especially if
there are issues with the water quality. This requires an independent third party/organization
to carry out the water quality surveillance. It must be clear that monitoring is carried out by
the water providers while surveillance is conducted by an independent organization or third
party. No such organization exists in Pakistan that undertakes the surveillance work.
National Water Quality Monitoring Council (NWQMC) works in USA for overall water
quality monitoring for all water uses. It was established in 1997. In Canada, Environment
and Climate Change Canada, in collaboration with provincial, municipal and other related
government departments, carry out the work of water quality surveillance [83]. India has an
organizational mechanism for surveillance of drinking water quality at state, provincial and
district levels. To focus more on rural water supplies, India launched National Rural Drinking
Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Program in 2006 [84, 85]. In Bangladesh,
Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) conduct water quality surveillance [86].
Hence, there is a need that independent setup may also be formulated in Pakistan for the
purpose.

REFERENCES

1. G. M. Carr and J. P. Neary, (2008), Water quality for ecosystem and human health;
in "Water Programme with International Institute, PAS- European Regional Centre
for Eco-hydrology UNESCO IAP Water Programme", UNEP Global Environmental
Monitoring System: p. 9-17.

2. European Commission, (2014), Pollution due to Eurpean biggest steel plant in Italy.
Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at: [http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-
14-1151_en.htm]

3. Environmental Performance Reviews: Italy 2013, (2014), Multi‑level environmental

governance: water, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD). Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at: [http://www.oecd.org/env/country-
reviews/italy2013.htm]

4. Vanderbilt University, (2002), Tennessee facing critical environmental issues,,

Vanderbilt Center for Environmental Management Studies (VCEMS) at the
Vanderbilt Institute for Public Policy Studies. Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available
at: [https://news.vanderbilt.edu/2002/09/23/tennessee-facing-critical-
environmental-issues-in-coming-decade-say-vanderbilt-researchers-60194/]

5. J. Williams, (1992), Environmentalism in Taiwanin-Taiwan: Beyond the economic

miracle, M.E. Sharpe, Taiwan: p. 187–210.

129
6. L. Arrigo and G. Pouleston, (2006), The environmental movement in Taiwan after
2000: Advances and dillemas, Harassowitz Verlag, Germany: p. 166.

7. K. Hughey, J. N. Kerr and R. Cullen, (2010), Public perceptions of New Zealand's

environment:2010, EOS Ecology, Christchurch, New Zealand.

8. Ministry of Environmental Protection of China, (2009), The 2008 report on the state
of the environment in China Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.zhb.gov.cn/plan/zkgb/2008zkgb/]

9. C. Wu, C. Maurer, Y. Wang and S. Xue, (1999), Water pollution and human health
in China, Environ Health Perspect, 107: p. 251–256.

10. World Bank, (2007), Cost of pollution in China: Economic estimates of physical
damages. Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at:
[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/
China_Cost_of_Pollution.pdf]

11. Sajjad Haydar, Obaid Nadeem, Husnain Haider, Haroon Rashid and Rashid
Majeed, (2016), Drinking water quality in urban areas of Pakistan: A case study of
Gujranwala city, Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research-Series A:
Physical Sciences, 59(3): p. 157-166.

12. Sajjad Haydar, Javed Anwar Aziz and Muhammad Arshad, (2009), Evaluation of
drinking water quality in urban areas of Pakistan: A case study of southern Lahore,
Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, UET Lahore, 5(2): p. 16-23.

13. Sajjad Haydar and Muhammad Qasim, (2013), A study of water quality of Sargodha
city, Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, UET Lahore, 13(2): p.
110-117.

14. Sajjad Haydar, Husnain Haider, Ghulma Hussain and Attiq ur Rehman, (2016),
Wastewater characterization of selected industries in Quaid-e-Azam industrial
estate: Treatment options and impact on groundwater quality, Proceedings of the
Pakistan Academy of Sciences: B. Life and Environmental Sciences, 53(2): p. 93–
102.

15. Amir Ikhlaq, Mohsin Kazmi and Sajjad Hayder, (2014), Evaluation of Drinking water
quality parameters in the areas of East - Lahore Pakistan : A case study, Journal of
Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Punjab University, 21(3).

16. Sajjad Haydar, Husnain Haider, Obaid Nadeem, Ghulam Hussain, Irfan Jalees and
Abdul Qadeer, (2014), Effect of hudiara drain on the quality of groundwater in the
housing schemes of Lahore, Journal of Faculty of Engineering & Technology,
Punjab University, 21(2): p. 119-134.

130
17. T. J. McGhee, (1990), Water supply and sewerage, McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

18. G. S. Logsdon, (2006), How waterborne disease outbreaks relate to treatment

failures, in AEESP Case studies compilation, Association of Environmental
Engineering & Science Professors (AEESP): p. 35-49. Accessed on: 28-06-2017,
Available at: [www.aeespfoundation.org/sites/default/files/pdf/AEESP_CS_3.pdf]

19. R. S. Hopkins, P. Shillam and B. Gaspard, (1985), Waterborne disease in Colorado:

Three years' surveillance and 18 outbreaks, American Journal of Public Health,
75(3): p. 254-257.

20. P. H. Gleick, (2002), Dirty water: Estimated deaths from water-related diseases
2000-2020, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security.
Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at:
[pacinst.org/app/uploads/2013/02/water_related_deaths_report3.pdf]

21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Diarrhea: Common illness, global killer,
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Accessed
on: 28-06-2107, Available at:
[https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/pdf/global/programs/globaldiarrhea508c.pdf]

22. WHO, (2015), Diarrhoeal disease. Accessed on: 28-06-2015, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/]

23. J. A. Crump, S. P. Luby and E. D. Mintz, (2004), The global burden of typhoid fever,
Bull World Health Organ, 82(5): p. 346-353.

24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2013), Typhoid Fever. Accessed on:
28-06-2017, Available at: [https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/diseases/typhoid]

25. S. Mani, W. Sachin, W. Thomas and I. Richard, (2016), Status of vaccine research
and development Shigella Vaccine, 34(26): p. 2887–2894.

26. C. Nordqvist, (2017), Dysentery: Causes, symptoms, and treatment, Medical News
Today. Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/171193.php]

27. M. Ali, A. R. Nelson, A. L. Lopez and D. Sack, (2015), Updated global burden of
cholera in endemic countries, PLOS; Neglected Tropical Diseases, 9(6).

28. WHO, (2016), Cholera: Fact Sheet. Accessed on: 28-06-2015, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs107/en/]

29. J. T. Macy and R. E. Quick, (2009), Transmission and preventation of water-related

diseases, Water and health, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems. Accessed on:
2-07-2017, Available at: [www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c03/e2-20a-01-04.pdf]

131
30. WHO Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, (2013),
Schistosomiasis: number of people treated in 2011, Schistosomiasis 8: p. 81-88.

31. M. Roser, Eradication of diseases, Our world in data. Accessed on: 28-06-2017,
Available on: [https://ourworldindata.org/eradication-of-diseases/]

32. C. Greenaway, (2004), Dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease), Canadian Medicial

Association Journal, 170(4): p. 495-500.

33. P. J. Hotez, P. J. Brindley, J. M. Bethony and C. H. King, (2008), Helminth infections:

the great neglected tropical diseases, The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 118(4):
p. 1311–1321.

34. P. J. Hotez, D. H. Molyneux, A. Fenwick and J. Kumaresan, (2007), Control of

neglected tropical diseases., New England Journal of Medicine, 357(10).

35. B. Reed and R. Scott, (2014), Preventing the transmission of faecal-oral diseases,
Loughborough University UK, Water Engineering and Development Centre
(WEDC). Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at:
[wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/.../G020-Preventing-transmission-of-disease-
online.pdf]

36. B. Reed, B. Skinner and R. Shaw, (2013), The "F" Diagram, WEDC, Loughborough
University, UK. Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at:
[wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/posters/P004_The_F_Diagram.pdf]

37. A. Haleem, S. K. Hemida and M. M. Abdellatif, (2016), Evaluation of microorganisms

of drinking water of Rafha city, northern borders, Saudi Arabia, Journal of Cytology
& Histology, 7(3).

38. Advanced Purification Engineering Corp (APEC), (2017), Top 5 hard water
problems for the home owner. Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education2/42-hard-water-problems.htm]

39. P. Sengupta, (2013), Potential health impacts of hard water, International Journal of
Preventive Medicine, 4(8): p. 866-875.

40. WHO, (2011), Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: p. 227.

41. Advanced Purification Engineering Corp (APEC), (2017), Does the total dissolved
solids (TDS) affect the taste of water? Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water_quality/quality1/15-08-tds-affects-taste-
of-water-page2.htm]

42. W. D. Heizer and R. S. Sandler, (1997), Intestinal effects of sulfate in drinking water
on normal human subjects, Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 42(5): p. 155-1061.

132
43. B. Oram, (2012), Manganese and iron in drinking water, Pennsylvania Groundwater
Quality, Water Research Center. Accessed on: 29-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.water-research.net/index.php/manganese]

44. A. Sethuraman, E. Imam and T. G. Yohannes, (2013), Fluoride contamination in

estuary water villages located around SIPCOT Industrial Zone, Cuddalore District,
Tamil Nadu, India, Journal of Material and Environmental Science, 4(4): p. 520-525.

45. National Research Council, (1980), Recommended dietary allowances, National

Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

46. L. Knobeloch, B. Salna, A. Hogan, J. Postle and H. Anderson, (2000), Blue babies
and nitrate-contaminated well water, Environmental Health Perspective, 108(7): p.
675-678.

47. L. Järup, (2003), Hazards of heavy metal contamination, British Medical Bulletin,
68(1): p. 167-182.

48. WHO, (1995), Lead, Environmental Health Criteria, 165.

49. K. Steenland and P. Boffetta, (2000), Lead and cancer in humans: where are we
now?, American Journal Industrial Medicine 38(3): p. 295-299.

50. WHO, (2003), Chromium in drinking-water, background document for development

of WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. Accessed on: 29-06-2017, Available
at: [http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/chromium.pdf]

51. A. H. Smith and C. M. Steinmaus, (2009), Health effects of arsenic and chromium
in drinking water: Recent human findings, Annual Review of Public Health, 30: p.
107-122.

52. K. Yoshizawa, E. B. Rimm, J. S. Morris, V. L. Spate and C. C. Hsieh, (2002), Mercury

and the risk of coronary heart disease in men, N Engl J Med 347: p. 1755-1760.

53. A. Bernard, H. Roels, J. P. Buchet and A. Cardenas, (1992), Cadmium and health:
the Belgian experience, IARC Scientific Publications 118: p. 15-33.

54. World Health Organization (WHO), (2001), Arsenic and arsenic compounds,
Environmental Health Criteria, 224.

55. T. P. Flaten, (2001), Aluminium as a risk factor in Alzheimer’s disease, with

emphasis on drinking water, Brain Research Bulletin, 55(2): p. 187-196.

133
56. WHO, (2003), Antimony in drinking-water; background document for development
of WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available
at: [http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/antimony.pdf]

57. Water Resarch Center, (2014), Barium In drinking water. Accessed on: 30-06-2017,
Available at: [http://www.water-research.net/index.php/barium]

58. Water Quality Association, (2013), Barium fact sheet. Accessed on: 30-06-2017,
Available at:
[https://www.wqa.org/Portals/0/Technical/Technical%20Fact%20Sheets/2014_Bari
um.pdf]

59. USEPA, (2008), Health effects support document for Boron, EPA-822-R-08-002.
Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available at:
[http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/barium.cfm. ]

60. USEPA, (2008), Summary document from the health advisory for Boron and
compounds, Document Number: 822-S-08-003. Accessed on: 30-06-2017,
Available at: [https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-
09/documents/summary_document_from_the_ha_for_boron.pdf]

61. F. Pizarro, M. Olivares and R. Uauy, (1999), Acute gastrointestinal effects of graded
levels of copper in drinking water, Environmental Health Perspectives 107(2): p.
117-121.

62. O. Manuel, F. Pizarro and H. Speisky, (1998), Copper in infant nutrition: safety of
world health organization provisional guideline value for copper content of drinking
water, Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition, 26(3): p. 251-257.

63. WHO, (2003), Cyanide in drinking-water: Background document for development of

WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/cyanide.pdf]

64. USEPA, (2009), Drinking water treatability database. Accessed on: 30-06-2017,
Available at:
[https://iaspub.epa.gov/tdb/pages/contaminant/contaminantOverview.do?contamin
antId=10080]

65. WHO, (2005), Nickel in drinking-water; Background document for development of

WHO guidelines for drinking water quality, WHO/SDE/WSH/05.08/55. Accessed
on: 30-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/gdwqrevision/nickel2005.pdf]

66. WHO, (2011), Selenium in drinking-water; Background document for development

of WHO guidelines for drinking water quality, WHO/HSE/WSH/10.01/14. Accessed

134
 on: 30-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/selenium.pdf]

67. WHO, (2003), Zinc in drinking-water; Background document for development of

WHO guidelines for drinking water quality, WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/17. Accessed
on: 30-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/zinc.pdf]

68. USEPA, (2010), National secondary drinking water regulations (NSDWRs).

Accessed on: 2-07-2017, Available at: [https://www.epa.gov/dwregdev/drinking-
water-regulations-and-contaminants]

69. W. W. Anku, M. A. Mamo and P. P. Govender, (2017), Phenolic compounds in

water: Sources, reactivity, toxicity and treatment methods, Chemistry, Croatia -
European Union, InTechOpen.

70. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), (1995), Public health
statement on PAH, Atlanta, USA. Accessed on: 1-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp69-c1-]

71. Cornell University, (1983), Drinking water and health-vol. 5, National Research
Council, Washington DC, USA.

72. N. M. Trautmann and K. S. Porter, (2012), Pesticides: Health effects in drinking

water. Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available at: [http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-
slides-self/facts/pes-heef-grw85.aspx]

73. Government of Pakistan, (2010), National standard for drinking water quality,
Statutory Regulatory Order No. 1063(1)/2010: p. 3207-3210.

74. Nation Water Quality Monitoring Council (NWQMC), (2004), A framework for water
quality monitoring. Accessed on: 2-07-2017, Available at:
[https://acwi.gov/monitoring/pubs/fs/framework.pdf]

75. A. Markowitz, L. T. Green and J. Laine, (2003), The 3c’s: Communicate, coordinate,
collaborate doing together what we can’t do alone, Water Resources Impact,
American Association of Water Resources Journal, 5(5): p. 8-10.

76. C. S. Spooner and G. E. Mallard, (2003), Identify monitoring objectives, Water

Resources Impact, American Association of Water Resources Journal, 5(5): p. 11-
13.

77. A. R. Olsen and D. M. Robertson, (2003), Monitoring design, Water Resources

Impact, American Association of Water Resources Journal, 5(5): p. 14-16.

135
78. Water Quality Monitoring Sub-Group of the CCME Water Quality Task Group,
(2006), A Canada-wide framework for water quality monitoring. Accessed on: 2-07-
2017, Available at:
[www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/water/water_quality/wqm_framework_1.0_e_web.p
df]

79. F. Wilde, H. J. Brass and J. Diamond, (2003), Data collection: Field and laboratory
methods, Water Resources Impact, American Association of Water Resources
Journal, 5(5): p. 19-21.

80. K. S. Klima, K. J. Lanfear and E. McCarron, (2003), Water quality data management,
Water Resources Impact, American Association of Water Resources Journal, 5(5):
p. 22-24.

81. D. R. Helsel and L. M. Griffith, (2003), Assess and interpret data, Water Resources
Impact, American Association of Water Resources Journal, 5(5): p. 25-29.

82. M. Ambrose, A. Markowitz and C. Job, (2003), Conveying results and findings,
Water Resources Impact, American Association of Water Resources Journal, 5(5):
p. 30-32.

83. Environment and Climate Change Canada, (2011). Accessed on: 2-07-2017,
Available at: [https://www.ec.gc.ca/eau-water/default.asp?lang=En&n=035F6173-
1]

84. R. M. Bhardwaj, (2005), Water quality monitoring in india-achievements and

constraints, IWG-Env, International Work Session on Water Statistics, Vienna.
Accessed on: 2-07-2017, Available at:
[https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/envpdf/pap_wasess5a2india.pdf]

85. I. Khurana and R. Sen, (2008), Drinking water quality in rural India: Issues and
approaches, WaterAid. Accessed on: 02-07-2017, Available at:
[www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/drinking-water-quality-rural-india.pdf]

86. Natural Environment Research Council, British Geological Survey. Accessed on: 2-
07-2017, Available at:
[http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/health/arsenic/Bangladesh/mapsbwd
b.html]

136
 Chapter-11

Introduction to wastewater
engineering

137
 INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER
ENGINEERING
The term “sewerage” or “wastewater engineering” are synonymous. These refer
to the collection, treatment and disposal of the wastewater. The term “sanitation” is also
used by foreign donor agencies while referring to wastewater collection, treatment and
disposal (World Bank, Asian Development Bank). UNICEF uses the term WASH (Water,
Sanitation and Hygiene). It includes water supply, sanitation and personal hygiene.
This chapter also includes a brief overview on: national policy framework on
sewerage/sanitation; historical perspective of sanitation in Pakistan; situation analysis in
sewerage/sanitation; and definitions of some basic terms. Thus, context will be set for
detailed discussion on design and construction of sewers (Chapter-13).
As discussed earlier, in Chapter-1, wastewater engineering may be divided into
three components. These are:

1. Collection system:(network of sewer pipes to collect wastewater)

2. Disposal Works (Sewage pumping stations)
3. Treatment works (treatment to wastewater before discharging it into the water
bodies/environment)

11.1 SOME BASIC TERMS

Wastewater/Sewage: Water, after use in houses, restaurants, offices, institutional

buildings, commercial areas, recreational places, hotels (after bathing, washing, and use of
toilet) and in industries (after use in various industrial processes), is discarded. It thus,
appears as wastewater/sewage. Generally, around 99.9% of it is water and the rest 0.1%
is solid content [1]; a portion is suspended and the rest is dissolved. Most of the nuisance
related with wastewater/sewage is associated with solid contents.
Sewer: It is a pipe or conduit for carrying wastewater. It is generally closed and flow
takes place under gravity.
Sewerage: It is a comprehensive term. This term is applied to the art of the collection
of wastewater and conveying it to the point of final disposal with or without treatment.
Gradually, the term “wastewater engineering” is now replacing the term “sewerage”. In
Pakistan, the term “sewerage” is more commonly used.

11.2 SOURCES OF WASTEWATER

138
 Domestic: It is the wastewater generated from residential buildings, offices,
institutions, commercial areas, recreational places and other buildings.
Industrial: It is the liquid waste from industrial processes like dying, paper making,
fertilizers, chemical manufacturing, leather tanning and many other industrial processes.
Storm water: When rain falls on earth, a part of it is absorbed and a portion flows
on the surface. It is referred to as storm runoff. Storm runoff, in urban areas, may be highly
polluted, because along its way, it may dissolve many pollutants while it come across with
solid waste, road surfaces and other impurities [2-5].

11.3 TYPES OF SEWERS

The purpose of sewer is to carry wastewater. However, a sewer may be named in

different ways, depending upon the purpose it serves and its location in the wastewater
collection network. Table 11.1 shows the nomenclature, commonly used [6].
Table 11.1: Types of sewers- defined
Type of sewer Purpose
Sanitary Sewer Sewer which carries sanitary sewage i.e., wastewater originating
from a municipality. It includes domestic and industrial wastewater
as a municipality area may have both residential areas and small
or large industrial zones in it. For example, Lahore has both,
scattered industries and industrial zones (Sunder Industrial Estate
and Quaid-e-Azam Industrial Estate).
Storm Sewer It carries storm water including surface run off and street washes
Combined Sewer It carries domestic, industrial and storm sewage
House Sewer Sewer inside the house that conveys wastewater to the municipal
sewer
Lateral Sewer It receives discharge from house sewers
Sub main sewer It receives discharge from one or more laterals
Main/Trunk It receives discharge from two or more sub mains
Sewer
Intercepting Intercepting sewers are large sewers that are used to intercept a
sewer number of main or trunk sewers and convey the wastewater to
treatment or other disposal facilities
Outfall Sewer It receives discharge from all collecting system and conveys it to
the point of final disposal (e.g., a water body etc.)

The relative position of some of the sewers, mentioned in Table 11.1, is further
explained in Fig. 11.1

139
Figure 11.1: Definition sketch for various types of sewers in a collection system

11.4 TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Three different types of sewerage system may be provided [6, 7]. The selection of
any one, is made, depending upon the specific circumstances, discussed in the following
text.
(a) Separate System: In this system, two separate pipes are laid; one for the
collection of sanitary sewage and second for the collection of storm water. It is
usually preferred when sanitary sewage needs treatment, while storm water is
not polluted to the extent that it needs treatment.
(b) Combined System: In combined system, one sewer is laid to receive both
sanitary and storm sewage. It is employed: (i) when combined sewage can be
disposed of without treatment (ii) when both need treatment and (iii) when
streets are narrow and two separate sewers cannot be laid. Combined system
is not a good option in Pakistan. Most of the rainfall occurs in the month of July
and August and the weather remains dry for most of the time in a year. Under
such conditions, the flow in dry season mostly consists of sanitary sewage and

140
 is quite low as compared to the design flow. This results in very low velocity of
sanitary sewage and deposition of solids starts in the combined system.
(c) Partially Combined: This system lies in between the above two systems. The
pipes laid, in partially combined system, take sanitary sewage and a portion of
the storm runoff (from roads, roof tops, house courtyards etc.). Hence it is called
partially combined.
In Pakistan, most of the sewers are designed as partially combined sewers allowing
surcharging of the system for some time, especially during monsoon season [8]. London
city has combined sewers [9]. In London rain occurs frequently. Hence a combined sewer
may be justified. However, nowadays, separate sewers are considered better, with respect
to management issues. Therefore, some US cities, very recently, have planned to separate
their sewer system. Many cities have been able to separate only portions of their combined
systems. High costs involved; physical hindrances and public inconvenience could be the
major hurdles in achieving complete separation of sewers in US cities [10] .

11.5 INFILTRATION

It is the water that enters a sewer through poor joints and cover/walls of manholes.
Infiltration is almost non-existent in dry weather but it will increase during rainy season.

11.6 PER CAPITA SEWAGE FLOW

Sewage flow may be taken as 80 to 85% of the water consumption [11-13]. Thus, if
water consumption is 100 liters per capita per day, then out of it, 80-85 liters will appear as
wastewater/sewage. This may be true for residential, commercial, institutional, recreational,
office building. However, in case of industries, the above percentage may not be applied.
Nevertheless, in case of municipalities, where all types of land uses are found, the above
percentage may be used.
The per capita sewage flow, calculated as described above, gives the average
sewage flow. Variations do occur during a day. These are related with variations in water
consumption. Seasonal variations may also occur. Normally variations during a day is taken
into account during sewer design [12].

11.7 VARIATION IN WASTEWATER FLOW

Since sewers must be able to accommodate the maximum sewage flow, the
variation in sewage flow needs to be studied.
Generally, the following formula is used to estimate the rates of maximum (peak) to
average flow [7]. However, if the local design criteria prescribe a value for peak factor, then
it must be followed and given preference over the formula given in equation 11.1.

141
 ]x&,y .Z
= { = 1 + Equation 11.1
],z Z/√

Where;
P = Population in thousand
PF = Peak Factor

Solved Example

The residential area of a city has a population density of 15000 persons per Km2
and an area of 120,000 m2. If the average water consumption in 400 LPCD, find the average
sewage flow and the peak sewage flow that can be expected in m3/day

Solution
.3=,===
Total population = 15000 × = =1800 persons.
.===×.===
Per capita sewage flow = 0.8 × 400 = 320 LPCD
Average sewage flow = 1800 × 320 = 576 m3/d.
.Z .Z
M=1+ =1 = 3.6
Z/√ Z/√..A
Peak Sewage Flow = 576 × 3.6 = 2073 m3/d.

11.8 INVERT LEVEL

It is the level of the invert of the sewer pipe (Fig. 11.2). The invert level may be
calculated using the following relationship (Fig. 11.2).

Invert Level = Ground level - cover over pipe – thickness of pipe – diameter of pipe.

Figure 11.2: Invert level of sewer pipe

142
11.9 MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VELOCITIES IN SEWERS

Sewage contains suspended solids (section 11.1). If sewage is allowed to flow at

low velocities for extended period of time, it may result in solid deposition and subsequent
choking of the sewer. Hence it is essential to maintain a velocity of flow that keeps these
solids in suspension. The minimum velocity to keep sewage solids in suspension, is referred
as self-cleansing velocity.
For sanitary sewer, a value of 2 ft/sec (0.6 m/sec) is adopted [6, 7, 14, 15]. European
Standards EN752-4 propose that all sewers may have a velocity of 2.2 ft/sec (0.7
m/sec), once/day for pipe diameter less than 12 inch (300 mm); and 2.2 ft/sec (0.7 m/sec)
or more, if necessary, for pipe diameter greater than 12 inch (300 mm) [16]. During low flow
conditions, in a day, the velocities are less than the self-cleansing, therefore, some quantity
of solids may deposit at the invert of the sewer. If self-cleansing velocity is obtained, once
a day, it is sufficient to take these solids again in suspension [17].
In case of storm sewer, higher velocities are adopted. British standards propose a
value of 2.5 ft/sec (0.75 m/sec) while American Society of Civil Engineering prescribe a
value of 3 ft/sec (0.9 m/sec) [18]. The reason is that storm water contains inert particles of
sand and silt. These are inorganic in nature q and are heavier. Thus, higher velocities are
needed to keep them in suspension.
For partially combined sewers, a self cleansing velocity of 2.5 ft/sec (0.76 m/sec) is
usually recommended [8].
There is also a limit on the maximum velocities in the sewers. It is imposed due to
abrasive character of solids in wastewater. Excessive wear of internal pipes surface may
occur at very high velocities. Hence the flow velocity in sewer may not exceed from 8-10
ft/sec (2.4 to 3.0 m/sec) [6, 7, 19]. Higher velocities are usually observed in hilly areas,
where sewers have to be laid on sharp gradients.
The local design criteria, announced by the government, usually prescribe minimum
and maximum velocities, and must be adhered to for the purpose of sewer design. In
Pakistan, mostly PHED and WASA Lahore design criteria are followed.

11.10 SEWER SLOPES TO MAINTAIN SELF-CLEANSING VELOCITIES

For Reinforcement Cement Concrete (RCC) sewers, Table 11.2 shows the slopes
to maintain self-cleansing velocities, when sewer is running full. This table has been
developed using Manning’s equation and MS Excel spreadsheet. Manning’s equation is
used for the design of gravity sewers. The slope given in Table 11.2 may vary for other pipe
types. Detailed discussion on the equation is presented in Chapter-13. Using the details
given, the reader may develop such tables, for ready reference, using Manning’s equation
and other pipe parameters, which are available in the literature and on the internet

143
resources. A spreadsheet like MS Excel may help to develop such tables in a very short
time.
Table 11.2: Slopes to maintain 2.5 ft/sec (0.76 m/s) velocity in RCC sewers, running full

Dia Q slope
inch mm m3/sec cusec m/m; ft/ft

9" 225 0.0302 1.08 0.0045

12" 300 0.057 2.05 0.0030
15" 375 0.086 3.08 0.0023
18" 450 0.126 4.51 0.0017
21" 525 0.168 5.99 0.0014
24" 600 0.222 7.93 0.0012
27" 675 0.284 10.15 0.0010
30" 750 0.345 12.31 0.0009
33" 825 0.421 15.04 0.0008
36" 900 0.500 17.85 0.0007
39" 975 0.586 20.94 0.0006
42" 1050 0.681 24.32 0.0006

11.11 MINIMUM SEWER SIZE

Sometimes, bigger objects also enter sewers. Clogging is less likely if sewers are
not smaller than 9 inches (225 mm) [6, 20, 21]. This smallest size must be larger than the
house sewer connections in general use. Thus, the articles that pass through the house
connections may readily pass through the sewer. Sometimes people, even outside their
houses, use sewers to dispose solid waste, construction waste (e.g. broken bricks, debris
etc.) and animal remains, especially at Eid ul Azha. Thus, a minimum size of 9 inches (225
mm) is recommended for gravity-flow sanitary sewers. The most common size of house
sewer is 6 inches (150 mm) .

11.12 MANHOLES

Manholes are masonry or concrete chambers, provided at some distance, on the

sewer line. The purpose is to: (1) to connect house sewer with municipal sewer; (2) cleaning
of sewer lines in case of blockage and (3) inspection of sewers
These are provided: (1) at every change in direction in sewer line; (2) where two
different diameter pipes are to be connected. More details on manhole are available in
Chapter-14 on sewer appurtenances.

144
REFERENCES

1. J. R. Buchanan, Wastewater basics, Department of Biosystems Engineering & Soil

Science, University of Tennessee, USA. Accessed on: 4-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/epa-
mou_wastewater_basics_101.pdf]

2. J. Marsalek, (2006), Overview of urban drainage impacts on aquatic habitat,

Integrated Urban Water Resources Management. NATO Security through Science
Series, Springer, Germany.

3. R. N. Oltmann, J. R. Guay JR and J. M. Shay, (1987), Rainfall and runoff quantity

and quality data collected at four urban land-use catchments in Fresno, California,
October 1981- April 1983, U.S. Geological Survey; Open-File Report 84-718: p. 139.

4. J. T. Smullen, A. L. Shallcross and K. A. Cave, (1999), Updating the US nationwide

urban runoff quality data base, Water Sci. Technol, 39: p. 9-16.

5. USEPA, (1983), Results of the nationwide urban runoff program: Vol. 1. Accessed
On: 05-07-2017, Available at:
[https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/2000SNX3.PDF?Dockey=2000SNX3.PDF]

6. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.

7. T. J. McGhee, (1990), Water supply and sewerage, McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

8. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water
supply and sanitation sectors.

9. London sewerage system, (2017). Accessed on: 05-07-2017, Available at:

[cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/l/London_sewerage_system.htm]

10. USEPA, (1999), Combined sewer overflow management fact sheet: Sewer
separation, EPA-832-F-99-041, Washington DC, USA. Accessed on: 05-07-2017,
Available at: [https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sepa.pdf]

11. F. Rabah, (2016), Design criteria of wastewater collection system, Islamic University
of Gaza-Environmental Engineering Department. Accessed on: 05-07-2017,
Available at: [http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/halnajar/files/2011/09/Lecture-3.-Design-
Criteria.pdf]

12. G. L. Karia and R. A. Christian, (2013), Wastewater treatment: Concept and design
approach, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd, Delhi: p. 20.

145
13. B. Joseph, (2009), Environmental studies, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi: p. 143.

14. P. T. Chiueh, S. L. Lo and P. Y. Liao, (1999), A study of self-cleansing velocity for

sanitary sewer system design, Journal of the Chinese Institute of Environmental
Engineering, Vol. 9(4): p. 285-292.

15. Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, (2012), Urban stormwater

management manual for Malaysia, 2nd edition,, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

16. N. Vongvisessomjai, T. Tingsanchali and M. S. Babel, (2010), Non-deposition

design criteria for sewers with part-full flow, Urban Water Journal, 7: p. 61-77.

17. B. C. Punmia, (2005), Wastewater Engineerign including air pollution, Laxmi

Publication (P) Ltd, New Delhi, India: p. 55.

18. C. Nalluri and A. Ghani, (1996), Design options for self cleansing storm sewers,
Water Science and Technology, 33(9): p. 215-220.

19. Government of the Hong Kong, (2013), Sewerage manual:Key planning issues and
gravity collection system, Drainage Services Department: p. 22. Accessed on: 5-
07-2017, Available at:
[http://www.dsd.gov.hk/EN/Files/Technical_Manual/technical_manuals/Sewerage_
Manual_1_Eurocodes.pdf]

20. M. Neary and G. Amirzehni, (2008), Sanitary sewer design standards, Department
of Engineering and Construction, Community & Economic Development Agency,
California
Accessed on: 05-07-2017, Available at: [http://www2.oaklandnet.com/w/OAK036228]

21. Engineering Services Sudbury, Canada, (2012), Engineering design manual.

Accessed on: 05-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.greatersudbury.ca/linkservid/FF10C348-9ED2-B71D-
B7F8747AF1797D3F/showMeta/0/]]

146
 Chapter-12

Design criteria for sewerage

(PHED & WASA)

147
 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SEWERAGE (PHED
& WASA)
The state organizations, managing water supply and sewerage facilities are Public Health
Engineering Departments (PHEDs) and Water and Sanitation Agencies (WASAs). For all the
water supplies in public sector, the design criteria laid down by these two organizations, are
followed. PHED was first established in Punjab in 1961. Design criteria develop by it were mostly
adopted by PHEDs in other provinces, with minor modifications. The latest revision of Punjab
PHED design criteria was made in 2008 [1]. In 2008 version, design criteria on wastewater
treatment were also included, for the first time. However, this section requires major
improvements. Portion on water supply and sewerage is in line with the international practices
and norms.
Design criteria for sanitary sewers, water distribution system and storm drainage, for
WASA Lahore, were prepared in 1975 by the consultant M/s Camp, Dresser & Mckee (CDM)
[2, 3]. It is still in use and no revision has been made in it.
In view of the rapid changes in water and sanitation sector, growing water scarcity, need
for water conservation and tapping resources judiciously and innovatively, there is a need to
revise design criteria proposed by PHEDs and WASAs.
The following sections present the sewerage design criteria by PHED (2008 version).
WASA design criteria (1975 version) differ from PHED at few places; these have been mentioned
in the relevant section. Where both are the same, the name of either PHED or WASA has not
been mentioned.

12.1 LOCATION OF DISPOSAL WORKS

The wastewater disposal station should be located at a place from where sewage can be
safely, economically and hygienically disposed of into a receiving natural water body.
The sewers will be generally designed as partially combined system allowing surcharging
of the system for some time depending upon the financial capability of the sponsoring agency.
Bypass arrangements at disposal station must be provided wherever possible in order to
meet emergencies and to avoid un-necessary pumping.
Acquire sufficient area for disposal station to accommodate future expansion for the next,
at least, 40 years. Master plan should be prepared for the sewerage system but implementation
should take place in phases, according to the priority of work/area.

12.2 DESIGN PERIOD

PHED

148
 Sewers and civil works = 25 years
Pumping machinery = 15 years
Wastewater treatment works = 20 years

12.3 AVERAGE SEWAGE FLOW CONTRIBUTION

PHED
For population upto 100,000 = 80% of average water consumption
For population greater than 100,000 = 85% of water consumption
WASA
80 to 85%

12.4 PEAK FACTOR

Sewers must take the peak flow generated in the system. Hence these are designed on
peak flow. PHED prescribe the peak factors to be adopted as shown in Table 12.1. It can be
observed that peak factor has higher value for smaller population and lesser for larger population.
It is due to the fact that smaller areas have less length of sewer network. The travel time of
wastewater in sewer network is smaller. During peak water consumption, wastewater from even
farthest places in sewer network reach at the disposal point quickly. Hence a pronounced peak is
generally observed. In larger cities, the network is quite long. Wastewater from farthest points
may take considerable time to reach mains. During this period, peak wastewater flow from nearby
areas may already have passed the disposal point, and hence the peak is not so pronounced.
Table 12.1: Peak factors for wastewater flow
Population Peak
(in thousand) factor
Up to 5 4.5
5-10 4
10-25 3.5
25-50 3
50-100 2.5
More than 100 2

12.5 PEAK DRY WEATHER FLOW

Dry weather flow, is the flow, that will run in sewer during dry season (excluding monsoon
period or rainfall duration). Thus,
Peak dry weather flow = Average wastewater flow x peak factor

149
12.6 STORM WATER ALLOWANCE (FOR PARTIALLY COMBINED SEWERS)

As discussed earlier (Chapter-11), mostly partially combined sewers are designed in

Pakistan, therefore, some allowance for storm water is taken. Since north Punjab receives more
rainfall, therefore, greater allowance has been taken for it.
PHED:
50% of peak flow as storm water allowance (North Punjab)
33% of peak flow as storm water allowance (South Punjab)
WASA:
100% of peak sewage flow

12.7 INFILTRATION

PHED: sewer above sub soil water level = 350 gall/inch dia/mile/day
Sewer below sub soil water level = 700 gall/inch dia/mile/day

WASA:
9 inch – 24 Inch dia = 5 % of average sewage flow (225-600mm).
> 24 Inch dia= 10 % of average sewage flow.

12.8 DESIGN FLOW

If the sewer is designed as partially combined sewer, then the design flow may be
calculated as given below.
Design flow = Peak dry weather flow + storm allowance + infiltration
All sewers would be design on running full conditions with Manning’s equation. This
equation is used for open channel flow. Since flow in sewers take place under gravity, with no
pressure, hence above stated equation may be used.
..ZA
[= | 3/ × o ./3 (FPS Units) Equation 12.1

.
[ = | 3/ × o ./3 (SI Units) Equation 12.2

Where
V = Velocity, ft/sec (m/sec)
^  ~     , 6 (6 )
R = hydraulic mean depth =
   , ()
For a pipe, flowing full the value of ‘R’ is
(X/Z)×Y6 Y
= = ;
XY Z
For pipe flow half full, R is same as for flowing full
S = slope of sewer

150
 n = Co-efficient of roughness for pipe (0.013 for R.C.C pipes)
Sewers are always designed on the assumption that they are flowing full. In actual practice
sewers always flow partially full. For detailed discussion on sewers flowing partially full, see
Chapter-14 (section 4).

12.9 VELOCITY AT DESIGN FLOW

PHED
For partially combined sewers
Desirable velocity = 2.5 ft/sec (0.76 m/sec)
In difficult situation where above velocity is not possible = 2 ft/sec (0.6 m/sec)
Max in hilly area = 7 ft/sec (2.1 m/sec)
For storm sewers = 3 ft/sec (0.91 m/sec)
WASA
Velocity = 2 ft/sec (0.6 m/sec) – It is for sanitary sewers

12.10 MANHOLE SPACING

Table 12.2: Manhole spacing for different diameter sewer pipes

Diameter Maximum spacing allowed
(inches) (ft)
9 50
12 100
15 150
18 200
21-24 250
27-42 300
48-60 400
>60 500

Manhole will be provided at every change in direction. Where level difference between two
lines is more than 3 feet, a DROP manhole will be provided.
Manhole sizes, above sub soil water level are given in Table 12.3
Table 12.3: Manhole sizes for different diameter and depth of sewers
Sewer size Depth
Manhole size Remarks
(inch) (ft)
9-12 Up to 4 2ft x 2ft Use brick masonry with 1:3 cement sand
12-21 4-7 4 ft diameter motor

151
 Sewer size Depth
Manhole size Remarks
(inch) (ft)
24-30 8-20 5 ft diameter Thickness of masonry
33-42 8-20 6.5 ft diameter Up to 8 ft depth = 9 inch
45-54 8-20 7.5 ft diameter From 8 to 15 ft depth = 13.5 inch
60 8-20 8 ft diameter From 15 to 20 ft depth = 18 inch
66 8-20 8 ft diameter
72 8-20 9 ft diameter

For manhole under sub soil water, RCC core wall and manhole floor will be designed as
per actual depth of water encountered.
For more details on manhole and illustrations, see Chapter-14.

12.11 MINIMUM PIPE SIZE

The minimum pipe size to be used is 9 inch (225 mm) diameter

12.12 COVER OVER PIPES

The minimum clear cover pipe should be 3 ft (1m).

12.13 PIPE ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT

For RCC pipes use Manning’s coefficient of roughness n = 0.013

12.14 DISPOSAL WORKS

1. Multiple pumps will be provided; one that could pump average flow; another that could
take larger than average flows; and both combined could pump peak flows
2. Stand by pumps must be provided having capacity as 33% of peak sewage flow.
3. Alternate source of energy must be provided in the form of diesel generators.
4. Proposed detention time at average flow in wet wells are shown in Table 12.4.

Table 12.4: Detention time in wet well

Population Detention time
(in thousand) (minutes)
Up to 25 10
25-50 5
50-100 4
100-200 3

152
 Population Detention time
(in thousand) (minutes)
Above 200 2

Sewage pumping stations are proposed to be designed on the basis of peak flows.
Type of pumps
All sewage pumps should be capable of passing solids of 2-3 inches size. These will be
powered by AC electric connections.
Stand by arrangements. For safeguard against power failure, at least 50% pumping
capacity will have additional electric power generator (diesel driven).

12.15 SEWER BEDDING

Sewer beddings are provided to increase the load carrying capacity of RCC pipes.
Above sub soil water
For 9-12 inch RCC pipe diameter = sand
For RCC sewers 15 inch dia and above = brick ballast or crushed stone (1/4 inch to 1
inch size)
Below sub soil water
Either a PCC 1:2:4 cradle or RCC 1:2:4 cradle be provided. Bedding thickness be such
that it balances the buoyancy by water. PCC may be provided in case underground strata are
good and stable (like sand). RCC bedding is required at places where underground strata consist
of silt/clay. Special sewer joints are provided, under water, to control infiltration of groundwater
into sewers. Standard bedding design (thickness and steel details) developed by PHED may be
used. More details on bedding may be found in Chapter-13 (section 13.13).

12.16 CLASS OF RCC PIPES

Mostly, under normal loading conditions, ASTM pipes class-II (ASTM specification No. C-
76) as amended by PHED should be used. For use of class-III pipes, decision should be taken
as per specific site conditions

12.17 PIPE REINFORCEMENT

Pipe reinforcement may be provided as per BSS and ASTM specifications (as amended
by PHED). Reinforcement table is attached as Annex-1 of this book

12.18 SLOPE OF SEWERS

Minimum gradient of sewers to attain velocities as per section 12.9 above should be
adopted.

153
12.19 DESIGN FLOW FOR STORM WATER (DRAINAGE)

The flow for storm sewer is calculated according to Rational Method, which relates the
flow to rainfall intensity, the tributary area, and a coefficient, which represents the combined
effects of ponding, percolation and evaporation. The discharge is calculated as follows:-
Q = CIA
Where:-
Q =Discharge in cusecs
C = Runoff coefficient
I = Rainfall intensity (inch/hr)
A = Drainage/catchment area in acres

Run off coefficients for different type of surfaces are given in Table 12.5.
Table 12.5: Runoff coefficients for Rational Formula
Run off
Type of surface
coefficient
Water tight roof surface 0.7-0.95
Asphalt cement street 0.85-0.9
Portland cement street 0.8-0.95
Brick paved driveways and walkways with tightly cemented joints 0.75-0.85
Brick paved driveways and walkways with uncemented joints 0.7-0.8
Inferior block pavement with uncemented joints 0.4-0.5
Gravel driveways and walkways 0.15-0.3
Lawns sandy soil
2% slope 0.05-0.1
2-7% slope 0.1-0.15
> 7% slope 0.15-0.2
Lawns, heavy soil
2% slope 0.13-0.17
2-7% slope 0.18-0.22
> 7% slope 0.25-0.35
Business downtown area
Neighbourhood area 0.7-0.95
Residential (urban) 0.5-0.7
Single family area 0.3-0.5
Multi units-detatched 0.4-0.6
Multi units-attached 0.6-0.7
Residential (sub urban)

154
 Run off
Type of surface
coefficient
Apartment area 0.25-0.4
Industrial
Light 0.5-0.7
Heavy 0.5-0.8
Parks, cemeteries 0.6-0.9
Playgrounds 0.1-0.25
Railroad yards 0.2-0.35
Unimproved area 0.2-0.4

For Southern Punjab an intensity of 1/30 inches per hour may be taken except for industrial
cities where higher intensities (1/4 inches/hour) are assumed for small towns while ½ inches/hour
should be used for larger cities.

REFERENCES

1. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.

2. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (2014), Terms of reference for preparation of master
plans for the water, wastewater & storm water drainage of Lahore District, Lahore
Development Authority: p. 3. Accessed on: 06-07-2017, Available on:
[http://www.wasa.punjab.gov.pk/system/files/tor.pdf]

3. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1975), Final design criteria for phase-II
improvement program, Lahore Development Authority.

155
 Chapter-13

Design and construction of

sanitary sewer

156
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
SANITARY SEWER
Sewer design refers to determining two things: (1) the diameter of sewer pipe to carry the
design flow and (2) the required slope/gradient at which the sewer may be laid to maintain self-
cleansing velocity. Before the above two steps, there are some pre-requisites that need to be
completed, so that the design work could be undertaken. The entire exercise of design may thus
be divided into the following steps [1]. Each step will be discussed in detail. In addition, other
important information and details, essential to complete the design process, will also be reviewed
in this chapter.
1. Survey, mapping and data collection
2. Design consideration/Formulation of design criteria
3. Actual design
4. Preparation of drawings and BOQ
5. Preparation of design/feasibility report
6. Subsequent modifications.

13.1 SURVEY, MAPPING AND DATA COLLECTION

The first step in sewer design for a project/community is to visit the project area. If map of
the area is available, it must be taken along. The existing map should have sufficient details
needed to meet the purposes of design. However, if no map of the area is available, the first step
is to carry out survey of the area. This activity is normally outsourced to a survey company having
necessary equipment and staff. The map developed, after survey must have the following details;
 Streets and road layout
 Railway lines passing through the project area
 Streams near or passing through the project area
 Location of underground utilities like gas, water mains etc.
 Any other permanent features
 Established bench marks and spot levels must be written at every street/road junction
 Contours must be marked on the map, at about 5 feet interval, to examine natural drainage
pattern in the project are.
Soil conditions in the project area may be investigated to know soil type and location of
underground water table. Water table investigations are very important. If water table is high, then
sewer may have to be laid under water. Under such circumstances, special bedding for sewer

157
and dewatering of sewer trenches are required. Hence, it is essential to know, at the very initial
stage of planning, the depth of water table.
Collection of rainfall data for the last 5-10 years. Rainfall data may be collected from
Meteorological Department on payment. If the rain gauge of Meteorological department is not
exactly located at the project site, data for the nearest gauge may be used. Internet may be used
to search rainfall data, which are available for some locations in Pakistan. This step is optional as
in PHED design criteria rainwater allowance, for partially combined sewers, has been simplified
as 50% or 33% of peak dry weather flow. In addition, for storm drains, the rainfall intensity to be
adopted has been mentioned. However, if the client insists on using actual rainfall data for storm
sewers then the procedure is different and has been discussed in detail in Chapter-16
Study of natural slopes of the area and selection of a suitable disposal point should be
finalized prior to design.

13.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

PHED or WASA design criteria are normally used in Pakistan [2, 3]. However, if some
deviations/changes are to be made, keeping in view the special site circumstances, the approval
must be obtained from the client to avoid later complication and design revision.

13.3 DESIGN

As discussed earlier, the design refers to finding out the diameter of the sewer and the
required slope to maintain the self-cleansing velocity. Since the self-cleansing velocities are pre-
fixed by PHED/WASA design criteria, the slope required to achieve the desired velocity may be
determined using Manning’s equation [1, 4]. Both versions of the Manning’s equation are given
as under.
..ZA
[= | 3/ × o ./3 (FPS Units) (Equation 13.1)

.
[ = | 3/ × o ./3 (SI Units) ( Equation 13.2)


Where
V = Velocity, ft/sec (m/sec)
^  ~     , 6 (6 )
R = hydraulic mean depth =
   , ()
For a pipe, flowing full or half full, the value of ‘R’ is
(X/Z)×Y6 Y
= =
XY Z
S = slope of sewer
n = co-efficient of roughness for pipe (0.013 for RCC pipes)

158
 Sewers are designed by assuming that they are flowing full [4]. A back calculation table is
usually developed, using Manning’s equation. It is done using an electronic spreadsheet, like MS
Excel. Since design is always initiated, by assuming that sewer is flowing full, therefore, hydraulic
mean depth in Manning’s equation would be D/4. Table 13.1 shows this back calculation table,
assuming a self-cleansing velocity of 2.5 ft/sec.
Table 13.1: Back calculation table for RCC sewer with self-cleansing velocity of 2.5 ft/sec
Fall
Dia Q slope
1 in ?

inch mm m3/sec cusec ft/ft; m/m

9 225 0.0302 1.08 0.0045 222
12 300 0.057 2.05 0.0030 333
15 375 0.086 3.08 0.0023 444
18 450 0.126 4.51 0.0017 573
21 525 0.168 5.99 0.0014 692
24 600 0.222 7.93 0.0012 835
27 675 0.284 10.15 0.0010 984
30 750 0.345 12.31 0.0009 1119
33 825 0.421 15.04 0.0008 1279
36 900 0.500 17.85 0.0007 1433
39 975 0.586 20.94 0.0006 1594
42 1050 0.681 24.32 0.0006 1761
45 1125 0.756 26.98 0.00053 1888
48 1200 0.860 30.70 0.00049 2057
51 1275 0.970 34.66 0.00045 2231
54 1350 1.088 38.86 0.00042 2407
57 1425 1.212 43.29 0.00039 2587
60 1500 1.343 47.97 0.00036 2770
63 1575 1.481 52.89 0.00034 2956
66 1650 1.625 58.05 0.00032 3146
69 1725 1.776 63.44 0.00030 3338
72 1800 1.934 69.08 0.00028 3533

Once the design flow in a sewer has been determined, Table 13.1 is used to select a
suitable pipe diameter that may take that flow with corresponding slope. For example, if the design
flow in a pipe comes to be 2.4 cusec (ft3/sec), the appropriate size would be 15-inch diameter

159
pipe with a slope of 0.0023 (with self-cleansing velocity of 2.5 ft/sec). The last column of Table
13.1 shows the fall. For example, for a 9-inch sewer, there would be a fall of 1 ft in 221 ft length
of sewer (or 1 m fall in 221 m length of sewer). Similarly, for a 30-inch sewer, there would be a
fall of 1 ft in 1119 ft length of sewer (or 1 m fall in 1119 m length of sewer).
Table 13.2 shows the back calculation table for self-cleansing velocity of 2 ft/sec.

Table 13.2: Back calculation table for RCC sewer with self-cleansing velocity of 2 ft/sec
Dia Q slope 1 in ?

inch mm m3/sec cusec m/m ft/ft

9 225 0.025 0.881 0.0030 332

12 310 0.047 1.671 0.0020 509
15 380 0.070 2.512 0.0015 667
18 460 0.103 3.68 0.0012 861
21 530 0.137 4.886 0.0010 1040
24 610 0.181 6.472 0.0008 1254
27 690 0.232 8.281 0.0007 1478
30 760 0.281 10.05 0.0006 1681
33 840 0.344 12.27 0.0005 1921
36 915 0.408 14.56 0.0005 2153
39 991 0.478 17.08 0.0004 2395
42 1068 0.555 19.84 0.0004 2647
48 1200 0.7013 25.05 0.0003 3091
54 1350 0.888 31.7 0.0003 3617
57 1425 0.989 35.32 0.0003 3887
60 1500 1.096 39.13 0.0002 4163
63 1575 1.208 43.15 0.0002 4442
66 1650 1.326 47.35 0.0002 4727
69 1725 1.449 51.76 0.0002 5015
72 1800 1.578 56.35 0.0002 5308

Table 13.3 gives the back calculation table for a self velocity of 3 ft/sec for storm sewers

160
 Table 13.3: Back calculation table for self cleansing velocity of 3 ft/sec for storm sewers
Dia Q slope 1 in ?

inch mm m3/sec cusec m/m ft/ft

9" 225 0.036 1.3 0.0066 152

12" 310 0.069 2.5 0.0043 234
15" 380 0.104 3.7 0.0033 306
18" 460 0.152 5.4 0.0025 395
21" 530 0.202 7.2 0.0021 477
24" 610 0.267 9.6 0.0017 576
27" 690 0.342 12.2 0.0015 679
30" 760 0.415 14.8 0.0013 772
33" 840 0.507 18.1 0.0011 882
36" 915 0.602 21.5 0.0010 989
39" 991 0.706 25.2 0.0009 1100
42" 1068 0.820 29.3 0.0008 1215

.
Back calculation tables, for any pipe type may be developed, using Manning’s equation,
for a specific self-cleansing velocity and using appropriate Manning’s co-efficient for that pipe.
Using the back calculation table, a hydraulic computation table (usually referred as Hydraulic
Statement) is set up. Diameter for different pipes and slope is noted down in the Hydraulic
Statement (for details see section 13.5). It may also be noted that for RCC pipes, diameter starts
from 9-inch and it increases with an interval of 3 inches

13.4 STUDY OF SEWERS FLOWING PARTIALLY FULL- ITS SIGNIFICANCE

In actual practice, sewers never flow full throughout the day. The flow is partially full, most
of the time, and during off peak hours reduces to a considerably low level. Conditions (velocity
and depth of flow) during partial flow, must be investigated in combined / partially combined
sewers due to the following reasons [4].
1. To examine that during dry flow conditions, velocities are not less than self-cleansing
velocity to avoid solids deposition in sewers.
2. Knowledge of depth of flow is of value in designing larger size sewer inter sections. Large
sewers should be brought together at elevations so that water may not back up into the
other.
Diameter and slope of sewer are selected, from the back calculation table, assuming the
sewer is flowing full. It is very important to note that velocities are critical at low flows. Low flows

161
occur during dry seasons and sewer pipe is flowing partially full. Therefore, the velocity at actual
peak dry weather flow (col. 13 of Hydraulic Statement) is essential to check against the self
cleansing velocity. It is carried out using graph shown in Figure 13.1.
In Fig. 13.1, hydraulic elements of pipe i.e. ratios of discharge and velocities are given on
x-axis. On y-axis, ratio of depth of flow to the diameter of the pipe is given. Two curves, one for
discharge and one for velocity may be seen in the Fig. 13.1. In fact, the value of ‘n’ also changes.
However, it is not generally taken into account. Thus, the terms in Fig. 13.1 may be defined as
follows;
d = depth of sewage flow in the pipe during low flow (usually at peak dry weather flow)
D = Diameter of sewer
v= Velocity of flow in the sewer
Vfull = Velocity while pipe is flowing full (2.5 ft/sec or any other, used for developing back
calculation table).
Qfull = Discharge when the pipe is flowing full
q = discharge during low flow (usually peak dry weather flow)

Figure 13.1: Hydraulic elements of a circular RCC pipe [4]

In order to use Fig. 13.1, it is necessary to first find the conditions when a sewer is flowing
full. Then by calculating the ratio of any two known hydraulic elements (velocity, flow), the others

162
can be found. This process is illustrated in a solved example, given below. This graph may be
translated in an Excel spreadsheet, and by using VLOOKUP command in Excel, the Hydraulic
Statement could be linked with this table and process can be automized. In this case, there will
be no need to consult Fig. 13.1. Thus, a lot time may be saved by using excel and its VLOOKUP
command.

Solved example

A 36 inch RCC circular combined sewer is laid on a slope of 0.003 and it is flowing full
with Manning’s n = 0.013. What will be the velocity and depth of flow when the sewer is carrying
5 cusec discharge?

Solution
q = 5 cusec (low flow)
Find the velocity of flow in the sewer, when flowing full, using Manning’s equation
..ZA
[= | 3/ × o ./3 (FPS Units)

Substituting values in above equation
..ZA Y 3/
[= Z€ × (0.003)./3
=.=.
..ZA  3/
[=  € × (0.003)./3
=.=. Z
..ZA  3/
[=  € × (0.003)./3
=.=. Z
[ = 5.16 /‚ƒ„
Flow in sewer when flowing full
c
 = d × [
… × p3
c
 = × 5.16
4
… × 33
c
 = × 5.16
4
c
 = 35.4 cusec

Find q/Qfull
† 5
= = 0.14
c
 35.4
d = 0.3 (from Graph using discharge line)
D
d = 0.3 × 36 = 10.8 inches at 5 cusec
Find velocity at q (low flow)
‡
= 0.6 (from graph using d/D line against 0.3)
ˆ‰Š‹‹

163
 Va = 0.6 × 5.16
= 3.09 ft/sec
The minimum velocity in storm sewer must be 3 ft/sec (See chapter 12; section 12.9).
hence the situation is satisfactory.

13.5 HYDRAULIC STATEMENT

It is a table of hydraulic computations containing complete record of design, i.e. sewer

lines, flows, diameters of sewers, velocity, ground level, invert levels etc. It is subsequently used
in sewer layout drawings and making profile of each sewer line. These profiles are used at site
during construction process to maintain correct levels. Nowadays, Excel spread sheet is used
to make hydraulic statement. Software are also available to design sanitary and storm sewers;
SewerCAD is one such software.

Two different form of hydraulic statement samples are presented for partially combined
sewers. Option-1: If the area to be designed is small in size, and the housing plots could be easily
counted. In this case, number of plots served by a sewer line is calculated. By adopting an
average household size, the number of persons served by the sewer line may be determined.
The average household size for Pakistan is 6.5 persons per family (source: 2017 census). The
format of Hydraulic Statement for option-1 is given below
Option-1: Hydraulic statement for small housing colony
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Peak dry
Av. Infilt.
weather
Other Total Daily (5-10 % Peak Storm
From To Plots Served sewage Flow
Sr. Length Pop Pop Sewage of Av. Factor Sewage
MH MH (Col 10xCol
No. Flow Daily)
12)
On line Previous Total Persons Persons
ft cusec cusec cusec cusec cusec

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Ground Level Invert Level

Design Flow (q)
V full Dia Slope Q full q/Qfull d/D d v / Vfull v Fall
(col 11+13+14) U/E L/E U/E L/E

cusec ft/sec Inch cusec ft ft/sec ft ft ft ft ft

Explanatory Note:

164
 Option-1: Firstly, manholes are numbered. Either numerals may be used for manhole or
symbol M1, M2 may be used. It is up to the designer. Say, if manholes are numbered as M1, M2,
the line may be represented as M1-M2 i.e. sewer line from manhole M1 to manhole M2. Col. 5
shows the plots served by the line. Col. 6 shows the plots served by a sewer line which lies behind
and gravitates into the line M1-M2. Thus, sewer line M1-M2 has to carry wastewater generating
not only from the plots served by it but also from the plots served by sewer line lying behind it.
Col. 7 gives the total number of plots served. If number of persons per plot is fixed, then
total population served by the sewer line may be determined (2017 census shows, on average,
6.5 persons per household; and it may be adopted if actual data are not available). Col. 8 is just
added, to cover any other miscellaneous population (e.g., commercial, industrial, institutions,
mosque etc.) in addition to plots, that may have to be served by the sewer line. Col. 9 gives the
sum of all population served by the sewer line. Col. 10 gives average sewage flow. It is obtained
by multiplying total population with per capita sewage flow. Col. 11 is for the amount of water
entering the sewer line through infiltration. PHED or WASA design criteria may be adopted to find
it out. Col. 12 gives the peak factor. It may also be adopted from PHED design criteria. It will be
on the basis of total design population served by the sewer line. Thus, it may vary for different
sewer lines serving different number of people.
Col. 13 gives the peak design flow for the sewer. It is the flow in dry season. It is assumed
to be the minimum flow. During rainfalls, a component of stormwater is added in case of partially
combined sewers. Hence flow during rainfalls is expected to be higher than the dry weather. Col.
14 gives the storm water allowance for partially combined sewers. The amount of storm water
allowance in partially combined sewers has been mentioned in both, PHED and WASA design
criteria. The amount to be adopted depends on the criteria followed. Col. 15 gives the design flow
for the sewer, which is the sum of peak dry weather flow, infiltration and storm water allowance.
Col. 16 gives Vfull, which is the self-cleansing velocity you have adopted. For partially combined
sewer it is 2.5 ft/sec.
Consult back calculation table and select a suitable diameter (col. 17) that can take the
flow determined in col. 15 (design flow, Q). Adopt the slope given in back calculation table (col.
18) and write Qfull (col. 19) from back calculation table for the pipe diameter selected. Find the
ratio q/Qfull (col. 20) and from Fig. 14.1, locate q/Qfull on x-axis and move upward to hit discharge
curve. From discharge curve, move to y-axis and determine d/D (col. 21). Determine ‘d’ i.e. depth
of flow (col. 22). Using the value of d/D, hit the velocity curve in Fig. 14.1 and drop a perpendicular
on x-axis and read the v/Vfull value (col. 23) and from this value determine v (col. 24), it is the
actual velocity of flow for the dry weather flow (col. 13 of Hydraulic Statement). Check whether it
is close or equal to self-cleansing velocity. If below self-cleansing velocity, then increase slope of
the sewer and repeat the above process again until the actual velocity (v) is equal to self-cleansing
velocity.
Finally, determine the fall in the line (col. 25). The ground levels of upper end (U/E) of
sewer (Col. 26) and lower end (L/E) (col. 27) are noted in the hydraulic statement. At the end, the

165
 invert levels of upper end (U/E) (col. 28) and lower end (L/E) (col. 29) of the sewer are noted in
the hydraulic statement. The process is repeated for all the pipes in the network.
Option-2: If the project area is quite large in size, it becomes difficult to count plots. The
solution is to find the design population and find out the population density by dividing the design
population with the project area. The area served by each sewer (also called the catchment area
of the sewer) is determined and multiplied by the population density to get number of persons
served by a sewer. Hydraulic statement for option-2 is shown below. This is the only difference
between option-1 and 2. Rest of the procedure is same as explained above.

Option-2: Hydraulic statement for a large area

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Total Pop Pop Peak dry

Area served Av. Daily Infilt. (5-
From To area density served Other Total Peak weather
Sr. Length Sewage 10 % of
MH MH On Pop. Pop Factor flow
No. Previous (5+6) (7x8) Flow Av. Day)
line

ft Persons Persons Persons cusec cusec cusec cusec

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Invert
Design Ground Level
Storm Level
Flow (q) V full Dia Slope Q full q/Qfull d/D d v / Vfull v Fall
flow
(13+15+16) U/E L/E U/E L/E

cusec cusec ft/sec Inch cusec Inches ft/sec ft ft ft ft ft

Explanatory Note: In col. 5, the area served by the sewer line is marked on the map. This
area is measured. From the population density, the number of persons served can be calculated.
For example,
Area served by sewer line = 4 acre
Population density = 100 persons/acre
Population served by sewer line = 4 x 100 = 400 persons

Note: The designer may add or delete columns in Hydraulic Statement as per requirement
of the project and site. Excel spreadsheet is used to save time and avoid calculation mistakes in
the Hydraulic Statement.

13.6 CARRY OVER OF INVERT LEVELS

166
 Sometimes, mistakes may be made in the carryover of invert levels, from previous to the
next sewer line, while preparing Hydraulic Statement. If the following two cases are understood
by the reader, it would ensure the correct transfer of invert levels. The Case-1 deals with equal
diameter pipes, while case-2 deals with different diameter pipes meeting at a junction.
Case No.1: Fig. 13.2 shows two pipes M1-M3 and M2-M3, both of 9 inch diameter join at
manhole M3. Invert Level (IL) L/E of M1-M3 is 198 ft and IL of L/E of M2-M3 is 199 ft. What will
be the IL of U/E of M3-M4.

M1

9 inch

IL=199 ft IL = 198 ft
M2
M3
9 inch
IL=?

9 inch

M4

Figure 13.2: Carry over of invert level at a pipe junction

In order to maintain gravity flow, the lower of the two invert levels, from two contributing sewers,
i.e. 198 ft will be the IL of U/E of M3-M4.
Case No.2: Fig. 13.3 shows the same figure as that of 13.2. However, in it, the sewer M3-
M4 is not of 9 inch, but of 18 inches.

167
 M1

9 inch

IL=199 ft IL = 198 ft
M2

9 inch
IL=?

18 inch

M4

Figure 13.3: Carry over of invert level when pipe diameter is different

In case of Fig. 13.3, the IL of U/E of sewer M3-M4 will be

IL of U/E of M3-M4 = Lower IL - difference of diameter
= 198 – (18-9)/12 = 197.25 ft.
If difference of diameter is not subtracted, the position at manhole M3 would as shown in
Fig 13.4, which is wrong carry over of IL. If it is adopted, the full capacity of 18-inch diameter pipe
will not be utilized. The portion above 9-inch pipe will be wasted. However, if difference of diameter
is subtracted (as done above), the position of 18-inch pipe would as shown in Figure 13.5. In this
situation, the entire diameter of 18-inch pipe will be utilized.

9 inch dia pipe 15 inch dia pipe

Figure 13.4: Incorrect carry over of invert levels at junction in case-2

9 inch dia pipe
15 inch dia pipe

Figure 13.5: Correct carry over of invert level at the junction in case-2

13.7 PREPARATION OF DRAWINGS AND BOQ

After the design of sewer is complete, the next step is to prepare the necessary
construction drawings. Typical drawings include:
1. Sewer layout plan
2. Sewer joints
3. Manholes

168
 4. Sewage pumping station (PS)/sewage disposal station (DS)
5. Sewer profiles or L – sections
Sewer layout refer to a drawing, in which, layout of streets and roads is shown. The sewer
lines are marked on this layout with sizes, lengths and slope. Drawings of sewer joints are
essential. Different types of joints may be provided. Detail discussion on it is made in section
13.15. Manhole drawings are essential part of the drawings. Manhole are discussed in detail in
Chapter-14. Sewage disposal station will be dealt with in Chapter-15. Sewer profile or L-section
is discussed in detail in section 13.8.

13.8 PREPARATION OF DESIGN REPORT/FEASIBLITY REPORT

All the work related to the design of a project is presented to the client in the form of a
Design report/Feasibility report. A general structure of the design report is suggested to the
reader. However, the structure may change from one project to the other. Site conditions and
special project requirements may alter the format/structure of the design report.
1. Background
2. Project area description (topography, soil conditions, water table in the area)
3. Population forecasting
4. Design criteria used
5. Design of sewers, disposal station, pumping equipment
6. Hydraulic statement
7. Drawings
8. Bill of quantities and engineer’s cost estimates
9. Operation and maintenance expenditure

13.9 SUBSEQUENT MODIFICATIONS

Subsequent modifications are routine matter in most of the projects. Sometimes,

additional demand of public is put to the executing agency to add additional area/locality.
Sometimes disputes arise on the location of disposal station, and the site has to be relocated.
There may be several other reasons which may necessitate modifications/revisions of the design.

13.10 SEWER PROFILES / L-SECTIONS

After the design exercise is completed, a vertical profile (also called L-section) of each
sewer line is prepared (Fig. 13.6). The sewer profile:
1. provides basis for construction drawings
2. helps site engineer to control levels of sewer
3. helps in estimating construction costs
4. shows underground utility services (water, gas etc.).

169
 For a sewer profile, distances are plotted along x-axis and elevations along y-axis A typical
sewer profile is shown below. A suitable scale along x and y-axis is selected.

Figure 13.6: Typical sewer profile and information given below the profile

13.11 SEWER PIPES

Different type of pipes may be used for sewers. Typically, RCC pipes are used. However,
these days, other pipe types are also being used. A brief account of various pipe types is given
in the following sections. It may be noted that the diameter referred to in case of PCC/RCC pipes
are internal diameters while for uPVC and HDPE are external diameters.

13.11.1 Un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)

This is a new pipe type that has become very popular for wastewater collection. It is
different from the uPVC used for the water supply. The one used for wastewater collection is non-
pressure bearing as against the one used for water supplies.
These have a number of benefits over conventional PCC/RCC pipes, which include: (1)
they have low friction and smooth inside surface that significantly reduce deposits commonly seen
in conventional PCC/RCC sewer pipes; (2) there are less chances of bacterial and algal growth
in uPVC; (3) these are non-corrosive and chemical resistant; (4) are light weight and easy to install
and hence has lower transportation and installation cost; (5) jointing is easy and quick as

170
compared to PCC/RCC pipe joints; (6) inspection, cleaning and repair is easy as compared to
PCC/RCC pipes and (7) life is 50 years as compared to 20-30 years for PCC/RCC pipes.
uPVC pipes are available in a size range of 4 to 16 inch. Instead of pressure rating, their
rating is done on the basis of stiffness. As SN (nominal stiffness) increases, the load bearing
capacity of pipe increases. SN-4 and 8 are usually available. Two types of joints are available; (1)
rubber-ring/push fit joint and (2) solvent cement joint.
Jointing with other various other type of materials (concrete, cement sand mortar ete.) is
possible with uPVC. In such cases, solvent cement jointing is usually employed. For more details
on standards and specification, material and available size range, the reader is suggested to
consult the local manufacturer.

13.11.2 Asbestos Cement (AC)

AC pipes are often used for sanitary and storm sewers. These are available up to 24 inch
size diameter.

13.11.3 PCC (plain cement concrete)

Normally used for small storm drains and sanitary sewers. These should conform to ASTM
specifications. They are available in different classes; Class I, Class II and Class III. As the class
increases, the strength of pipe increases [4].

13.11.4 Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)

RCC pipes are normally used for sanitary, partially combined and combined sewers. They
are locally available in diameters ranging from 9 inches (225 mm) to 72 inches (1800 mm). They
should conform to ASTM specification (No. C-76). These are available in five classes; Class I,
Class II, Class III, Class IV and Class V. Strength of pipe increases with its class. They are
available in three different wall thickness; Wall A, Wall B and Wall C. Thickness increases from A
to C. Under normal conditions, Class II, Wall B RCC pipes are used. Higher class and wall
thickness are used under conditions when strength requirement is not met by Class II and Wall B
pipes. The reader is referred to Annex-1 on the reinforcement details of RCC pipes.

13.11.5 HDPE pipes

Recently HDPE (high density polyethylene) pipes are also used for sanitary and storm
sewers.

13.11.6 CI (cast iron) and steel pipes

Both are used under unusual loading conditions like at places where road is to be crossed
and depth of pipe is shallow and heavy live loads (traffic) have to pass over it.

171
13.11.7 Spira pipe:

This is a relatively new arrival in sewer pipe family. It is gaining popularity due to its certain
advantages over the other pipe types. It is a patented technology by a leading Turkish pipe
manufacturing company VESBO.
It is made of uPVC strips, usually 10 to 20 cm wide. The strips wound on drums are easily
transported to the site. Manufacturing is carried out at site. It has an outer ribbed surface for better
strength. It is light weight and strong. It can be lowered into the trench manually, like PVC pipes.
It is now in use in many countries like Bulgaria, Albania, Tajikistan, Georgia, Romania,
Kazakhstan, Turkey and Pakistan. These are not locally manufactured and are imported. Dealers
are available, which facilitate the client by taking responsibility of all the import process. Reader
is encouraged to get more details from internet sources [5]. Brochures are also available on line.
Diameter: 6- 132 inch (150 to 3300 mm)
Jointing: coupling of same material by applying uPVC solvent
Manholes: Brick or precast RCC
It has certain advantages over RCC pipes. These are:
1. Being heavy, the transportation of RCC pipes and later removal from vehicle takes a
lot of time. Pipes, if handled carelessly, may be damaged.
2. Transportation of very large diameter RCC pipes and their storage at the site is a big
challenge. Work progress is slow, as due to larger weight, mechanical equipment is
required to pick them up and lay in the trench. Length of run laid during one day is
much less as compared to Spira pipes. Hence considerable time may be consumed
to complete the project.
3. Pipe jointing is easy and quick as compared to RCC pipes.
4. RCC pipe comes in a standard length of 8 ft, while with Spira pipes longer lengths, up
to 100 ft may be prepared and laid at site.
5. Cost is little higher than RCC pipes. However, other benefits outweigh the cost
difference.
6. Life is 50 years as compared to RCC pipe having a life of around 25 years.

13.11.8 Manning’s co-efficient for different pipes

Values of Manning’s coefficient ‘n’ for different type of pipes are presented in Table 13.3.
The selection of appropriate value is important. Adopting a high value will result over-sizing of
pipe, while a lower value would result an under-size pipe [6].

172
Table 13.4: Recommended values of Manning roughness coefficient ‘n’ for different type of pipes
American Concrete Pipe Association
Pipe Type
recommended values
PCC and RCC Storm sewer-- 0.011-0.013
Sanitary sewer—0.012-0.013
HDPE (lined) Storm sewer—0.012-0.02
PVC Storm and sanitary sewer—0.011-0.013

13.11.9 Test for quality assurance of RCC pipes

Three edge bearing test is used to assure the quality of an RCC pipe. The test is called
three edge, as the pipe is supported at two points at the bottom and load is applied from the top
at the third point (Fig. 13-7). Load is applied till a crack of 0.01 inch (0.25 mm) is produced in the
pipe. The crack must spread over almost the entire length of the pipe. The above load is then
compared with the standards loads called the “D” load, which is the maximum permissible safe
load on the sewer pipe.
The arrangements in a three-edge bearing test is shown in Fig. 13.7. It can be seen that
pipe is supported at the base and top with two wooden beams. The beam at the base, has two
supports on it. On the top, an I-beam is placed over the wooden beam. Load is applied on the I-
beam, which is then transferred to the pipe through the wooden beam.

Figure 13.7: Three edge bearing test (a) cross section; (b) longitudinal view [7]

173
 Figure 13.8: Crack appearing in sewer pipe after three edge bearing test [7]

The load to produce a crack of 0.01 inch is compared with the load given in Table 13.5
Table 13.5: Design (D) loads for three edge-bearing tests [8, 9]
To produce a 0.01 inch crack Ultimate
Class Lb/ft per ft dia N/m per m dia Lb/ft per ft dia N/m per m dia
I 800 38.3 1200 57.4
II 1000 47.9 1500 71.8
III 1350 64.6 2000 95.8
IV 2000 95.8 3000 144
V 3000 144 3750 180

If the force, at which, a crack of 0.01 inch is produce in the pipe in three edge bearing test
is greater than load given in Table 13.5, then pipe passes the quality test. If not, it should be
rejected. For example, if a Class II pipe is tested, and the load from three edge bearing test comes
out to be 1050 lb/ft per ft dia, then pipe is safe (D load for Class II pipe is 1000 lb/ft per fit diameter.
Three edge bearing test videos are available on YouTube. Reader is encouraged to watch
those to have a better understanding of the test. Try this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gs6Rm7Rz7YY
For RCC pipe steel reinforcement, PHED has adopted the specification given by ASTM
[8]. Details of steel reinforcement for all Classes of pipes, D loads etc. has been given in ASTM
(C76-10) and adopted by PHED. Reader is referred to Annex-1 for additional information.

13.12 LOAD ON PIPES

This section specifically deals with the loads coming on RCC pipes conforming to ASTM
specification C-76. As the sewer goes deeper, the dead load on pipe increases. It must not

174
increase the “D” load for the pipe to ensure structural stability of the pipe. Thus, load coming on
deeper sewers must be investigated.
The static load produced on buried pipe may be calculated by using the following equation
[4, 10, 11]:

W = C w B2 (Equation 13.3)
Where
W = Load on pipe per unit length Lb/ft (Kg/m)
w = weight of fill material per unit vol, Lb/ft3(kg/m3)
B = width of trench at the top of pipe, ft (m)
C = a co-efficient which depends upon; (1) Depth of trench and (2) Fill material

C may be calculated by using the following formula

.% 6Ž/‘
Œ= (Equation 13.4)
3’“
Where:
H= is the depth of fill above the pipe,
B= as identified above in equation 13.3
K= is the ratio of active lateral pressure to vertical pressure
” = is the coefficient of sliding friction between the fill material and the sides of the trench.

The product K ” ranges from 0.1 to 0.16 for most soils. The values of K ” are given in
Table 13.6.

Table 13.6: Value of Kµ [4]

Soil type Maximum value of K •

Cohesionless granular material 0.192

Sand and gravel 0.165

Saturated top soil 0.150

Clay 0.130

Saturated clay 0.110

The unit weight of the materials commonly encountered during sewer laying is given in the
Table 13.7.

175
 Table 13.7: Specific weight of materials [4]
Unit weight
Material
Lb/ft3 Kg/m3
Dry sand 100 1600

Ordinary sand 115 1840

Wet sand 120 1920
Damp clay 120 1920

Saturated clay 130 2080

Saturated topsoil 115 1840
Sand and damp topsoil 100 1600

Solved example

A 24-inch (610-mm) RCC sewer is to be placed in an ordinary trench. Depth of fill above
the pipe crown is 12 ft (3.66 m). Width of trench over pipe is 4 ft (1.22 m). Trench will be backfilled
with saturated clay weighing 130 lb/ft3 (2080 kg/m3). Determine the load upon the pipe. Comment
on the suitability of using Class II ASTM RCC pipe.

Solution

.% 6Ž/‘ .% 6ז.55×56/_

c=
3’“
= 3×=...
=2.19

W = C w B2
= 2.19 x 130 x (4)2
= 4617 Lb/ft
= 2308 Lb/ft length/ft diameter
The dead load coming on the pipe is 2308 lb/ft/ft dia. The D-load for Class II pipe is 1000
lb/ft/ft dia (Table 14.3). Hence pipe is not structurally safe. For structural stability, strength from
3-edge bearing test should be greater than W.
There are two possible solution; (1) to provide a Class V pipe having a D-load of 3000
lb/ft/ft dia or (2) use a suitable bedding under the pipe to increase its load carrying capacity. Sewer
bedding are discussed in the following section.

13.13 RCC SEWER BEDDINGS

If sewers are simply laid by placing the pipe barrel on the flat trench bottom (case-1), the
pipe will take a load slightly greater than the 3-edge bearing test (Fig. 13.8).

176
 However, if the trench bed touches at least the “lower quadrant” of the sewer (case-2) and
backfill material is carefully tamped around the sides of pipe, the load carrying capacity of the
pipe significantly increases (Fig. 13.9). Load factor, expresses this increase in load carrying
capacity and is numerically equal to

Load Factor (LF) = Load Carrying capacity

3 − edge strength

Figure 13.9: Supporting pipe barrel at trench bed and effect on load carrying capacity of pipe

Various beddings, normally used by PHED & WASA [2, 3], and their load factors are
shown in Fig. 13.10.

Figure 13.10: Different type of bedding with load factors

177
13.14 LAYING OF SEWER UNDER WATER

At certain places, the water table is high enough. Therefore, a portion of sewer has to be
laid under water table. Most of the designers avoid to lay the sewer under water. However, it may
be unavoidable at some places. Class A bedding, either PCC or RCC, is used for sewers under
water. The type, whether PCC or RCC, has to be decided after detailed soil investigations.
For sewers under water, a special RCC envelope is laid over the joint to avoid ingress of
underground water in the sewer. PHED has approved certain bedding designs for sewers under
water. This approved bedding is adopted from ASTM with some modification. These have been
used at many places in Pakistan and when laid with all precautionary measures, have proved
successful.

Figure 13.11: Details of sewer joint in sewer laid under water

13.15 SEWER JOINTS

Two types of joints are used for sewers. These depend upon the diameter of sewer. One
type is bell and spigot joint; these are used for sewer from 9 inch (225 mm) diameter up to 24 inch
(600 mm) diameter (Fig. 13.12). The spigot end has a groove. A rubber ring is inserted in the
groove. The spigot end is then pushed into the bell end. The space between the bell (collar) and
spigot end is filled with jute string dipped in cement slurry and later the joint is flushed with 1:2
cement sand motor.

178
 Figure 13.12: Bell and spigot joint (9 to 24 inch diameter)
For sewers, larger than 24 inch (600 mm) diameter, tongue and groove joint is used (Fig.
13.13). Rubber ring is inserted in groove on the smaller end of pipe. Both these joints are known
as flexible joints.

Figure 13.13: Tongue and groove joint

For sewers, under water, either of the above two joints may be used. However, joint is
provided with an RCC envelope. This joint is called rigid joint.

179
13.16 SEWER CONSTRUCTION

After the design and drawings are complete, the sewer construction may be initiated. In
general, following steps are followed:

13.16.1 Clearance of right of way

The first step in sewer construction is clearance of right of way in which sewer is to be
laid. Normally, sewers are laid in the state owned land (streets, road side etc.). However, if it has
to pass through some private land, necessary clearance is essential before initiating construction
activity.

13.16.2 Acquire construction drawings

The site engineer must have a copy of the approved construction drawings. These include
sewer layout plans, profiles and other essential drawings.

13.16.3 Mark sewer lines at site

Keeping in view the layout plan, the alignment of sewer lines is marked on the ground. It
is usually done with the help of chalk powder. In fact, the two ends of trench are marked. Later,
labour starts excavation on the marked lines.

13.16.4 Excavation of trenches

Trenches are excavated up to the desired depth. The width of trench must be sufficient
for comfortable laying and jointing of the sewers. The trench width is usually given in the
drawing/design report.
Minimum width of trench may also be evaluated by using the following two relationships.
(1) Minimum width of trench = 1.5 D + 12 inch, where D is the diameter of pipe in inches
[12]; or
(2) outside diameter + 16 inch or 1.25 times outside diameter + 12 inch, whichever is
greater [13].
For deeper trenches, the side wall may cave in and hence wooden bracing is provided to
support trench side walls for the safety of workers. Sandy and silty soils may easily cave in and
hence bracing becomes essential in such conditions even for shallow depths.

13.16.5 Dewatering for underwater sewers (optional)

If sewers are to be laid under water, dewatering of trench is essential. For it, shallow bores
are made on both sides of the trench. Pumps are installed at bores. Pumping is carried out till
water table is lowered below the bed of the trench. For under water sewers, PCC or RCC bedding
is essential. Concrete is poured up to the desired level. During this period dewatering process
continues. After 24 hours, when concrete reaches its 80% of strength, the pipe is laid, joints are

180
made and backfilling is done. Dewatering is stopped, after backfilling. For under water sewers, an
RCC envelope is provided around each sewer joint for water tightness (see section 13.11)

13.16.6 Shifting of levels

Correct levels/grades are shifted with the help of leveling instrument, staff, boning rod,
threads, pegs and wooden planks as illustrated in Fig. 13.3. It is worthy of attention for all the
readers to clearly understand the process of level shifting.
After the excavation of trenches, wooden pegs are installed on both sides, close to the
trench edge. Wooden planks are then installed on these pegs; these are referred to as sight rails.
At the center of sight rail, a wooden cleat is fixed. On this cleat a nail is driven. Such arrangement
of pegs, planks, cleat and nails is repeated at 100 ft interval, along the trench. Lastly, a thread is
tied to the nail and is extended to the next nail. The two nails are fixed at such a level that when
thread is tied to them, the gradient of thread is the same at which the sewer is to be laid.
Assume that a 12-inch pipe is to be laid at the trench bed. The invert of the pipe is 192 ft.
The wall thickness of pipe is 2 inches (0.1666 ft). Thus, the bed level would be 192-0.1666=
191.833 ft. A boning rod of sufficient length is taken. Trench is excavated up to a level close to
the bed level. From the level difference between the nail and the trench bed, the vertical distance
between nail and trench bed is calculated (say X). A red tape is fixed from one end of boning rod
at a distance X.
A person, at the bottom of trench, with boning rod in his hand, travels from one sight rail
to the next and tries to match the red tape with the thread. Any differences are removed by further
excavating the bed trench. Once the red tape on boning rod perfectly coincides with the thread
while the person walks from one sight rail to the next, it confirms that the trench bed is at the
desired level and grade.
After the above activity completes, the trench is ready for the pipe to be laid. Another red
tape is fixed on the boning rod in such a way that its distance from the first tape is exactly equal
to the external diameter of the pipe. The 12-inch pipe has an outer diameter of 16 inch. Thus,
second tape would be fixed 16 inches below the first tape.
After the above step, the pipe is lowered to the trench bottom. The boning rod is laid at its
top and it is moved along the thread. If the second tape coincides with the thread, it means the
pipe has been laid at the desired gradient. After laying some convenient pipe length and making
proper joints, the trench is backfilled. Space for manholes is left, which are usually constructed
after laying of sewer pipes.
Shifting of correct levels and grades is the most important task in sewers construction.
Most of the sewer problems like frequent choking, silting, have their origin to the incorrect grades.

181
 Figure 13.14: Process of shifting of correct levels during sewer construction
An example, of how things are set out at the site while shifting of levels, will further explain
the above arrangements
Let the diameter of the pipe shown in Figure 13.14 be 12 inches. The pipe thickness is 2
inches. Let depth of trench be 4.5 ft at the first site rail.
Let reduced level (RL) of trench bed at first site rail = 191.9 ft
Thickness of pipe in ft = 0.1666 ft (2 inches)
Internal diameter of pipe = 1 ft
RL of top of pipe at first site rail
= RL of trench bed + 2 x thickness of pipe + diameter of pipe
= 191.9 + 2 x 0.166 + 1
= 193.233 ft
If the gradient of pipe is 0.003 (see Table 13.1) and the first site rail is 50 ft away from the
second site rail, then the fall in 50 ft will be 0.003 x 50 = 0.15 ft.

182
 If the nail on the cleat of first site rail is 4.5 ft above the bed of the trench then its RL will
be
= 191.9+4.5 = 196.4 ft
The nail on cleat of second site rail will be fixed at an RL of
= 196.4-0.15 = 196.25 ft
Thus, the string pulled from the nail at first site rail to the nail at the second will have a
falling gradient of 0.003. And when the tap mark on boning rod showing pipe top coincides with
the string when boning rod is moved from the site first site rail to the second, this shows that pipe
has been laid at the correct gradient. This is how all the pipes are laid, using this method.

13.16.7 Laying and jointing of pipes

After the trench bed is fully prepared, and set as per grade of the sewer pipe, the pipes
are laid and jointed with strict control over levels and grades. These are repeatedly checked and
ensured. Shifting of correct levels is the most important and critical step in sewer laying. Additional
excavation at the sewer bells (diameter 24 inches and below, for RCC pipes) must be made to
support the full pipe barrel on the trench bed. It saves the pipe from unnecessary stress.

13.16.8 Backfilling

Careful backfilling is also of extreme importance. The backfill material, up to 1 ft above the
sewer crown, must be free of all stones and cobbles. It must be manually placed and compacted.
Special care must be exercised while backfilling pipe haunches, because this backfill provides
majority of the resistance against soil and traffic loads [14]. After manual backfill, the rest of the
backfilling may be carried out mechanically, using excavator blade.

13.16.9 Construction of appurtenances

After backfilling, the last step is the construction of appurtenances i.e. manhole, drop
manholes, street inlets and others. Sewer appurtenances are discussed in Chapter 14.

13.17 QUALITY ASSURANCE

Quality assurance means to make sure that quality of work, executed at site, meets the
specifications; and will fulfill the purposes of the project. Supervisory staff, thus, should have a
complete knowledge of the specifications of sewer work, exercise different checks during
construction, and must visit site at critical stages of the sewer project. Following general
guidelines are proposed for quality assurance.

13.17.1 Possession of complete drawings

Supervisory staff must have complete drawings (layout, profiles, manhole and inlet
drawings, steel reinforcement details etc.). These may be carefully examined before the initiation
of work.

183
13.17.2 Due diligence during level transfer

Most critical part of sewer construction is correct shifting of sewer levels/grades. These
must be cross checked frequently. Mostly sewer work is started from the outfall works and laterals
are laid at the end. Full time resident supervision is essential on sewer projects for level control
and check.

13.17.3 Pipe quality

If RCC pipes are used in the sewer project, then either the construction contractor builds
its own pipe factory at site (in case of big projects) or purchases it from the market. In both cases,
supervisory staff must be permanently stationed during manufacturing process to check steel
reinforcement and concrete mix ratio. Steel must be tested from a laboratory for its strength.
Cubes must be filled from the concrete prepared for for testing its strength in the laboratory. Pipes
may be randomly selected for 3-edge bearing test. If the pipe fails in test, all pipes prepared in
that lot may be rejected (lot means; pipes prepared in one shift). Pipes must be carefully loaded
and unloaded at site to avoid damage. In case of PVC, AC or HDPE pipes, approved manufacturer
must be preferred.

13.17.4 Special care for under water sewers

For under water sewer, PCC or RCC bedding is used. It is essential to ensure dry
conditions, by lowering water table, before concrete bed is poured. Pipe is laid over the bed at
least after 24 hours so that concrete bed achieves its 80% strength and can take the load of the
pipe. RCC envelope must be laid over the joints for water tightness. Pumping must continue for
further 24 hours after the laying of RCC envelopes.
Most under water sewers fail due to non-observance of above instructions. Failure means
the RCC sewer settles after some time. It is due to the poor quality of bed or joints. In case of
poor jointing, the surrounding groundwater enters the sewer through these joints and brings along
the adjoining strata. Thus, caving occurs. It results in sewer settlement after some time. Under
water sewer is the most difficult and demanding work in sewer construction.

REFERENCES

1. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.

2. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.

3. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1975), Final design criteria for phase-II
improvement program, Lahore Development Authority.

184
4. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

5. A. Rahman, (2016), VESBO pipe

6. American Concrete Pipe Association, (2012), Manning’s n values history of research, DD-
10 (11/12). Accessed on: 09-07-2017, Available at: [http://www.concretepipe.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/09/DD_10.pdf]

7. . Accessed on: 10-07-2017, Available at:

https://www.google.com.pk/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.br%2Fimg%2Fr
evistas%2Friem%2Fv5n1%2Fa03fig02.jpg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.br%
2Fscielo.php%3Fscript%3Dsci_arttext%26pid%3DS1983-
41952012000100003&docid=HoFosG2jYrR4JM&tbnid=lzW04H8qvV7goM%3A&vet=10
ahUKEwiJsuyYqP7UAhUYTo8KHdwtD7AQMwgoKAQwBA..i&w=792&h=506&bih=616&
biw=1366&q=three%20edge%20bearing%20test%20pictures&ved=0ahUKEwiJsuyYqP7
UAhUYTo8KHdwtD7AQMwgoKAQwBA&iact=mrc&uact=8]

8. American Society for Testing Materials- Philadelphia, (2010), Standard Specification for
Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe," (C-76)".

9. Department of Public Works- Los Angeles County, (2008), Updated structure design
manual, section-1;Design of reinforced concrete pipes. Accessed on: 09-07-2017,
Available at: [ladpw.org/des/Design_Manuals/DesignReinforcedConcretePipe.pdf]

10. American Concrete Pipe Association, (2011), DD5 multiple pipe installation: Trench
condition. Accessed on: 09-07-2017, Available on: [http://www.concretepipe.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/09/DD_5.pdf]

11. American Concrete Pipe Association, (2011), Surcharge loads. Accessed on: 09-07-
2017, Available on: [http://www.concretepipe.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Att-
15_DD22.pdf]

12. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), (2002),
Standard specifications for highway bridges, SECTION 30, DIVISION II, Thermoplastic
pipes

13. American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) D 2321, (2014), Standard practice for
underground installation of thermoplastic pipe for sewers and other gravity-flow
applications.

14. L. H. Gabriel, Installation and construction of sewer, Plastic Pipe Institute. Accessed on:
17-07-2017, Available at: [https://plasticpipe.org/pdf/chapter-
6_installation_construction.pdf]

185
 Chapter-14

Sewer appurtenances

186
 SEWER APPURTENENCES
Wastewater and storm water collection systems consist of pipes laid down at certain depth
and gradient. Appurtenances are structures, in addition to the pipes, that are essential for the
operation of a collection system. These are used to ensure that that the collection system will
function as designed and can be inspected when desired [1, 2]. This chapter presents the principal
appurtenances used in the collection system. These include:
1. Manholes
2. Street Inlets
3. Catch basins
4. Oil and grease traps
5. Building connection with municipal sewers
6. Sewage pumping stations
Appurtenances from serial number one to five will be discussed in this chapter while
sewage pumping stations will be dealt with in Chapter 15.

14.1 MANHOLES

It has already been discussed in Chapter-11 that the purpose of the manhole is: (1) to
connect house sewer with municipal sewer; (2) cleaning of sewer lines in case of blockage and
(3) inspection of sewers. Spacing requirements have been discussed in Chapter-12 (section
12.10).
Manholes may be circular or square depending upon the depth of manhole. They may
be of brick masonry, in cement sand mortar 1:3, or pre-cast. For brick masonry manhole,
square shape is used up to 4 feet depth. For deeper manholes, circular shape is adopted. Brick
masonry manhole requires time to construct. This causes public inconvenience due to traffic
congestion, during construction, for an extended period of time. Thus, these days, pre-cast
manhole are very common abroad [3, 4]. Just a pit of required size is excavated and the RCC
pre-cast manhole is brought and placed there. WASA and PHED may consider this option.
A typical masonry manhole is shown in Fig. 14.1. PCC 1:4:8 is provided at the base as
foundation. On it, circular masonry is erected. The thickness of masonry depends upon the depth
of manhole. The thickness guidelines are given in PHED design criteria (see Chapter-12; section
12.10) [5]. The masonry converges to an opening of 2 ft at the top. A manhole cover either of
cast iron/RCC/Stainless-steel or any other suitable material is provided at the top.
The inner side of manhole is plastered with 1:2 cement sand mortar. Mild steel (MS)
steps are embedded in the masonry wall during construction. These are used to gain access into
the manhole during cleaning/inspection. The base of manhole is filled with PCC 1:2:4, and a semi-

187
circular space spans between the sewers on the two ends of the manhole. This space is called
benching (Figure 14.1).
Standard manhole drawings are also developed by PHED. These may be adopted.
However, these deal only with brick masonry manholes.

Figure 14.1: Typical manhole

For manholes, that are to be built for sewer laid under water, special RCC core wall is
provided to avoid ingress of sub soil water. Core wall height must be equal to the sub soil water
level (SSWL) as shown in Fig. 14.2.

188
Figure 14.2: Manhole for sewer laid under sub soil water level (SSWL) with core wall

Drop manholes

Where laterals or sub-mains join a deeper sewer, laterals and sub mains are kept at
normal gradient and a vertical drop is given when sewer reaches deeper sewer. This vertical drop
is given at the manhole and this manhole is known as drop manhole (Fig. 14.3). It is provided
when level difference is greater than 2 ft (0.6 m). Drop manhole is provided for the following two
reasons: (1) to avoid deep excavation for laterals/sub main and (2) to avoid splashing in the
manhole while sewerman is in the manhole and carrying out any maintenance job (cleaning etc.)
[2]

189
 Figure 14.3: Section of a drop manhole

14.2 STREET INLETS

An inlet is an opening designed to permit the entrance of rain water from the street/road
surface into the sewer. These are usually of three types; (1) curb inlet; (2) gutter inlet and (3)
combination inlet. In case of curb inlet, a stainless-steel grating is installed vertically along the
curb stone of footpaths (Fig. 14.4 and 14.5). In gutter inlet, the grating is installed horizontally, on
street/road surface, to intercept the runoff (Fig. 14.6 and 14.7). As a general rule, gutter inlets are
used on steep grades where sheet flow is to be intercepted. Curb inlets are used on flat grades
with steep cross slopes.

190
 Figure 14.4: Curb inlet

Figure 14.5: Picture of a curb inlet along a road [6]

191
 Figure 14.6: Gutter inlet

Figure 14.7: Picture of a gutter inlet [6]

Size of bars used in an inlet grating, may vary in spacing and size, but the tendency is to
adopt a few standard types which meet the conditions usually encountered in practice. The
material used may be cast iron or stainless-steel. Nowadays, stainless-steel grating is in common
use. However, it is costlier than cast iron. Proper maintenance and frequent cleaning of grating is
an essential requirement, for the proper functioning of the street inlets.
Curb and gutter inlet may also be combined at some places as shown in Fig. 14.8. Such
a facility is named as combined inlet.

192
 Figure 14.8: Combined inlet (curb and gutter both )[6]

14.3 CATCH BASINS

The catch basin is an inlet with a basin which allows debris to settle out before the storm
water enters the sewer (Fig. 14.9). The outlet pipe of catch basin, that discharges storm water
into sewer is provided with a hinged flap, to prevent escape of odours from the sewer, a provision
that also causes retention of floating matter.
Catch basins were formerly considered necessary to intercept heavy sediment load and
solid waste into sewers. This situation was especially critical when streets were crude and
uneven, and little attention was given to keeping them clean. Present practice, however,
emphasizes good sewer grades and careful construction, and with proper solid waste services,
simple inlets are preferred.
The water held in catch basins frequently produces mosquitoes and may itself be a source
of odours. If they are to function properly, they must be cleaned frequently. Cleaning of catch
basins is much easier and cheaper than cleaning clogged sewers. If used, they should be located
so that they interfere as little as possible with pedestrian and vehicular traffic. Use of catch basins
have been considerably reduced and may be required only in special situations

193
 Figure 14.9: A typical catch basin

When the catch-basin sump is approximately one-half full of solids, the solids removal
efficiency is reduced considerably, even for small storm flows, and solids are carried into the
sewer. Thus, frequent cleaning is essential to meet purposes for which catch basin is provided.
The required frequency of catch-basin cleaning depends on several local conditions, such as
sump capacity, quantity of accumulated street solids, antecedent dry period, meteorological
conditions, street-cleaning methods and practices, surrounding land use, topography, and the
erodibility of the soils subject to wash off.
A possible point where catch basin may be useful is a place where a large quantity of grit
will probably be washed into the inlet. Catch basins need not be cleaned when there is little
accumulation in them unless the nature of the deposit creates offensive odours and annoys
persons passing by or living nearby. Under certain conditions, catch basins may become breeding
places for mosquitoes. Additional information derived from a detailed evaluation of catch basins
and their performance may be found in reference [7].

14.4 OIL AND GREASE TRAPS

The sewage from kitchens of hotels and restaurants may contain oil and grease. Wash
water from car wash stations contains oil, mud, silt, clay and sand. Oil and grease tend to
accumulate on sewer walls and cause clogging. Whereas, silt, clay and sand may occupy useful
volume of the pipe. Fig. 14.10 shows a section of a grease trap. Fig. 14.11 shows a combination

194
of sand and oil trap. It is important, however, that the traps be regularly cleaned, otherwise they
are of no value. Regular inspections are necessary to ensure this [2].

Figure 14.10: Section of an oil and grease trap [2]

Figure 14.11: Oil, grease, sand and mud trap for car wash garages [2]

14.5 BUILDING CONNECTION WITH MUNICIPAL SEWER

A building is connected with a municipal sewer at a manhole. The sewers are laid on the
side of a street and hence closer to the houses on that side, while the houses on the opposite
side are at some distance.

195
 Two approaches may be used in public sewerage project. First; one manhole may be
provided for two houses. Each house then connects its house sewer by its own arrangement. The
house sewer is brought up to the manhole. Wall of manhole is punctured for the house sewer to
discharge its wastewater into the manhole. The houses located on the side of street where sewer
is laid, gets connected easily. However, the houses located on the opposite site have to cut the
road and lay longer sewer lines to get connected to the municipal sewer. Second; along with
constructing two manholes for each house, a small chamber is built on the opposite side of the
street and connected with the manhole located on the other side of street (Fig. 14.12). Thus, when
the houses are constructed on the other side of street, they will connect to the already built
chamber and no road cut will be involved. The second option is considered better.

Figure 14.12: Facilitating house connection in municipal sewers

REFERENCES

1. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.

2. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

3. USA Water And Wastewater Utility: City of Naperville Illinois, (2013), Sanitary sewer
construction standards, Naperville standard specifications. Accessed on: 13-07-2017,
Available at:
[https://www.naperville.il.us/contentassets/4160bb766f174b31ba5056871eedb7e6/stand
ard-details-section-300.pdf]

4. Spartanburg waters, (2009), Technical specifications for sanitary sewer system

improvements, Spartanburg Sanitary Sewer Districts Partanburg, South Carolina.
Accessed on: 13-07-2017, Available at: [http://www.spartanburgwater.org/pdfs/sewer-
technical-specs.pdf]

196
5. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.

6. USA Urban Drinage and Flood Control District Colorado, (2016), Street inlets and storm
drains, Urban Storm Drainage Criteria Manual Volume-1. Accessed on: 11-07-2017,
Available at: [https://udfcd.org/wp-
content/uploads/uploads/vol1%20criteria%20manual/07_Streets%20Inlets%20Storm%2
0Drains.pdf]

7. J. A. Lager et. al., (1977), Urban stormwater management and technology: Update and
users guide, Report 600/8-77-014, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio.

197
 Chapter-15

Sewage pumping stations

198
 SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS
After collection the wastewater is disposed of into a water body, with or without treatment.
Since the outfall sewer is quite deep, hence, the wastewater is lifted, either to introduce it into a
wastewater treatment plant or the water body. This function is performed by a sewage pumping
station (PS). Following three situations necessitate the provision of sewage pumping station:

1. Continuation of gravity flow is no longer feasible and there is a need to raise

hydraulic grade line (HGL) of sewer. Such situation may arise in a big urban center.
The length of collection system is quite long. The sewer, after a certain distance
becomes deep enough. Therefore, it is not feasible to dig further deep. Thus, a
sewage PS is provided to lift HGL. Such a PS is referred as lift station. For
example, total length of sewer lines in Lahore is 3,508 Km and there are 82 lift
station in Lahore. The PS which discharges the wastewater into the water body is
referred to as disposal station (DS). In Lahore, there are 14 disposal stations
located at different points to dispose of the wastewater into the river Ravi. [1].

2. An obstacle lies in the path of sewer (e.g., river canal etc.). It is not possible to lay
gravity sewer. Hence, PS is provided to cross the obstacle by pumping sewage
through a force main, cross the obstacle, and again resume gravity flow.

3. Receiving water body is higher than the outfall sewer.

15.1 COMPONENTS OF SEWAGE PUMPING STATION

There may be either two or three components of a sewage pumping station. These are:
(a) Screens: The outfall sewer opens into the screening chamber. It is a masonry
chamber, with stainless-steel screens fixed in it. The purpose of screens is to screen
out large floating matter which can damage pump.
(b) Dry well (optional): It is only needed when centrifugal pumps are used, in which the
pump and pump controls (on-off system, switches etc) are installed in the dry well. For
submersible and cordon shaft pumps, dry wells are not needed. Thus, in latter case,
space and cost on civil structure of dry well may be saved.
In case of submersible pumps, the pump is placed at the bottom of wet well. Pump
controls (switches, on-off system) are installed in an operator room instead of dry well,
which takes much less space and cost as compared to dry well.

199
 (c) Wet well: Sewage, after passing through the screens enters into the wet well, from
where it is pumped either into another sewer, treatment plant or the water body.

15.2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Following general design consideration are observed [2, 3].

1. More than one pump should be provided to cope with variable discharge, at small
pumping stations. A pump may work at maximum sewage flow and the other may
take care of the average flows. Both working together make take peak flow.

2. For larger pumping stations, more than two pumps must be used. One having
capacity to take average, second maximum flow and the third peak flow.

3. Stand by pump must be provided at the PS. Its capacity should be at least 50% of
peak sewage flow.

4. Alternate source of power must be provided at PS (either power from two feeders or
a diesel generator be provided).

5. If centrifugal pumps are used, these should be of self-priming type and operate under
positive suction head.

6. Each pump should have an independent intake.

7. Screens with 2-inch (50 mm) opening be provided at pump suction to avoid entrance
of large objects/particles in pumps, which may damage the pump.

8. Size of dry well (if used) should be sufficient to house pumping machinery.

9. Dry well (if used) be provided with sump pumps which are usually reciprocating type
to pump out sewage leaks in the dry well.

10. In case of centrifugal pumps, sluice valves must be provided at suction and delivery
side of the pump and a non-return valve at the delivery side.

11. Detention time in wet well should not be greater than 30 min (at average flow rate) to
avoid septic conditions.

15.3 TYPICAL DIAGRAMS SHOWING SECTION OF PUMPING STATION

Fig. 15.1 shows a typical drawing showing a pumping stations with dry well and centrifugal
pump. Outfall sewer enters the screening chamber. Normally, screening chamber are always in
duplicate. It helps to keep the pumping station operational if one screening chamber is closed for

200
cleaning or maintenance/repair. The screening chamber has a sluice gate. It is operated from the
top. It is used to open/close the flow to the screening chamber. Screens are installed at an angle
ranging from 45 to 60°. When clogged with screenings, these are usually manually cleaned with
the help of a rake. The screenings are wet and hence temporarily stored on a perforated platform
(Figure 15.4) provided with the upper end of the screen; these are allowed to dry before disposal.
Through a sewer pipe, screening chamber is connected to the wet well. The wet well can
be of two shapes: (1) circular if some part of lower portion of wet well is under water or (2)
rectangular if the water table is deep and all the wet well structure is in dry condition. The bottom
of screening chamber and wet wells are sealed with PCC or RCC 1:1.5:3 plug to avoid sewage
loss from the bottom. RCC 1:1.5:3 core wall is provided to avoid sewage loss in adjoining soil.
Especially in wet well, the RCC core wall is provided up to the height of sewage level in the wet
well. Walls of the screening chamber and the wet well are made of masonry over an RCC curb
with an angle iron cutting edge. RCC curb provides strong foundation to walls. In addition, it helps
in sinking of the wet well up to the desired depth (Fig. 15.1). A hand rail is provided at the top of
screening chamber and wet well for safety of persons around (avoid falling into screening
chamber or wet well).
At the bottom, the wet well is connected with the dry well using a cast iron/mild steel pipe.
A centrifugal pump is connected to the suction pipe. Pump always works under positive suction
head as shown in the figure. Hence priming is not required. It pumps the sewage to the final point
of disposal or a sump. The sump is connected with the help of a delivery pipe or sullage carrier
(drain) to the final point of disposal (water body).

Figure 15.1: Section of PS with dry well and centrifugal pump

201
 A simplified plan and section of wet well using submersible pump is shown in Fig. 15.2
and bit more detailed section of screening chamber and wet well, with submersible pump is shown
in Fig. 15.3.

Figure 15.2: Plan of a typical PS with submersible pump

202
 Figure 15.3: Section of a typical PS with a submersible pump

15.4 SCREENING CHAMBER

The purpose of screens is to remove large floating or suspended particles ( > 2 inch size).
It saves the pumping machinery, used in the sewage PS, from clogging and any damage.
Screens consist of parallel bars, rods, wire mesh or perforated plates. The opening may
be of any shape (generally rectangular). Mostly, bar screens or racks are used, in public
sewerage projects, which are either hand cleaned or mechanically cleaned. Opening between the
bars range from ½″ - 1½″ (10 mm to 40 mm) [4]. Wastewater, after passing through the screening
chamber enters the wet well. At least two screening chambers must be provided. This helps in
carrying out cleaning or repair, while still allowing sewage flow to the wet well. Penstock is a steel
gate, used to close flow to a screening chamber during routine cleaning/repair.
Floating or large particles, in sewage, are retained on the screens. After, some period,
cleaning of screening is required to allow smooth flow of sewage. Screen cleaning, may be
manual with the help of a cleaning device called rake (Fig. 15.4). A simplified plan and section of
the screening chamber has been shown in Fig. 15.4 and a photograph in Fig. 15.5.

203
 Figure 15.4: Line sketch of plan and section of screening chamber

Screen is designed on peak flow. Since no local design criteria (PHED or WASA) are
available for screen design, hence, for such cases, one may adopt the internationally
accepted/used design considerations. Design criteria adopted for screens are shown in Table
15.1 [5-7].
Table 15.1: Design criteria for manually cleaned bar screen
Width: 0.2 to 0.5 inch (5 mm to 10 mm)
Bar size
Depth: 1 to 2 inch (25 mm x 50 mm)

Spacing 0.5 to 1.5 inch (10 mm to 40 mm)

Angle from horizontal 45° to 60°
Maximum velocity through
1.5 to 3 ft/sec
screens
Maximum allowable head < 0.5 ft
losses through screen

The velocity through the screen must be maintained between the range shown in the
design criteria. Very low velocity would result in solids deposition in the screening chamber. While
high velocity may force the screenings to pass through. Bed slope of the chamber should be
adjusted to maintain the desired velocity in the chamber. Screen is kept inclined for easy cleaning.
Quantity of screenings removed by bar screen is 0.0000035 to 0.0000375 ft3/ ft3 of wastewater
treated (Typical value = 0.000015 ft3/ft3 of wastewater) [8]. The screenings are wet. These are
dried in open and disposed with solid waste.

204
Solved example

Design a screening chamber for a population of 100,000 persons with a water

consumption of 300 LPCD. Assume wastewater flow to be 80% of water consumption. Assume
necessary data.

Solution

.Follow the design criteria given in Table 15.1.

Adopt a bar size of 1 inch x 0.5 inch as shown below

1 inch

0.5 inch

.==,======.A
Average wastewater flow = =24,000 m3/day= 9.8 cusec (ft3/sec)
.===

Let peak factor= 2.5 (refer to Chapter-12; section 12.4)

Peak flow = 9.8 x 2.5
= 24.5 cusec
Therefore, design flow for screening chamber = 24.5 cusec
Adopted dimension of bar in bar screen= 0.5 (width) inch x 1 inch (depth)
Let angle of inclination = 45°
Let bar spacing = 1.5 inch
Let Inflow pipe diameter = 18 inch or 1.5 ft (450 mm); it has been assumed for this solved
example

205
Inflow pipe 18 in

0.5 ft
screens

Screening chamber

Assume that outfall sewer is flowing 80% full.

Therefore total depth of flow = 0.8x1.5+0.5= 1.7 ft
Let the velocity through bar rack = 3 ft/sec

—  3Z.

Clear area through screens =   8.166 ft2
‡~  

^ ˜  A..
Clear width of bar rack = ™    = 4.8 ft
..?

If space between bars is 1.5 inch, then total number of spaces for a clear width of
Z.A.3
opening of 4.8 ft =
..
 38.4 ≅ 38 spaces

1.5 inch

bar

No. of bars = no. of spaces -1

= 38-1
= 37
Total width of bars = No. of bar x width of one bar
= 37x0.5=18.5 inch = 1.54 ft

206
 Bars are fixed on an angle iron frame of size 6 inch x 6 inch x 1 inch

Bar (0.5 inch wide x 1.25 inch depth)

Angle Iron frame

(6x6x1)

1 inch

6 inch Angle Iron frame

(6x6x1)

6 inch

Width of 2 angle iron frames 6x6x1 on both sides of bar rack = 0.5x2= 1 ft
∴ Total width of bar rack = clear width of bars + width of bars + width of angle iron frame
on both sides
= 4.8 + 1.54 + 1 = 7.34 ft
Total width of two screen chamber= 7.34 x 2=14.68 ft
Both screening chambers are separated by a masonry or concrete wall of suitable
thickness, normally 13.4 inch.
Length of chamber upstream (u/s) of rack = 3 ft (say)
Rack length (horizontal) = 6 ft (actual length at 45° = 8.4 ft; using Pythagorean theorem)
Length of chamber down stream (d/s)of rack = 5 ft (say)

Total length of screening chamber = 3+6+5=14 ft

8.4 ft
6 ft

6 ft

Figure 15.5: Horizontal and inclined length of bar screen

207
 3ft u/s 6 ft 5 ft d/s

Design of screen is now final. Check for actual head losses, across the screen, using the
following expression [9].

. ˆ+6 %ˆ 6
head loss= \"   Equation 15.1
=.? 3
Vs = velocity through screen, ft/sec
V = approach velocity of sewage in the screening chamber (it is usually taken as the self-
cleansing velocity of sewage in the pipe; adopt 2.5 ft/sec)
g= 32.2 ft/sec2
Putting value in equation
1 33 − 2.53
\"  
0.7 2  32.2

= 0.06 ft (<0.5 ft; OK)

This completes the design of screening chamber.

15.5 DESIGN OF WET WELL

Design refers to finding the operating volume of the wet well. The volume of wet well
below the invert of pipe, coming from the screening chamber, that holds the sewage is referred
to as the operating volume of wet well. Rest of the portion above, remains dry (Fig.15.3).
A wet well has to fulfill two requirements

1. Pumps should not have to be started and stopped frequently to avoid over heating of
motors. Time between two successive startups of the pumps should be more than
minimum cycle time as given by pump manufacturer.
Minimum Cycle Time: 5 - 10 min for small pumps

15 – 20 min for large pumps

2. Detention time in wet well, at average flow, should not be more than 30 minutes to avoid
septic conditions.

208
 The concept of operating volume “V” of wet well is explained in Fig. 15.6. It is clear, that
some cushion for submersible pump submergence and invert of pipe from screening
chamber must be added to the operating depth of wet well.

Figure 15.6: Wet well and operating volume ‘V’

Derivation of the equation for finding the operative volume of wet well is given below [10,
11]. Let
Q = Wastewater flow in the well
P = Peak sewage flow (Pump discharge)
V = Operating volume of wet well
t = Cycle time given by pump manufacturer

Now,

Cycle Time = time on + Time off

To empty To fill

On Off On

Therefore, cycle time “t” may be written as

209
 t = Time to empty the wet well + Time to fill the wet well

But,
ˆ ˆ
 + Equation 15.2
%] ]
  [' − c*%. + [c %.

Differentiate w.r.t Q

›
 −1[' − c*%3 + '−1*  [c %3
›c

›
 0; ž Ÿ ¡ Ÿ¢Ÿ „£„8ƒ  Ÿƒ
›c

[ [
0 3
− 3
' − c* c

[ [
3
 3
' − c* c

(P-Q)2=Q2

P-Q = Q

Q=P/2

∴ t = tmin when Q = P/2

Thus, the minimum cycle time for single-pump operation occurs when the inflow is exactly
half the pump capacity. Under this condition, the on and off times are equal. The pump is on for
a longer time, and off for a shorter time for larger inflows and vice versa for smaller inflows. In
both cases, the cycle time is greater and hence frequent shut down and startup is not required.

Put Q = P/2 and t = tmin in equation 15.2

ˆ ˆ
∴   = x +
% 6 /3

ˆ ˆ
= x + x
6 6

210
 4[
  

Ÿ ¡
4
Operating volume of wet well = V =

Solved example

Design a wet well if the average sewage flow is 1.64 cusec (4000 m3/d) and peak sewage
flow is 5.7 cusec (14000 m3/d). The motor pump has a minimum cycle time of 20 min. Also check
the detention time to avoid septic conditions. If the invert of the incoming sewer, in the wet well,
is at a depth of 15 ft from the ground surface, and water table is at a depth of 14 ft, then find the
thickness of PCC (1:1.5:3) plug to be provided in the wet well.

Solution
¤$#
V=
Z
.?3==
=
Z

= 1710 ft3
Assume operating depth = 6 ft, find diameter of the wet well
In wet well drawing, add 2 ft for pump submergence and 1 ft cushion from the invert of
pipe discharging into the wet well depth
XY6
Volume = 6
Z
XY6
1710 = 6
Z
Diameter of wet well = 19 ft ; say 20 ft
Now for checking septic condition, find detention time at average flow
ˆ
Detention time =
˜‡    ']*
.?.=
=
..Z=
= 17.3 minutes (less than 30 min; OK)
Thickness of PCC (1:1.5:3) plug

Water Table Level = 14 Ft

Floor Level of wet well = 15+6=21 Ft

Water Column (L) = 21-14= 7 Ft

211
 If “X” is the plug thickness, then we may write

(L+X) x 62.4 = 144 X

Specific weight of water is 62.4 Lb/ft3 and specific weight of concrete is 144 Lb/ft3

(7+X) x 62.4 = 144 X

X = 5.3 ft

Sometimes, water table is quite high, and a portion of wet well is under water. Under such
conditions, RCC core wall is also provided in the wet well walls. It helps to stop surrounding water
coming into the wet well. Core wall is a must under above conditions

15.6 PUMPS FOR SEWAGE

For sewage pumping, special type of pumps are used. They are of three different types.

1. Centrifugal pumps: single suction, non-clogging type pumps are used. They have
impellers having 2 or 3 vanes. Pump suction pipe is usually larger than the discharge
pipe by about 25%. Discharge pipe, with pipe diameter smaller than 3 inch (75 mm)
and suction pipe with pipe smaller than 4 inch (100 mm) should not be used [2].
Particles of size up to 2 inch may pass from the pump.

2. Submersible pump: These are submerged in wastewater. These are also non-clogging
type with construction such that particles up to 2 inch may pass through the pump.
These are mostly used nowadays.

3. Cordon Shaft pumps: They may also be used.

Pump control

Manual start up and shut down of pumps has now become obsolete in the operation of
sewage PS. Nowadays, water sensors are employed; these sense the water level and
automatically switch on and off the pumps. These levels must be set in a way that the pump
should not run dry by keeping it in minimum submergence, nor wastewater level in wet well be
high enough to surcharge the contributing sewers [12]. All these requirements are decided by
the environmental engineer and conveyed to the pump supplier (through giving detailed
specifications/requirements in the bidding document).
Fig. 15.7 shows this setup. Four levels sensors are installed. When wastewater level rises
in the wet well and a particular sensor is submerged it sends the signal and the specified pump
is switched on. When wastewater level falls down and sensor is exposed, it sends signal to switch
off a specific pump. A minimum water levels is maintained in the wet well through the level sensor

212
installed at the lowest level. As soon as this sensor is exposed, no pump remains in operation
and this avoid dry running of the pump.

Figure 15.7: Planning for pump startup and shutdowns in a wet well

15.7 FORCE MAIN

Sometimes, the final point of disposal is located at some distance from the sewage
pumping station. In such cases, a pipe is laid from pumping station to the point of disposal. Such
pipes are referred to as force mains. The design of force main is essentially the same as that of
water transmission lines/rising mains.

Solved example on the force main

Consider the situation given in Fig. 15.8. A submersible lift station has to pump sewage to
a drain. The drain is located at a distance of 1000 ft from the lift station. The force main will
discharge sewage at an elevation of 250 ft. Pump discharge is 5 cusec. Use PVC pipe as force
main. Determine the (1) diameter of pipe required; (2) head of pump; (3) BHP of motor.

213
 Figure 15.8: Sketch for the design of force main
Solution

Step-1: Determine force main diameter

Q = 5 cusec
Adopt a velocity of 5 ft/sec in the force main (Ch-5; section 5.12). Velocity in transmission
line may be adopted between 2-5 ft/sec. Higher velocities will result in smaller diameter but more
head losses and higher pump heads. Thus, energy bills are more but there is saving in cost of
pipe. With lower velocities, bigger diameter pipes are needed making the cost of force main
higher. However, lower head pumps are needed due to less friction losses and energy bills are
lower. It must be kept in mind that pipe cost is a onetime cost, whereas energy bills is a recurring
cost that has to be paid throughout the design life of the pump. It may be a good proposal to find
out the life cycle cost, which is equal to the capital and energy cost of pump over the design
period. The pipe diameter that gives most feasible life-cycle cost may be adopted. It may also be
noted, that velocities less than 2.5 ft/sec may not be adopted for sewage as it may result in the
settlement of solids in the force main. Therefore, it is reasonable to adopt a velocity of 5 ft/sec for
the force main.
Q=AxV
Where:
Q = pump flow, cusec
A = Area of pipe, ft2
V = velocity of sewage, ft/sec
XY6
5= 5
Z

214
 D = 1.1 ft = 13.5 inch; adopt 14 inch dia
Note: Before adopting a diameter, ensure that the diameter is commercially available in
the market. For the purpose consult the pipe manufacturer brochures. Manufacturer website, if
available, may also contain the soft form of brochures that can be downloaded.

Step-2: Determine static head

To determine the static head, the maximum elevation difference the pump will need to
overcome must be identified. This will be when the water surface elevation in the wet well is at its
lowest, or just above pump’s off elevation. To be conservative, use the pump’s off elevation
Static head = 250-217=33 ft

Step-3: Determine friction/dynamic head

Use Hazen William equation

c 1.85 !
H=4.73 9 Π:  4.87 (FPS Version)
›

L = 1000 ft
Q = 5 cusec
C = 140 for PVC pipes
d = 14 inch = 1.166 ft

by substituting values, the friction/dynamic head comes out to be

H = 4.69 ft
Add 10% losses for bends, sharp turns etc = 0.469 ft
Total head losses = 5.16 ft

Step-4: Find total head losses with a terminal pressure of 7 ft at the discharge end of force
main for free flow of wastewater
Total head = Static head + Friction/dynamic head + 7 ft
= 33 + 5.16 + 7
= 45.16 ft ≅ 50 ft
Step-5: BHP of motor required

γ × Q× Η
BHP=
550×η
where γ = density of water = 62.4 Ib/ft3

215
 Q= discharge of pumpl, cusec
H= head of pump, ft
η = efficiency of motor ( 60% for electric motor, 40% for diesal engine)
62.4  5  50
b\ 
550  0.6
= 47.2 ≅ 50 (Always round off to next higher value, available in market)
The motors available in the market have BHP in the multiples of 5.

REFERENCES

1. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (2015), Preparation of master plan for water supply,
sewerage and drainage system for Lahore: Volume IV – Sewage collection and disposal
system: Capacity analysis and operational framework requirements.

2. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1975), Final design criteria for phase-II
improvement program, Lahore Development Authority.

3. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.

4. P. A. Vesilind, (2003), Wastewate treatment plant design, IWA publishing, USA.

5. S. R. Qasim, (1998), Wastewater treatment plants: Planning, design, and operation, CRC
Press, Taylor and Francis, USA.

6. Environmental Protection Agency Ireland, (1995), Wastewater treatment manuals:

Preliminary treatment. Accessed on: 16-07-2017, Available on:
[https://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/water/wastewater/EPA_water_treatment_manual_preli
minary.pdf]

7. M. L. Davis, (2010), Water and wastewater engineering: Design priciples and practice,
McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

8. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (2004), Wastewater engineering: Treatment and reuse (4th
Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

9. K. M. Yao, (1972), Head drop across bar screens, Water Pollution Control Federation,
44(7): p. p. 1448-1452.

10. Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF), (1995), Design of wastewater and storm‐
water pumping stations, Manual of Practice No. FD‐4.

11. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.

216
12. Jenson Engineering System, (2012), Pump station design guidelines-2nd Edition.
Accessed on: 15-07-2017, Available on: [www.jensenengineeredsystems.com/.../Pump-
Station-Design-Guidelines-2nd-Edition....]

217
 Chapter-16

Design of storm sewers

218
 DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS
Storm sewers are meant for taking the runoff generated during a rainfall event. The first
step in the design of storm sewers, is the estimation of storm flow, that would enter a storm sewer.
Primary source of storm flow is rainfall. Rational Method is the most commonly used for estimation
of storm flows in urban and semi urban areas having large amount of impervious land [1].

16.1 ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF RATIONAL METHOD

Use of the rational method includes the following assumptions and limitations [2]:
 The method is applicable if Tc (time of concentration) for the drainage area is less than
the duration of peak rainfall intensity (Tc is defined in next sections).
 Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration of the storm (intensity is defined as
inches of rainfall per hour; inch/hr (mm/hr); more details ahead).
 The frequency of occurrence (return period) for the peak discharge is the same as the
frequency of the rainfall producing that event (more details ahead).
 Rainfall is distributed uniformly over the drainage area.
 The rational method does not account for storage (depressions, low areas etc.) in the
drainage area. Available storage is assumed to be filled.
The accuracy of rational method depends much on the correct selection of runoff
coefficient and delineation of catchment area. The above assumptions and limitations, are the
reasons, the rational method is limited to watersheds with 300 acre area or smaller [1]. Sometimes
rational method is used for up to 1300 acre drainage area [3].
For larger watersheds, rational method is not applicable because it does not give correct
results. Instead unit hydrograph method is used.

16.2 RATIONAL METHOD

The Rational Method is used to calculate the peak surface runoff rate for the design of
storm water management structures, like storm drains, storm sewers, and storm water detention
facilities. The data required for rational method are: (1) values for the runoff coefficient, (2) the
drainage area, (3) time of concentration, (4) intensity-duration-rainfall (IDF) curves and (4) design
return period. Detail discussion on all the above parameters is included in the following sub
sections.

Mathematically,
Q=CiA (Rational Formula) Equation 16.1

219
 Where;

Q = Amount of rainfall which appears as run-off, ft3/sec(m3/hr)

i = Intensity of rainfall, inch/hr (mm/hr). It is determined through Intensity-Duration-

Frequency (IDF) curves.

A = Area upon which the rain falls, Acre (m2)

C = Run off co-efficient i.e., the fraction of incident rainfall which appears as surface
flow. It is a function of soil type and drainage basin slope.

16.2.1 Drainage area (watershed area)

The drainage area (watershed area) is usually measured from the maps drawn on scale.
It includes all the area that may contribute to the storm sewer collection system under
consideration.

16.2.2 Runoff coefficient (C)

When the rain falls over a surface, a portion of it is absorbed and the rest appears as
sheet flow/runoff over the surface. The fraction of rainfall that appears as runoff is referred to as
runoff coefficient (C). Value of C for different land uses is shown in Table 16.1. The reader may
also adopt C values given in the PHED design criteria (see Chapter-13; section 13.19). Referring
to Table 16.1, the value of C for watertight roof has been shown as 0.7 to 0.95; thereby showing
that depending upon the roof surface, 70 to 95% of the rain fall appears as runoff.
Table 16.1: Value of C for different land uses [4]
Type of surface C value
Watertight roofs 0.7-0.95
Asphalt roads 0.85-0.90
Portland cement streets 0.8-0.95
Paved driveways and walks 0.75-0.85
Gravel driveways and walks 0.15-0.3
Lawns, sandy soil
2% slope 0.05-0.10
2-7% slope 0.10-0.15
< 7% slope 0.15-0.2
Lawns, sandy soil
2% slope 0.13-0.17
2-7% slope 0.18-0.22
< 7% slope 0.25-0.35

220
 If a given area has multiple land uses, then average weighted runoff co-efficient may be
calculated.

^5 ˜5 /^6 ˜6 /^¥ ˜¥
Average weighted runoff coefficient (C) =
∑˜

16.2.3 Time of concentration (Tc)

Definition: The time of concentration (Tc) is defined as the time taken by the runoff to
travel from the hydraulically most distant point in the drainage area to the point of reference
downstream. It may consist of time taken by sheet flow over the surface before the storm water
reaches a street inlet (inlet time). This travel requires measurable time and while the areas
immediately adjacent to the inlet will contribute flow quickly, areas which are distant will not.
Sometimes, Tc has two components; the time of sheet flow to reach a street inlet (inlet time) and
the time to flow in a storm sewer before the it reaches the reference point downstream (Fig 16.1).

Inlet Time

I1

Time of
flow in
sewer
I2

Figure 16.1: Concept diagram for inlet time and time of flow in storm sewer (I1; I2 are inlets)
The max rate of runoff for a given rainfall intensity will occur when the rainfall has
continued for a period sufficient to permit flow to reach the inlet from the most remote point of the
drainage area. Consider the rectangular watershed/drainage area shown in Fig. 16.2. The point
of reference, in this case is the inlet.

Rainfall for 5 min

10 min

15 min

221
 5 min.

5 min.

5 min.

Inlet
Storm Sewer

Figure 16.2: A water shed/drainage area

From Fig. 16.2, it may be observed that if a rainfall event occurs for 5 minutes or 10
minutes, it will not produce a peak flow at reference point (inlet). Because, when flow from the
farthest point would reach reference point (in 15 minutes), the adjacent areas would not be
contributing runoff at that time. However, if a rainfall event occurs for 15 minutes, maximum runoff
would be generated at the reference point, because all the three section of watershed/drainage
area wo uld be contributing runoff at the reference point.

From the above discussion, it is evident that only those rainfall events are of interest, which
are of sufficient duration to develop max runoff.

Mathematically,

Time of concentration (Tc) = Inlet time + Time of flow in sewer

The factors that affect Tc of a watershed/drainage area are: surface roughness,

irregularity, length and slope.

16.2.4 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

IDF curves is the basic record/data used in the design of storm sewers. In USA, these
curves have been developed for all the states and are available from the websites. However, in
Pakistan, IDF curves were developed for Lahore and Faisalabad (reader is referred to reference
5 and 6, for details on how to develop these curves from the rainfall data) [5, 6]) whereas for other
areas, these are not available and one has to develop them from the rainfall data. Rainfall data of
at least last 40-50 years are required to develop IDF curves. The data may be obtained from
Meteorological Department.
However, mostly an arbitrary value of rainfall intensity is adopted to determine storm flow,
which is not a correct approach. Fig 16.3 shows IDF curve for Lahore. Rainfall duration (in

222
minutes) is taken along x-axis and rainfall intensity (inch/hr; or mm/hr) is taken on y-axis. Curves
for different return period, ranging from 2 to 50 years are drawn.

Figure 16.3: IDF curves for different return period for Lahore [6]

16.2.5 Return Period

By return period (re-occurrence frequency) of a given storm means the time interval
during which the given storm is likely to be equalled or exceeded. Thus, if the design return period
for a length of storm sewer is 5 years, then the storm water flow should back up into the manhole
because the pipe capacity has been exceeded only once every 5 years on the average.
The design return period for storm water management structures is typically specified by
a state or local agency. The range in which the return period varies is 5-100 years. The size and
associated cost increases as the return period increases. This, in turn, depends on the level of
protection that is deemed to be adequate for reducing the potential costs of flood damages and
minimizing inconvenience to the public. As such, the decision on what return period to adopt for
design purposes is the result of an informal cost/benefit analysis - where the potential for damages
is low or costs are small, a short return period is usually considered adequate. However, where
the potential for damages is high or where failure would endanger expensive property, then a
longer (more conservative) return period is selected [7]. Table 16.2 suggest probable values for
different drainage structures.

223
 Table 16.2: Probable return period for different structures [7]
Area characteristics Return Period
Low value and residential areas 2-5 years
Higher value commercial and industrial areas 5-10 years
Critical areas: significant potential for 10-25 years
damage/inconvenience
Major culverts, bridges etc. for National highways 25-50 years

In Canada, the return period for minor storm drainage systems lies in a range of 1-5 years
and 100 years for major collector streets and arterial streets [8]. In Pakistan, usually 2-5 year
return period is used for storm water structures.

16.2.6 Rainfall intensity

The design rainfall intensity is the intensity of a storm (rainfall) having the specified
design return period and duration equal to the time of concentration for the drainage area.
Once values for design return period and time (duration in minutes) are available, the design
rainfall intensity can be determined from an appropriate IDF curve of the drainage area.
PHED design criteria 2008 (page 72) propose a rainfall intensity of 1/30 inch in southern
Punjab, 1/4 inch for small towns and 1/2 inch for bigger urban areas. Hence, under such
circumstances, there is no need to use IDF curves.

16.3 SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE TO FIND THE DESIGN FLOW FOR STORM SEWER

16.3.1 Using IDF curves

If the IDF curves of the area are available, use the following steps
1. Find out the time of concentration (Tc)
2. Adopt a suitable return period (2-5-10 years)
3. Adopt a suitable value of “C” for the area. In case of multiple land use, find average
weighted “C”
4. From the Tc and return period, find out the design rainfall intensity (inch/hr) from the IDF
curve
5. Use Rational formula to find the design storm flow for the sewer/drain.

224
16.3.2 Using PHED Design Criteria

The IDF curves for most of the areas, in Pakistan, are not available (except Lahore and
Faisalabad). The PHED design criteria, by oversimplifying, propose the rainfall intensity and its
blanket application without going through the rainfall data and IDF curves. The correctness of this
oversimplification is not supported from the internationally adopted procedures. Nevertheless, the
process of finding out storm flow, using rational method per PHED design criteria is listed below
1. Find out watershed/drainage area
2. Find out C value, for each type of area, from the PHED design criteria (p. 70)
3. Adopt rainfall intensity given in PHED criteria (p. 72) and find storm flow
The entire process of finding out the design discharge for storm sewer, using IDF curves,
has been explained in the following solved example. Assume velocity of flow to be 3 ft/sec.

Solved Example

A storm drainage system has been shown in the figure below. The drainage area is divided
into three sub-catchments viz. A1, A2 and A3. Value of C and inlet time of each drainage area is
also shown. Other relevant data are:
Reach-1 (MH-1 to 2) = 400 ft
Reach-2 (MH-2 to 3)= 600 ft; time of flow in pipe =3.33 min
Reach-3 (MH-3 to 4)= 600 ft = 3.33 min
Find out the maximum storm flow and pipe diameter for each reach (location: Lahore).
Adopt a return period of 5 years. Manning’s coefficient of pipe is 0.013.

A1 A2 A3
2.47 Acre 3.7 Acre 4.94 Acre
C1=0.4 C2=0.3 C3=0.2
Inlet time=15 min Inlet time=17 min Inlet time=20 min

MH-1 MH-2 MH-3 MH-4

Solution
Develop a computational table (Table 16.2). In order to find out the critical rainfall event
duration, and the corresponding rainfall intensity from IDF curve (Fig. 16.3), and find the flows in
each sewer line, a computation table is set up (Table 16.2)

225
 Table 16.3: Computation table to find out design storm flows in storm sewers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

§ ¨©
From To Drainage C AC Inlet Time of Tc i Q
MH MH area (A) time flow in (inch/hr) (cusec)
(Acres) (min) pipe
(min)
1 2 2.47 0.4 0.988 0.988 15 - 15 5 4.94
2 3 3.7 0.3 1.11 2.098 17 3.33 20.33 4.7 9.8
3 4 4.94 0.2 0.988 3.086 20 3.33 21.66 4.5 13.88

Explanatory Notes:
Col.5: Product of AC is taken for each sewer
Col. 6: Sum of AC for each storm sewer is calculated.
Col. 7: Given in the problem statement
Col. 8: With the given velocity of 3 ft/sec and length of sewer, the time of flow in pipe
may be calculated i.e. length of sewer/velocity.
Col. 9: It gives the time of concentration, which is either only the inlet time or the sum of
inlet time and time of flow in the sewer.
Col. 10: Value of “i” for each pipe has been observed from IDF curve of Lahore (Fig.
16.3) for the corresponding time of concentration (return period=5-years).
Col 11: Q = ∑ dŒ ×   =(col. 6 x col. 10)

Discharge in each pipe has been determined. Diameter may be selected from back
calculation table (Table 13.3). From the table the diameter for reach-1 would be 18 inches,
reach-2 would be 24 inches and reach-3 would be 30 inches.

16.4 SOFTWARE FOR STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

Following software may be used for the design of storm sewers.

16.4.1 Storm water management model (SWMM)

US EPA's Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is used throughout the world for
planning, analysis and design related to stormwater runoff, combined and sanitary sewers, and
other drainage systems in urban areas. It is a very powerful tool.
SWMM is a dynamic hydrology-hydraulic simulation model. It is used for single event or
long-term (continuous) simulation of runoff quantity from primarily urban areas. The runoff
component operates on a collection of sub-catchment areas that receive precipitation and
generate runoff. The routing portion transports this runoff through a system of pipes, channels,
storage/treatment devices, pumps, and regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity of runoff made
within each sub-catchment. It tracks the flow rate, flow depth, and quantity of water in each pipe
and channel during a simulation period made up of multiple time steps (Please see reference 5
and 6 for more details)

226
16.4.2 HEC-HMS

Another software HEC-HMS (Hydrologic Engineering Company-Hydraulic

Management System) may also be used. It is developed by US Army Corps of Engineers. It
is a freeware. It is mostly used for flood studies in natural streams. However it may be used
for the determination of storm flows using unit hydrograph method. The flows may be used for
the design of storm sewers. The reader may obtain the software from HEC website along with
the user manual.
Steps to determine storm flow are briefly presented:
1. Maximum daily rainfall values during a year are obtained from the Meteorological
Department for around last 30-40 years. This rainfall creates the maximum flooding
and hence is critical for the design.
2. The data are arranged in descending order
3. Frequency analysis on the data is performed (recurrence incidence).
4. Rainfall for the desired return period is determined from the frequency analysis.
5. Project area is divided into sub-catchment depending upon the topography of the
area.
6. Data are fed into the software and simulation is run. The software gives flow in each
reach of the project area.
7. Once storm flow is determined, the pipe size and required slope could be
determined.

REFERENCES

1. Oregon Department of Transportation Highway Division, (2014), Hydraulics design

manual: Appendix F; Rational method. Accessed on: 14-07-2017, Available at:
[www.oregon.gov/ODOT/GeoEnvironmental/Docs_Hydraulics.../Hydraulics-07-F.pdf]

2. Civil Engineering Portal, (2010), What are the limitations of Rational Method in calculating
runoff? Accessed on: 14-07-2017, Aavailable on: [http://www.engineeringcivil.com/what-
are-the-limitations-of-rational-method-in-calculating-runoff.html]

3. H. Bengtson, (2010), The rational method for calculation of peak storm water runoff rate,
Bright Hub Engineering. Accessed on: -14-07-2017, Available at:
[www.hbp.usm.my/.../The%20Rational%20Method%20for%20Calculation%20of%20...]

4. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

227
5. A. A. Rizvi, (2015), Study of rainwater harvesting potential-A case study of FDA city,
Faisalabad, MSc Thesis, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Research, University
of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.

6. W. Ali, (2009), Evaluation of alternative techniques for stormwater management under

local conditions, MSc Thesis, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Research,
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.

7. Government of Rajistan-India, (2008), General guide lines for drainage sector work,
Design & Construction Management System: Circular -8.

8. Engineering and Public Works Department, (2011), Storm water design criteria manual
for municipal services, Town of Riverview, Canada: p. 13.

228
 Chapter-17

Wastewater disposal and

reuse

229
 WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND REUSE
Liquid wastes (at least after receiving secondary level treatment) may be disposed of in
two ways [1]:

 Surface waters (Rivers, Lakes etc.)

 On land.

17.1 DISPOSAL IN SURFACE WATERS

In natural streams, there is a balance between plant and animal life, with considerable
interaction among the various life forms. Waters of good quality are characterized by multiplicity
of species with no dominance.
Disposal of untreated wastewater, in water bodies, results in depletion of dissolved oxygen
in them. It renders water unfit for aquatic life, water supplies and irrigation [2]. It may also result
in the eutrophication of surface waters (Eutrophication: over enrichment of water with nutrients
resulting in oxygen depletion and production of large algae in water) [3, 4].Polluted waters are
characterized by very large number of relatively few species.
Disposal of wastewater, in a stream, should thus be regulated with respect to both quantity
and concentration to safeguard the aquatic life and desirable water use.

17.2 ON-LAND DISPOSAL OF WASTEWATERS

At least, secondary level treatment to wastewaters must be given prior to their land
disposal. This is necessary due to the following reasons [5].

1. To reduce stress upon soil system.

2. To reduce production of nuisance conditions (odour etc.).

Following methods may be employed for on-land disposal of treated wastewater.

1. Spray Irrigation
2. Rapid Infiltration
3. Overland Runoff

The above methods depend upon: (1) infiltration and (2) percolation capacity of the soil.
Infiltration depends on the degree of clogging at soil surface while percolation is a function of soil
characteristics.

230
17.3 REUSE OF TREATMENT SEWAGE FOR IRRIGATION

“All the human and animal manure, which the world loses by discharging of sewage to
rivers if returned to the land, instead of being thrown into the sea, should suffice to nourish the
world” - (Victor Hugo, 1868)
Use of wastewater for irrigation has following four advantages [6].
1. Prevention of river pollution and protection of surface water quality.
2. Conservation of water, that is used in irrigation.
3. Nutrients (N, P, K) in treated wastewater can improve agriculture in arid and semi-arid
regions.
4. Reduction in the use of artificial manure.

17.4 HISTORY OF WASTEWATER REUSE

Use of raw wastewater for irrigation purposes can be traced back to 1880s. UK, France,
Germany, Australia, Mexico practiced it. However, in the beginning, little consideration was given
to the health hazards related with raw wastewater irrigation containing pathogenic and parasitic
organisms.
After 1945, guidelines were set for the first time, for the reuse of wastewater for irrigation.
The interest in treated wastewater reuse gained momentum. Many countries started this practice
e.g [6].;
 Khartoum:2800 hectare (7000 Acre) green belt was irrigated with treated wastewater.
 Mexico City: Fodder and grain on 100,000 ha (2.5 lac Acre) were irrigated with treated
wastewater.
 Melbourne: Werribbee farms with 10,000 ha (24,000 Acre) land were irrigated with treated
wastewater from Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSP). 50,000 sheep and 20,000 cattle
grazed in these farms.
In Pakistan raw wastewater is used to irrigate 800 hectare (ha), 2000 ha and 2500 ha land
in Lahore, Hyderabad and Faisalabad respectively.
Mediterranean countries are in short supply of freshwater. Hence, there is an increasing
trend of reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation purposes [7]. Over the past 30 years,
wastewater reuse is widely practiced in developing countries. However, it is mostly unplanned
and uncontrolled. The public health risk involved in not fully understood. There is a need to take
appropriate measures to make wastewater reuse safe.

17.5 PUBLIC HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH RAW SEWAGE

The wastewater stream of a community carries full spectrum of pathogenic

microorganisms excreted in the feces and urine of infected individuals. Their concentration is:

231
  Many millions / liter for bacteria.
 Thousands / liter for viruses.
 Few hundred / liter for helminth eggs.
Pathogens can survive in the environment for long enough. Their die away rate follow
descending order; helminths, bacteria and viruses.
Health risk is high for people using salads and vegetables eaten uncooked and irrigated
with raw sewage. Such people may be exposed to the following diseases arranged in descending
order of their chance of occurrence [6].
 Helminth (worm) disease.
 Cholera
 Typhoid
Similarly farm workers using wastewater for irrigation are also exposed to the above
diseases. However, evidence of bacterial and viral diseases among them is limited. Helminth risk
is high.
There is no demonstrated risk to people living close to sewage irrigated sites. Adequate
treatment and disinfection of wastewater can significantly reduce health risks associated with its
reuse for irrigation.

17.6 AGRONOMIC ASPECT OF WASTEWATER REUSE

Wastewater from a city of 500,000 persons with 175 lpcd water consumption can irrigate
2700 ha (6600 Acre) of land. Effluent from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) has a significant
fertilizer value. It can supply all the nitrogen and much of the phosphorous and potassium required
for agricultural crops [6].

Furthermore, the organic matter in the effluent adds valuable micronutrients and humus2
to the soil which helps to improve water retention capacity of the soil.

Studies in California, Portugal and Israel have shown that many crops can grow, without
chemical fertilizers, if treated wastewater is used for their irrigation [6].

17.7 WHO GUIDELINES (1989) FOR REUSE OF TREATED WASTEWATER IN

IRRIGATION

Guidelines for reuse of treated wastewater in irrigation prescribed by World Health

Organization (WHO) are shown in Table 17.1.
Table 17.1: Guidelines for reuse of wastewater in irrigation [8]

2 A dark-brown or black organic substance.

232
 Exposed
Category Use Helminth Fecal Coliform
group
Irrigation of crops likely Workers, ≤ 1/L ≤ 1000/100 mL
A to be eaten uncooked, consumers, (wastewater
sports fields, public parks public stabilization ponds)
Irrigation of cereal crops, Workers ≤ 1/L No value
B industrial crops, fodder recommended
crops, pasture, and trees
Localized irrigation of crops None < 1/L No value
in category B, if exposure recommended
C
of workers and the public
does not occur

REFERENCES

1. M. L. Davis, (2010), Water and wastewater engineering: Design priciples and practice,
McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

2. J. O. Odigie, (2014), Harmful effects of wastewater disposal into water bodies: A case
review of the Ikpoba river, Benin city, Nigeria, Tropical freshwater biology, 23: p. 87-101.

3. A. A. Ansari and S. S. Gill, (2014), Eutrofication: causes, consequences and control,

Springer, Germany.

4. D. Harper, (1992), Eutrofication of freshwater, Chapman and Hall, London.

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1975), Land application of wastewater, Report

No. EPA 903-9-75-017.

6. H. I. Shuval, (1990), Wastewater irrigation in developing countries-Health effects and

technical solutions, World Bank Technical paper No. 51.

7. WHO, (2005), A regional overview of wastewater management and reuse in the Eastern
Mediterranean Region, WHO-EM/CEH/139/E.

8. I. Hespanhol and A. M. E. Prost, (1994), WHO guidelines and national standards for reuse
and water quality, Water Research, 28(1): p. 119-124.

233
 Chapter-18

Operation and maintenance

(O&M) of water supply and
sewerage projects

234
 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M)
OF WATER SUPPLIES AND SEWERAGE
PROJECTS
18.1 O&M COSTS

Environmental Engineers often have to calculate the operation and maintenance (O&M)
costs of water supply and sewerage projects. O&M cost has three major components: (1) staff
salary; (2) energy bills and (3) repair works. These components are explained below.

18.1.1 Staff

Determination of an adequate staffing level (number) is important. Over staffing and under
staffing both have certain issues. Over staffing leads to higher annual O&M costs, while under
staffing leads to deficient operations. Staffing level depends upon the size of the project. In case
of big urban centers, large staff may have to be recruited. For example, water supply system in
Lahore (the second largest city of Pakistan, having a population of around 11 million) has 430
tube wells for water supply. The sewerage system has 74 lift stations and 14 sewage disposal
station. Total length of sewer lines is around 3500 Km [1]. For smaller towns, there may be less
tube wells and lift/disposal stations. Hence staffing level may be low.
In case of manual operation, each tube well would need pump operator to put on and put
off the pump. The operator also acts as watchman at the tube well pumping chamber/ house.
There may be numerous valve men to open/close valves. Electrician are required to resolve
issues related with electric installations at pump house. Plumbers are required for pipe leakage
repairs. The number of pump operators, valve men, electricians and plumbers needed depends
upon the project size. A careful evaluation of numbers is essential. The job description must be
carefully drafted. Required qualification must be decided. After hiring, initial training and capacity
building of staff should never be underestimated. It is essential for smooth and optimum operation
of the project.
For a sewerage project, the personnel required are sewermen, pump operators, plumbers
and electricians. Again, the number depends upon the size and extent of the project. All other
things apply as mentioned in the para above. Staff salaries account for a substantial part of the
annual O&M cost.
In case of large projects (semi urban and urban areas), manual operation is cumbersome.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system is considered to be the most suitable.
Detailed discussion on SCADA is given in section 18.4.

235
18.1.2 Energy bill

Energy bills hold a substantial part of the total O&M cost. The amount depends upon the
motor horsepower, pumping hours and number of electric motors installed.

18.1.3 Repairs

For pumping machinery, the practice is to take 5% of the capital cost, and for civil structure,
1% of the capital cost, as annual maintenance cost [2].

Solved example

The data for a water supply and sewerage project are given. Find the annual O&M cost to
run the system.
Water supply data: There are 10 tube wells. Each has 20 BHP motor. Pumping hours per
day are 12. The cost of pipes and civil structure is Rs 60 million. Cost of pumping machinery and
equipment is 5 million. Staffing level is 10 pump operators, 1 electrician and 3 plumbers.
Sewerage data: There are 5 lift stations and one disposal station. 2 pumps are installed
at each lift station with BHP of motor as 10 and 15. The pump with 10 BHP motor works for 18
hours and pump with 15 BHP motor works for 8 hours. Disposal station has 3 pumps, with motor
BHP as 5, 15 and 20. These work for 12, 8 and 6 hours respectively. Cost of civil structure
(sewers, manholes, inlets, sewage disposal and lift stations) is 80 million and cost of pumping
machinery is 20 million. Staffing level is 6 pump operators, 10 sewermen, 1 electrician, 2 plumbers
and 5 watchmen. A diesel generator (DG) set is also required at disposal station as an alternate
energy source. Find out the KVA of the DG set to meet the requirement with pump having motor
BHP of 20 (pump with peak discharge). Assume that DG set is also operated for 2 hours daily at
the disposal station. Assume cost of DG set as Rs 1.0 Million

Solution

Normally, an Excel sheet is used to frame the annual O&M cost. The same was used for
the above problem. After formulation, it is reproduced below. The staff pays taken are just for this
solved examples. The reader is suggested to take market or government approved pays.
Water Supply Annual O&M

1. Staff pay
Sr Monthly Annual cost
Position Number
No. Salary(Rs) (Rs Million)
1 Pump operator 10 10,000 1.2
2 Electrician 1 15000 0.18
3 Plumber 3 15000 0.54
Sub-Total 1.92

236
2. Energy bills
Units
Number of Kilo Watt Pumping Cost
BHP consumed in
Motors (BHPx0.746) hours (Rs Million)
one year
1 2 3 4 2x3x4x365
20 10 14.92 12 653,496 13.1
Sub-Total-2 13.1
*Cost of electricity adopted = Rs 20 per unit

3. Repair charges

Cost 5% of cost 1% of cost

(Rs Million) (Rs Million) (Rs Million)
Pumping machinery 5 0.25
Civil Structure 60 0.6
Sub-Total-3 0.85

Total annual O&M for water supply = Staff + energy + repairs

= 1.92 + 13.1 + 0.85 = Rs 15.87 Million

Sewerage Annual O&M

1. Staff pay
Monthly
Annual cost
Sr No. Position Number Salary
(Rs Million)
(Rs)
1 Pump operator 6 10,000 0.72
2 Sewermen 10 8,000 0.96
3 Watchmen 5 8,000 0.48
4 Electrician 1 15,000 0.18
5 Plumber 2 15,000 0.36
Sub-Total-1 2.7

237
2. Energy bill
Units
Number of Kilo Watt Pumping Cost*
BHP consumed in
Motors (BHPx0.746) hours (Rs Million)
one year
1 2 4 2x3x4x365
10 5 7.46 18 245,061 4.9
15 5 11.19 8 163,374 3.3
5 1 3.73 12 16,337 0.3
15 1 11.19 8 32,675 0.7
20 1 14.92 6 32,675 0.7
Sub-Total-2 9.8
*Cost of electricity adopted = Rs 20 per unit

3. Cost of diesel at disposal station

Motor rated power 20 HP Motor Rating with Pump

Convert HP to Kilo Watts (KW) (10 x
Power (P) 14.92 KW
.746)

Convert Kilo Watts (KW) to Kilo Volt

Power (P) 18.65 KVA Ampere (KVA) (14.92/ 0.8); 0.8 is
Power Factor

DG set will be selected at 20% more

Diesel generator rating 22.38 KVA load as DG set operates at 80%
efficiency

Nearest standard model available in

Selected DG capacity 25 KVA
the market

Running at 100% load (Take

Diesel consumption 6 Liters/Hour consumption information from
manufacturer
DG running hours per
2 Hours Daily running of DG set
day
Total daily diesel
12 Liters Hours x Consumption of diesel
consumption
Liters x Rate of diesel (Assumed Rs.
Total daily cost 1008 Rs.
84/Liter)
Annual cost 367,920 Rs.
Annual cost 0.37 Rs. Million

238
 4. Repairs charges
Cost 5% of cost 1% of cost
(Rs Million) (Rs Million) (Rs Million)
Pumping
machinery and
DG set 21 1.05
Civil Structure 80 0.8
Sub-Total-3 1.85

Total annual O&M for sewerage = Staff + energy + diesel + repairs

= 2.7 + 9.8 + 0.37 + 1.85 = Rs 14.72 Million
It may be noted that energy cost is the major component in the overall O&M expenditure.
The next is the staff pay.

18.2 PUMPS

18.2.1 Water supply

In water supply, either vertical turbine or submersible pumps are used. In case of vertical
turbine pumps, if the water table is at a considerable depth, pumps having long column pipes are
essentially used. Since the motor is installed in the pump house and pump is under water, it is
rotated through a shaft extending from motor to pump. Vertical turbine pumps are water lubricated
i.e. the rubber bush along the column pipe shaft must be watered before starting the pump. For
this purpose, a small drum, filled with water, is attached with the discharge head of pump. Before
starting the pump, the drum is drained into the column pipe to wets all the rubber bushes.
Afterwards, pump is started. If water lubrication is not done, the rubber bush wears very quickly
due to abrasion of shaft rotating at a high speed (either 1450 or 2900 rpm) and early repair is
needed.
Water lubrication is not required in case of submersible pumps; as motor and pumps are
coupled together. The operator must observe for any unusual sound or vibration in the pumping
machinery. Pump repairs are usually outsourced to manufacturer or any pump repair shop having
proficiency in this task.

18.2.2 Sewerage

Submersible pumps are mostly used these days. In case of manual operation of pumps,
constant attendance of operator is essential. Pumps have to be switched on and off depending
upon the amount of incoming sewage in the wet well. In case of any negligence of operator, the
sewage may pond up in wet well, above the invert of pipe coming from screening chamber. This

239
may result in surcharging of sewer lines upstream. Sometimes, the pump may run dry, which
results in serious damage to pump.
To avoid above complications, auto startup and shutdown system are usually employed
these days. The pump startup and shutdown is connected with sewage level in the wet well. In
case of high flows into wet well, both pumps are put on. In case of low flows, when the sewage
level goes down, the pump with high discharge is automatically shut down and the pump with
average flow is kept in operation. It relieves constant attendance of the operator. If requested,
pump manufacturer provides for all necessary controls in the pumping machinery. However, these
provisions must be taken in specifications and bidding documents. It is much beneficial, if
specifications for pumping machinery are finalized in consultation with renown pump
manufacturer’s representative.

18.3 COMMON MAINTENANCE ISSUES

18.3.1 Water supply

Common issues encountered during operation of water supply system include: breakdown
of pumping machinery, leakages in water transmission lines/rising main and distribution system,
contamination of water due to leakages or cross connection with sewer lines and low pressure in
certain areas. In order to sort these out, field investigations are essential to identify the cause and
later suggest appropriate solution.

18.3.2 Sewerage

Common issues encountered in sewerage system are: blockage in sewer pipe resulting
in manhole surcharging and ponding in the area, breakdown of pumps at sewage pumping station,
poor maintenance and cleaning of street inlets that result in street ponding. Minor blockage may
be removed by rodding, while major blockage requires sucking and jetting machines. Regular
inspection of sewer lines may be made for proactive maintenance and avoiding problems to
magnify.

 Occurrence of odours and gases in sewer collection system.

Biological transformation of solids present in sewage gives rise to certain gases which
may be odourous. Most important of these is hydrogen sulfide (H2S). It has a characteristic rotten
egg smell and is extremely toxic, and corrosive [3]. It is also a potential threat to the sewermen
working inside the collection system or manholes for maintenance and repair purposes. The
minimum concentration known to have caused death is 300 ppm while 3000 is quickly fatal [4].
Methane (CH4) may also be produced, which may be explosive, if exposed to a flame. Hence
sewermen must be careful in this regard. The issue of gas production is more pronounced in hot
climate.

240
 Control measures to reduce odour and gas problems include: (1) proper design of
collection system and (2) by providing sufficient ventilation in the collection network [4, 5]. Proper
design includes maintaining sufficient grades to have a minimum of 2 ft/sec velocity in sewers.
Lower velocities result in more quantities of H2S [6]. It is reported that the buildup of H2S is more
in smaller diameter sewers as compared to larger pipes [7]. Although the gases, especially H2S
remain emitting from the flowing sewage; their release from sewage is more at points of
turbulence. The point of turbulence are points where there is an intersection of sewers. In straight
line sewers, there is minimum turbulence [4]. For the ventilation of H2S from the collection system,
sewer ventilation shafts are provided with cross sectional area at least half of area of sewer. It
must be tall enough to extend above the nearby roof, releasing odourous gases at sufficient
height.

 Crown corrosion in sewer pipes

As discussed above, biological reaction in sewage generates hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In

fact, SO4-2 present in wastewater are converted in H2S under anaerobic conditions [3]. Very low
velocities in sewer cause these conditions. H2S gas is released from solution and enters the
atmosphere above sewage in the sewer pipe. The amount present in the atmosphere is directly
related to the concentration of aqueous hydrogen sulfide. A very low concentrations of H2S gas
in solution, for example 1mg/L, can produce a concentration of hundreds of ppm by volume in air
[8]. After hydrogen sulfide has escaped into the sewer atmosphere, it accumulates at the sewer
crown. Because the sewer walls are usually damp, hydrogen sulfide from the sewer atmosphere
will immediately be taken up as it comes in contact with these damp surfaces. Hydrogen sulfide
retained in this dampness is then converted to sulfuric acid by bacteria [9]. However, this reaction
will be· limited by the moisture and the presence of oxygen.
H2S + 2O2 Bacteria H2SO4

Sulfuric acid reacts with the RCC pipe and slowly results in eroding of concrete. Ultimately,
the pipe collapses at the crown. It is referred to as crown failure/corrosion. The whole process is
shown in Fig. 18.1.

241
 Figure 18.1: Process of crown corrosion in RCC pipe [9]

18.4 SCADA

SCADA is the abbreviation of Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. The key
words give some insight into what SCADA would be. It starts with “supervisory”, means
supervision; control shows that it also controls somethings; data acquisition means to read and
acquire data. In summary, SCADA means a software that is used to control hardware/equipment
through a communication system and read and acquire data from the hardware/equipment.
Equipment may be a water pump, wastewater pump, a valve, voltmeter, ampere meter and the
like in a water supply or sewerage system. SCADA is essentially used where automation and
remote control are required; like, industrial processes, transport, food and beverage industry,
paper mills, power sector, water supply and sanitation works etc.
SCADA is the most efficient mean of managing water supply and sewerage systems. It
also stores data, shows trends, generates reports and establishes a central command center of
an extended/large water supply and sewerage system. It reduces staffing requirement and
improves level of service. It is not possible to run efficiently very large water supply and sanitation
systems without SCADA [10-12].

18.4.1 Components of SCADA system

The components of SCADA system are shown in Fig. 18.2. First component is the SCADA
server on which SCADA software is installed. This server is connected through the second
component i.e. communication system to the third component i.e. field equipment (which is

242
composed of sensor, actuator and control) [13, 14]. Thus, SCADA server can interact with the
field equipment through a communication system. Communication system may be Ethernet or
Satellite based. Ethernet is wired while satellite is wireless. SCADA server reads what is
happening in the field i.e. whether pump is shut off or running, valve is open or close, what is the
level of wastewater in the wet well, what is the level of water in the OHR etc. All the information
is displayed in the control room. It is used to take decisions regarding pump shutdown/startup,
valve opening/closing and numerous others.
The third component i.e. field equipment contain: (1) sensor; (2) actuator and (3) control.
Sensor senses the input physical quantity. Sensor could be pressure, temperature, flow or level
sensor. Actuator is the one that controls the quantity. Actuators could be pumps, valves or
motors. Control is the PLC (Programable Logic Control) that contains the algorithm of controlling
the actuator. PLC is a hardware. It reads the sensor physical signal, solves the algorithm and give
the controlled output. Similarly, it also receives signal from the SCADA server and executes the
command; say shut down a pump etc.

2. Communication 3. Field
1. SCADA Server System Equipment
(Control Center) (wired or wireless) (Sensor, actuator
and Control)

Figure 18.2: Three components of a SCADA system

Operations of water supply and sewerage system usually involve periodic

startup/shutdown of pumps and open/closing of valves, monitoring water levels in OHRs and
trigger operation of pumps when water level goes beyond a certain fixed level. In large systems
(with many pumps, valves and spanning over large area) manual operations can never be optimal.

243
It is very difficult to get exact information about which pump is in operation, operate pumps in the
most economical way, take timely measures to divert flow from one water supply zone to the
other, if the latter is facing water shortage or pressure issues.
SCADA addresses all above issues. SCADA may give the following functionalities:
1. Provides a central place where status of all pumps, valves, water levels in OHR etc.
can be monitored graphically.
2. Remote startup and shut down of pumps from control room.
3. Remote opening/closing of valves from control room.
4. Ringing of auto alarms in case of emergency
5. Provides facility of data logging (time of operation of pumps, time for which a valve
remains open/close, recording of flow rates at pumps, voltage and amperage of
pumps, water levels in wet wells and OHRs etc.)
6. Monitor supply of electricity from national grid and switch to alternate energy source
(diesel generator), if required.
7. Operate standby pump at sewage pumping station on alternate days and ensure that
all pumps are in operation at peak sewage flows.
8. Triggering alarm in control room, in case the fuse of a motor blows off.
9. Stagger stopping of pumps (i.e. shut down one by one after some specified period).
10. Monitoring of motor voltage, amperage and power consumption at control room.
11. Multi-use support (remote monitoring of water supply and sewerage system through
internet); even on a mobile phone.
All or selected functionalities, mentioned above, may be obtained through SCADA.

Fig. 18.3 shows a simple network controlled by SCADA. In it, two field equipment i.e. a
pump and valve are being controlled. PLC-1 is used for pump and PLC-2 for valve and to read
water level in the tank. As soon as the water level in the tank reaches a predefined level, the pre-
programmed PLC-2 opens the valve. When level goes down a pre-defined level, PLC-2 closes
the valve. Both pieces of information are received in SCADA control room showing the status of
valve (open/close). Similarly, when the water level goes down to a pre-defined level, the PLC-1
startups the pump and shuts it down when water tank is about to fill. The pump and valve status
and level of water in tank, all is being observed in SCADA control room that may be several Km
away from these installations. Both pump and valve may be controlled by a person, sitting in the
SCADA control room.

244
 Figure 18.3: A simple water supply system controlled by SCADA

18.4.2 Requirements of SCADA host software

The computer used to install SCADA host software must have requisite specifications. It
is advisable to take a life time license of the software, which normally is economical. Software
must have provision for future expansion i.e. to take care of additional pumps to SCADA software,
without any addition to the software or future licensing needs.
It is desirable to add web server software on SCADA Server computer for access to
SCADA interface through internet by any computer or smart phone, even outside the control
center. A single or multiple LCDs may be used to configure graphical display of all field equipment
to be monitored. It is essential to support SCADA server with UPS with a backup time of at least
30 minutes [15, 16].

18.4.3 Security issues

The biggest security issue with SCADA, especially those which are connected with
internet, is of the security. Any hacker may get in and shut down the whole system. Hence the
vendor providing the SCADA system may be advised to put in a strong security system [17, 18].

245
18.4.4 Companies providing SCADA

There are many SCADA system companies that give services in Pakistan. Internet may
be the best source to find one. To name a few:
1. Encosyst
2. SCADA International A/S
3. ENKO Electronic Control Systems
4. Siemen
5. Schneider

18.5 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY (OHS) ISSUES

During construction and operation of water supply and sewerage projects, the workers
involved face some health and safety risks. Unfortunately, these are often neglected by the
contractor as well as the executing agency. Resultantly, the workers and sometimes the general
public also suffer a lot. This negligence may result in minor to fatal accidents and sometimes even
loss of life. Hence, it is necessary to delineate briefly occupational health and safety (OHS) issues
during construction and operation phase. Environmental engineers must ensure that all necessary
measures are taken related to OHS [19-22].

18.5.1 Water supply

Construction: Trenches are excavated during laying of transmission and distribution

pipes. These trenches must be barricaded with the help of reflector tape to avoid falling of any
passerby into it. Road signs, showing the trench work is in progress, must be displayed at
sufficient places for the information and awareness of the public. The work must be completed
within the shortest possible time as trench excavation causes traffic congestion/blockage and dust
problems [23]. Water sprinkling must be done regularly to keep the air borne dust, due to
excavation, to a minimum [24].
To avoid traffic congestion, due to excavation in congested streets, alternate routes must
be provided to the traffic and pedestrians. Signs with “road/street close; use alternate route” must
be installed at sufficient places. Proper signage for showing and guiding people about alternate
routes must also be erected at site.
The workers engaged in excavation, pipe laying and other related works must be provided
with personal protective equipment (PPE) like helmet, safety boots, gloves, reflective jackets
necessary for their safety during the work [25]. Figure 18.4 shows the personal protective
equipment.

246
 Figure 18.4: Personal protective equipment (PPE); cap, boots, gloves
During the construction of overhead reservoir (OHR), the workers working at height must
be provided with full body harness as a safety against accidental falls [26]. All the gadgets, used
to move the workers at height, must be properly checked against any malfunctioning. Workers
must be educated about safety measures while working at height.
Operation: Mostly, pump operators are exposed to electric shocks due to the presence
of electrical appliances in the pump house. All wiring must be concealed. There may be no open
circuits, switches or extensions in the pump house [27].

18.5.2 Sewerage

Construction: Trench excavated for a deep sewer is hazard for passerby, traffic and the
workers. Therefore, these must be barricaded [28]. Deep trenches must be provided with proper
shuttering (support) to avoid caving and resulting any injury to the labour working in the trench.
Proper traffic diversion must be provided and information regarding it must be clearly displayed
for the people as illustrated in Figure 18.5. Information that sewer work is in progress must be
displayed with the help of sign boards. Alternate routes must be provided to avoid traffic
congestion and public inconvenience. Signage about alternate routes must be placed at site.
Construction material must be properly stored at a suitable place where it poses no hazard
to the free flow of traffic and people. Labour should wear reflective jackets while working at night.
Proper lighting arrangement be made to avoid any night accidents.

247
 Figure 18.5: Work area barricaded and diversion signs installed
Manhole ditch must also be barricaded. The work may be completed in the shortest
possible time. Workers must be provided with essential PPE. Workers orientation on OHS issues
must be done. At site, temporary electric connection must be done by a qualified electrician. No
stray and open wiring should be allowed at the work site. Any electric extensions must be
enclosed to avoid electrocution.
Operation: All sewermen must be provided with PPE (protective boots, gloves, helmets
and other essential PPE as per work requirement) while on work. H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas in
manhole is highly toxic and becomes fatal for sewermen descending into, for the purpose of
cleaning. Hence, manhole must be kept open for sufficient time allowing hazardous gases to
escape. Sewermen must be provided with breathing equipment for safety against H2S, while
descending and working in the manholes [29].
Chances of electrocution (death due to electric shock) at sewage pumping stations must
be reduced by keeping wiring and electric equipment in proper conditions. Pump operators must
be given awareness to save themselves from electric shocks [27].

REFERENCES

1. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (2015), Preparation of master plan for water supply,
sewerage and drainage system for Lahore: Vol IV - Sewage collection and disposal
system: Capacity analysis and framework requirements.

2. J. Parwaz, Executive Engineer PHED Punjab, (2016), Operation and maintenance

estimates for water supply and sewerage systems in Punjab, [Personal communication].

3. Alken Murray Corp., (2017), The nature of sulfide compounds and their formation.
Accessed on: 25-07-2017, Available at: [http://www.alken-
murray.com/H2SFrameSet.html]

248
4. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw Hill Inc., USA: p. 61.

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1985), Design manual "odor and corrosion control
in sanitary sewerage systems and treatment plants".

6. Tony Palmer, Paul Lagasse and Maureen Ross, (2000), Hydrogen sulfide control in
wastewater collection system. Accessed on: 14-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.roadsbridges.com/hydrogen-sulfide-control-wastewater-collection-systems]

7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1974), Process design, manual for sulfide control
in sanitary sewerage systems.

8. J. Kane, (2014), Hydrogen sulphide gas in sewers –the challenges of odour and corrosion,
39th Annual WIOA Queensland Water Industry Operations Conference and Exhibition
Logan Metro Indoor Sports Centre, Logan 3 to 5 June, 2014: p. 75-81.

9. M. L. Davis, (2010), Water and wastewater engineering: Design priciples and practice,
McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

10. NPTL, (2012), Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). Accessed on: 23-07-
2017, Available at: [http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108106022/LECTURE%208.pdf]

11. Schneider Electric Telemetry & Remote SCADA Solutions, (2012), White paper on
SCADA systems overview.

12. Control Manual, E-Book, (2015), SCADA: Applications and case studies. Accessed on:
3-06-2018, Available at: [http://controlmanuals.com/files/Automation/SCADA-Systems-
p1.html]

13. J. D. McDonald, (1993), Developing and defining basic SCADA system concepts, Papers
presented at the 37th annual conference , 25-27 April 1993 in Rural Electric Power
Conference.

14. National Communication System Virginia USA, (2004), NCS technical information bulletin

15. J. Marcuse, B. Menz and J. Payne, (1995), Servers in SCADA applications, Industry
Applications. in Thirteenth IAS Annual Meeting, IAS '95., Conference Record of the 1995
IEEE 1995.

16. A. Rizwan, (2017), SCADA Expert, [Personal communication].

17. J. Dagle, (2005), Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) introduction.
Accessed on: 26-07-2017, Available at:

249
 [http://www.science.smith.edu/~jcardell/Readings/TRUST%20US/2005_09_15_Jeff_Dag
le.pdf]

18. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) USA, (2006), Guide to supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) and industrial control systems security.

19. Health and Safety Executive, (1996), Working with sewage: A guide for employers.
Accessed on: 23-07-2017, Available at: [http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg198.pdf]

20. N. J. Brown, (1997), Health hazard manual: Wastewater treatment plant and sewer
workers.

21. International Labour Organization (ILO) Geneva, (1998), Encyclopedia of occupational

health and safety, Volume-2. 4 ed.

22. OSHA USA, (2011), Field safety and health manual. Accessed on: 16-07-2017, Available
at: [https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/Directive_pdf/ADM_04-00-001.pdf]

23. OSHA USA, (2013), OSHA’s proposed crystalline silica rule: Construction. Accessed on:
25-07-2017, Available at: [https://www.osha.gov/silica/factsheets/OSHA_FS-
3681_Silica_Construction.v2.pdf]

24. OSHA USA, (2005), Workers safety: Construction. Accessed on: 15-07-2017, Available
at: [https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3252.pdf]

25. OSHA USA, (2004), Personal protective equipment. Accessed on: 23-07-2017, Available
at: [https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3151.pdf]

26. OSHA USA, (2011), Fall prevention. Accessed on: 24-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_v/fallprevention.pdf]

27. OSHA USA, (2008), Electric safety in the workplace. Accessed on: 23-07-2017, Available
at: [https://www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy09/sh-18794-
09/electrical_safety_manual.pdf]

28. OSHA USA, (2015), Trenching and excavation. Accessed on: 26-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha2226.pdfhttps://www.osha.gov/Publications/osh
a2226.pdf]

29. OSHA USA, (2013), Guidelines for safely entering and cleaning vessel sewage tanks.
Accessed on: 3-08-2017, Available at:
[https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA_FS_3587.pdf]

250
 ANNEX-1
RCC sewer pipes reinforcement as per ASTM C-76 specifications

251
 ASTM RCC PIPES C-76 SPECIFICATION
RCC PIPE CLASS II - WALL B
Notes:
The strength test requirements in pound per linear foot of pipe under the three edge bearing method shall be either the D-Load (test load expressed in pounds
per linear foot per foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01 inch crack,or the D-Loads when the pipe fails and it is referred to as the ultimate load as specified below
D-Load to produce a 0.01 inch Crack = 1000
D-Load to produce the ultimate load = 1500
The minimum compressive strength of the concrete shall be as shown in this table

CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI

CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

WALL
INTERNAL
THICKNESS INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE
DIA. (D)
(T)
INCHES
(INCHES) SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF
NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF
BAR BAR BAR BAR
RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS
(INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES)

12 2 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 4 - -

15 2¼ 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 4 - -

18 2½ 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 4 - -

21 2¾ 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

24 3 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

27 3 ¼ 1/4 25+3 - - 1/4 6 - -

30 3½ 1/4 25+3 - - 1/4 6 - -

33 3¾ 1/4 26+3 - - 1/4 7 - -

36 4 1/4 25+1 3/16 26+1 1/4 7 1/4 8

42 4½ 1/4 25+1 1/4 22+1 1/4 8 1/4 8

252
 CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI

CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

WALL
INTERNAL
THICKNESS INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE
DIA. (D)
(T)
INCHES
(INCHES) SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF
NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF
BAR BAR BAR BAR
RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS
(INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES)

48 5 1/4 30+1 1/4 23+1 1/4 9 1/4 9

54 5½ 3/8 19+1 1/4 27+1 1/4 10 1/4 10

60 6 3/8 18+1 3/8 17+1 1/4 10 1/4 10

66 6½ 3/8 23+1 3/8 17+1 1/4 10 1/4 12

72 7 1/2 17+1 3/8 19+1 3/8 10 3/8 12

Figure: Single cage reinforcement and other details of 12 inch diameter RCC pipe

253
Figure: Double cage reinforcement and other details of 36 inch diameter RCC pipe

254
 ASTM RCC PIPES C-76 SPECIFICATION
RCC PIPE CLASS III - WALL B
Notes:
The strength test requirements in pound per linear foot of pipe under the three edge bearing method shall be either the D-Load (test load expressed in pounds
per linear foot per foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01 inch crack,or the D-Loads when the pipe fails and it is referred to as the ultimate load as specified below
D-Load to produce a 0.01 inch Crack = 1350
D-Load to produce the ultimate load = 2000
The minimum compressive strength of the concrete shall be as shown in this table

CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI

CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

WALL
INTERNAL
THICKNESS INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE
DIA. (D)
(T)
(INCHES)
(INCHES) SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF
NO. OF NO. OF NO.: OF NO.: OF
BAR BAR BAR BAR
RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS
(INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES)

12 2 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 4 - -

15 2¼ 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

18 2½ 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

21 2¾ 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

24 3 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

27 3¼ 1/4 28+3 - - 1/4 6 - -

30 3½ 1/4 31+3 - - 1/4 6 - -

33 3¾ 1/4 35+3 - - 1/4 7 - -

255
 CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI

CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

WALL
INTERNAL
THICKNESS INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE
DIA. (D)
(T)
(INCHES)
(INCHES) SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF
NO. OF NO. OF NO.: OF NO.: OF
BAR BAR BAR BAR
RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS
(INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES)

36 4 1/4 28+1 1/4 22+1 1/4 7 1/4 8

42 4½ 1/4 35+1 1/4 27+1 1/4 8 1/4 8

48 5 3/8 19+1 1/4 30+1 1/4 9 1/4 9

54 5½ 3/8 22+1 3/8 18+1 1/4 10 1/4 10

60 6 3/8 25+1 3/8 19+1 1/4 10 1/4 10

66 6½ 3/8 30+1 3/8 23+1 1/4 10 1/4 12

72 7 1/2 20+1 1/2 17+1 3/8 10 3/8 12

256
 ASTM RCC PIPES C-76 SPECIFICATION
RCC PIPE CLASS IV - WALL B
Notes:
The strength test requirements in pound per linear foot of pipe under the three edge bearing method shall be either the D-Load (test load expressed in pounds
per linear foot per foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01 inch crack,or the D-Loads when the pipe fails and it is referred to as the ultimate load as specified below
D-Load to produce a 0.01 inch Crack = 2000
D-Load to produce the ultimate load = 3000
The minimum compressive strength of the concrete shall be as shown in this table

CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI

CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

WALL INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE
INTERNAL
THICKNESS
DIA. (D)
(T) SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF
(INCHES) NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF
(INCHES) BAR BAR BAR BAR
RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS
(INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES)

12 2 3/16 25+3 - - 3/16 4 - -

15 2¼ 3/16 30+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

18 2½ 1/4 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

21 2¾ 1/4 34+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

24 3 3/8 25+3 - - 3/16 5 - -

27 3¼ 3/8 25+3 - - 1/4 6 - -

30 3½ 3/8 27+3 - - 1/4 6 - -

257
 CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI

CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

WALL INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE INNER CAGE OUTER CAGE
INTERNAL
THICKNESS
DIA. (D)
(T) SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE OF
(INCHES) NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF
(INCHES) BAR BAR BAR BAR
RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS RINGS+BELLS
(INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES) (INCHES)

33 3¾ 3/8 24+1 1/4 33+1 1/4 6 1/4 6

36 4 3/8 24+1 1/4 36+1 1/4 6 1/4 8

42 4½ 3/8 26+1 3/8 22+1 1/4 8 1/4 8

48 5 1/2 19+1 3/8 24+1 3/8 8 1/4 8

54 5½ 1/2 21+1 1/2 18+1 3/8 8 3/8 8

60 6 1/2 25+1 1/2 19+1 3/8 10 3/8 10

66 6½ 5/8 18+1 1/2 22+1 3/8 10 3/8 10

72 7 5/8 21+1 1/2 25+1 3/8 10 3/8 10

Additional information/directions
1. Bell and spigot joints will be used from 12" internal diameter (i/d) to 24"i/d size with rubber gasket.
2. Tongue and groove joints will be used for 27" i/d and above.
3. In case of single cage reinforcement, the position of steel reinforcement shall be at the center of the thickness of pipe, in no
case the cover shall be less than one inch from outer surface of the pipe.

258
4. Ooverlaps have not been considered because circular rings are to be manufactured with the help of welding by providing an
over lap of two inches (2") for sound welding.
5. Adequate numbers of straight rods have been provided to hold the circular reinforcement in tact, each straight rods shall be
welded at every spot where it touches/crosses the circular reinforcement(rings).
6. In case of joints the angle of tapper on the conic surfaces of the inside of the bell or groove and the outer surface of the spigot
or tongue should be 8 deg measured from a longitudinal trace on the inside surface of the pipe.

259
 SUBJECT INDEX

Gravity well ...................................................................... 51

A
H
Aquifer .............................................................................. 50
Hazen William coefficient for different pipe materials .... 86
B Head losses in pipes ......................................................... 85
House connection from water supply ............................ 112
Back calculation tables.................................................... 159 Hydraulic grade line ......................................................... 51
Building connection with municipal sewer ..................... 195

I
C
Impurities in water and their effects .............................. 121
Catch basins .................................................................... 193 Infiltration ...................................................................... 141
Cone of depression ........................................................... 51 Infiltration galleries .......................................................... 52
Conversion chart ............................................................... 61 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves .................... 222
Crown corrosion in sewer pipes...................................... 241 Invert level ..................................................................... 142
Carry over .................................................................. 166
D Investigations for suitable water source
Groundwater source ................................................... 48
Deep wells (Tube wells) .................................................... 54
Surface water source ................................................... 71
Design (D) loads for three edge-bearing test ................. 174
Design criteria
Bar screen .................................................................. 204 L
Sewerage ................................................................... 148 Lead time.......................................................................... 21
Water supply ................................................................ 30 Leakage detection in pipes ............................................. 112
Design of tube well ........................................................... 61
Design period .................................................................... 20
M
Different water uses ......................................................... 16
Drop manhole ................................................................ 189 Maintenance issues
water supply and sewerage ....................................... 240
E Major tests of tube well ................................................... 59
Manhole details.............................................................. 187
Economy of scale .............................................................. 21 Manhole spacing ............................................................ 151
Environmental Protection Act........................................... 26 Manholes........................................................................ 144
Manning’s equation ....................................................... 150
F Minimum sewer size ...................................................... 144

Force main for sewage .................................................... 213

N
G National drinking water policy ......................................... 25
National drinking water quality standards ..................... 124
Gravel packing around tube wells..................................... 58

260
 O Components .............................................................. 199
Design considerations ............................................... 200
Occupational health and safety ...................................... 246 Typical sections ......................................................... 200
Oil and grease traps ........................................................ 194 Where provided ........................................................ 199
Operational cost Sewer appurtenences..................................................... 187
Water supply and sewerage ...................................... 235 Sewer construction - steps ............................................. 180
Overhead reservoir ..................................................... 34, 95 Sewer design - Hydraulic statement............................... 164
balancing reservoir ...................................................... 95 Sewer design - steps ....................................................... 157
Sewer joints .................................................................... 178
P Sewer profiles................................................................. 169
Sewer slopes to maintain self cleansing velocities ......... 143
Peak factor for sewage flow ........................................... 149
Sewer under water ......................................................... 178
Per capita sewage flow ................................................... 141
Sewerage systems
Per capita water consumption .......................................... 30
Types ......................................................................... 140
Perched water table ......................................................... 50
Sewers flowing partially full ........................................... 161
Population projection
Shallow wells .................................................................... 53
Arithmatic growth method .......................................... 39
Software for storm sewers ............................................. 226
Geometric growth method .......................................... 40
Springs .............................................................................. 70
Graphical method ........................................................ 41
Storm water allowance in sewers .................................. 150
Logistic method............................................................ 40
Strata chart....................................................................... 61
Potable water ................................................................. 118
Street Inlets - types ........................................................ 190
Pressure well..................................................................... 51
Surface water sources
Protecting water quality ................................................. 120
Design considerations for intake ................................. 72
Pumps for sewage........................................................... 212
Inlets for surface water sources .................................. 72
Pumps for water supply .................................................... 62
intake structure ........................................................... 72
Pump curve .................................................................. 63
Location of intake ........................................................ 72
Submersible pump ....................................................... 65
Vertical turbine pump .................................................. 64
T
R Three edge bearing test ................................................. 173
Time of concentration .................................................... 221
Radius of circle of influence .............................................. 51
Transmission mains or rising mains
Rational formula
Choice of pipe material ............................................... 86
Assumptions............................................................... 219
design equation ........................................................... 83
Rational method for storm flows .................................... 219
L-Section ...................................................................... 84
RCC pipes-quality test ..................................................... 173
Velocities ..................................................................... 83
Return period .................................................................. 223
Tube well construction ..................................................... 55
Runoff coefficient (C) for storm flows............................. 220
Tube well troubles ............................................................ 62
Tube wells
S Components ................................................................ 54

SCADA ............................................................................. 242 Types of wells ................................................................... 51

components ............................................................... 242

Self-cleansing velocity in sewers ..................................... 143 U
Sewage composition ....................................................... 138
Unaccounted for water .................................................... 16
Sewage pumping stations

261
 V Methods of distribution .............................................. 92
Type of valves used ................................................... 101
Variations in water consumption ...................................... 18 Types of pipes used ..................................................... 96
Velocities in sewers ........................................................ 143 Water hammer in transmission lines
calculations .................................................................. 87
W control measures ......................................................... 88
Definition ..................................................................... 87
WASH .................................................................................. 3
Water quality.................................................................. 118
Wastewater disposal methods ....................................... 230
Water quality monitoring framework ............................ 126
Wastewater engineering .................................................... 2
Water related diseases ................................................... 119
Wastewater reuse
Water requirements in buildings ..................................... 31
Agronomic aspect ...................................................... 232
Water source protection .................................................. 75
History........................................................................ 231
Hand pumps/shallow wells ......................................... 76
Public health risks associated .................................... 231
Springs ......................................................................... 75
WHO guidelines ......................................................... 232
Tube wells.................................................................... 77
Water conservation guide ................................................ 10
Water supply engineering .................................................. 2
Water distribution system
Water table ...................................................................... 50
Components ................................................................. 92
WATSAN ............................................................................. 2
Design procedure ....................................................... 105
Wet well
Disinfection of pipes .................................................. 109
operating volume ...................................................... 208
Hydraulic testing ........................................................ 110

262