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ECE 543
Broadcast Engineering
and Acoustics
BROADCASTING
- the airborne transmission of electromagnetic audio

(radio) or audio-visual signals (television) that are
readily accessible to a wide population via standard
receivers.
- an undertaking the object of which is to transmit audio,
video, text, images or other signals or messages for
reception of a broad audience in a geographical area via
wired or wireless means. (R.A. 9292)
AM BROADCAST STANDARDS
Parameters Philippine Standard International Standard
Frequency Band 535 to 1605 kHz 535 to 1605 kHz
No. of Channels 118 107
Bandwidth per Channel 9 kHz 10 kHz
Permitted Bandwidth 30 kHz 30 kHz
Channel Spacing 36 kHz(4 channels apart) 30 kHz(3 channels apart)
Center Frequency ± 20 Hz ± 20 Hz
Stability
Baseband Frequency 50 to 15000 Hz 50 to 15000 Hz
Type of Modulation AM AM
Type of Emission A3E A3E
Guard band 36 kHz 36 kHz
Antenna Polarization Vertical Vertical
Type of Receiver Super Heterodyne Super Heterodyne
Intermediate Frequency 455 kHz 455 kHz

MAXIMUM POWER ALLOCATIONS IN KW:
Area Low Band Mid Band High Band

(525 to 918 kHz) (919 to 1312 kHz) (1313 to 1705 kHz)
Metro Manila 10 20 20
Metro Cebu 10 20 20
Metro Davao 5 10 15
AM ANTENNA SYSTEM:
Antenna Design Considerations
• The transmitting antenna system shall be vertically polarized

and shall radiate an effective field of not less than that of a 60
degree vertical radiator.
• The antenna, antenna lead-in, and counterpoise shall be
installed so as not to present hazard.
The components of a folded Uni-pole antenna
Types of Electrical Hazard:
1.) Lightning – an electrical discharge which occurs between
clouds and also from cloud to earth.
2.) Power Contact/Induction- process by which voltage,
electrostatic charge or magnetic field is produced in an object
by lines of force.
3.) Acoustic Shock – results from abnormally high sound level,
the physical effects of which may vary from minor discomfort
to serious injury.
4.) Electric Shock – current through the body rather than voltage
of the circuit determines electric shock intensity. Voltage is
significant only in so far as it is one of the factors
determining the magnitude of the current.
Protection Methods:
1.) Shielding – the provision of a grounded electrical conducting
material located such that foreign potential will be
intercepted and surge currents diverted to ground
with the least damage to plant equipment
possible.
2.) Voltage Limiting – prevents development of hazardous
potential difference in communication plant by
direct bonding, when permissible or by use of
surge arresters, discharge gaps, diodes, etc. which
operate under abnormal voltage condition.
Protection Methods:
3.) Current Limiting and Interrupting – current in a circuit can be

kept from rising above a pre-determined value by the use
of a fuse in series with a circuit. When current flows
through a fuse for a specified time with a magnitude
greater than its rating, the fuse will interrupt the current.
4.) Grounding and Bonding – used to divert undesired currents

before they reach the equipment being protected and
often are installed both and at some distance away
from the protected equipment.
Protection Methods:
• Ground Resistance – the resistance path of a ground connection

which includes the ground wire and its connection to ground
electrode. The ground electrode, the contact between the
electrode and the earth and the surrounding soil.
• This value should NEVER EXCEED 5.0 OHMS FOR EQUIPMENT
LOCATIONS, ANTENNA TOWERS, AND ALL ALLIED
INSTALLATIONS, AND 25 OHMS FOR OUTSIDE PLANT
TELEPHONE POLES AND MANHOLES AS WELL AS CUSTOMER
PREMISES.
Protection Methods:
• Made Ground – an electrode buried in the ground for the

purpose of establishing a low resistance electrical contact with
the earth.
• Ex: driven rods, driven pipes, buried plates, buried cones or
other similar devices placed in the ground.
Methods and Materials:
1.) Lightning Rods – a metal strip or rod, usually of copper or
similar conductive material, designed to protect
tall or isolated structures (such as the roof of a
building or the mast of a vessel) from lightning
damage.
2.) Fuses and Current Interrupting – a device used in electrical
systems to protect against excessive current.
3.) Surge Arresters – normally open-circuited devices and pass
no significant current at normal operating
potentials.
Methods and Materials:
4.) Grounding and Bonding – provides certain level of safety

to humans and property in case of equipment
damages.
Measurements:
1.) Ground Resistance Test Methods – measurement
procedures that is simple and straight forward and
the instruments are mostly direct reading.
Methods for Ground Resistance Measurements:

a. Direct Method or Two-terminal test
b. Fall of potential method or three-terminal test
c. Voltmeter-ammeter method.
d. Triangulation method
Measurements:
2.) Earth Resistivity – the resistance of parallel faces of a one
cubic centimeter of soil, expressed in
ohm-centimeter.
Determining Good Electrode Location:
1.) Drive rods in various locations to such depths as may be
required and measure the resistances while the loads are
being driven.
2.) Measure the earth resistivity driving ground rods then
calculate the number and length of rods required.
How to Improve Grounds:
1.) Lengthen the ground-electrode in the earth
2.) Use multiple rods
3.) Treat the soil when 1 and 2 are not feasible
AM TRANSMITTER
Transmitter Location and Layout Considerations:

• Adequate space
• Adequate ventilation and air conditioning
• Adequate lighting
Transmitter Design
Parameters Philippine Standards
Carrier Power Limits 10% of Full Power
Maximum Modulation
for Satisfactory Operation 85%
Operating Frequency Limits ± 10 Hz of assigned Frequency

Carrier Shifts 5%
Carrier Hum and Extraneous Noise Level 45 dB below 400 Hz tone
Total Audio Frequency Distortion < 5% harmonics
(at 0 to 84% modulation)
< 7.5% harmonics
(at 85 to 95% modulation)
Alternate Main Transmitter Considerations
• The regular and alternate main transmitter to be co-
located in a single place.
• Both transmitters shall maintain the same parameters
especially with regards to authorized operating power,
frequency stability among others.
Auxiliary Transmitter Considerations
• They may be installed either in the same location as
the regular main transmitter or in another location.
• Its operating power may be less but never greater than
the authorized power of the regular main transmitter
AM BROADCAST OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
Operating Schedule
• Two-thirds of the total hours that it is authorized to operate

between 6 AM to 6 PM local standard time.
• Two-thirds of the total hours that it is authorized to operate
between 6 PM to midnight local standard time.
AM BROADCAST OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
Operating Log Entries
• An entry of the time the station begins to supply power to

the antenna and the time it stops.
• An entry of the time the program begins and ends.
• An entry of each interruption.
• An entry of the following every 30 minutes:
Operating constants and antenna current.
AM Coverage Mapping and Prediction
Ways of propagating EM waves within earth’s
atmosphere:
1. Ground wave
2. Sky-wave
3. Space wave
• Ground Wave Propagation

A ground wave is a radio wave that travels along the earth’s
surface. It is sometimes referred to as a surface wave.
Concepts involved in Ground-wave propagation:
• follow the curvature of the earth and can therefore travel at
distances beyond the horizon
• must have vertical polarization to be propagated from an
antenna
• must be vertically polarized (electric field vertical) since the
earth would short out the electric field if horizontally polarized.
• Changes in terrain have a strong effect on ground waves. The
ground wave eventually disappears as it moves away from the
transmitter because of tilting.
• Attenuation of ground waves is directly related to the surface
impedance (a function of conductivity and frequency) of the
earth that if the earth’s surface is highly conductive, the
absorption of wave energy, and thus its attenuation, will be
reduced
• much better over water than a very dry desert terrain.
• Ground losses increase rapidly with increasing frequency, hence
ground waves are not very effective at frequencies above 2 MHz
• very reliable communication link because its reception is not
affected by daily or seasonal changes such as with sky wave
propagation.
Radiation from an antenna by means of a ground wave gives rise
to field strength at a distance. This field strength is given as:
where: 120 - characteristic impedance of free space

hT - effective height (not the actual height) of
the transmitting antenna
I - antenna current
d - distance from transmitting antenna
 - wavelength
• If a receiving antenna is now placed at this point, the signal it
will receive will be in volts.
where: 120 - characteristic impedance of free space

hT - effective height (not the actual height) of
the transmitting antenna
hR - effective height of the receiving antenna
I - antenna current
d - distance from transmitting antenna
 - wavelength
• Problem: A 150-m antenna, transmitting at 1.2 MHz (ground
wave), has an antenna current of 8 Ampere. What voltage is
received by a receiving antenna 40 km away, with a height of 2
meters.
AM Broadcast Terminology
• Authorized Frequency – the carrier frequency authorized by
the National Telecommunications Commission (NTC).
• Carrier wave – a sinusoidal voltage or current generated in a
transmitter and subsequently modulated by a
modulating wave.
• Carrier frequency – the frequency of the carrier wave.
• Daytime – refers to that period of time between 2100 GMT to
1000 GMT (5:00 AM to 6:00 PM local standard time).
• Intermittent Service Area – the area receiving service from the
ground wave but beyond the primary service area
and subject to some interference and fading.
• Maximum percentage of modulation – the greatest
percentage of modulation that may be obtained by
a transmitter without producing in its output
harmonics of the modulating frequency in excess of
those permitted by these regulations.
• Maximum rated carrier power – the maximum power at which
the transmitter can be operated satisfactorily and is
determined by the design of the transmitter.
• Night time – refers to that period of time between 1000 GMT
to 2100 GMT (6:00 PM to 5:00 AM local standard
time).
• Operating power – the power that is actually supplied to the
radio station.
• AM Percentage modulation – the ratio of half the difference
between the maximum and minimum amplitudes
of the amplitude wave to the average amplitude,
expressed in percentage.
• Primary service area – the area in which the ground wave
field of 3.16 mV/m (70 dBu) is not subject to
objectionable interference or objectionable
fading.
• Secondary station – a station operating on any one channel
and is designed to render service over a primary
service area which is limited by the subject to
such interference as may be received from a
clear-channel station.
• Spurious emission – the emission of any frequency outside of
the assigned channel or authorized band of
frequency and tolerances allowed by these
regulations.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) – the effective value of the
harmonic voltages present in the audio frequency
output of the equipment under test
• Call signs for Luzon broadcast stations:
DW___ or DZ____
• Call signs for Visayas broadcast stations:

DY___
Call signs for Mindanao broadcast stations:

DX___
High-Level Modulation
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9
1 – RF CARRIER MODULATOR 5 – RF DRIVER

2 – BUFFER AMPLIFIER 6 – RF POWER AMP.
3 – FREQ. MULTIPLIER 7 -- AF AMPLIFIER
4 – RF VOLTAGE AMP. 8 – AF DRIVER
9 – AF POWER AMP.
Purpose of each section in an AM transmitter
(For High-level modulation system)
STAGE PURPOSE INPUT SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL
RF carrier oscillator Creates RF signal None Pure un-modulated sine wave
Isolates oscillator from next stage, helps Pure un-modulated

Buffer amplifier Pure un-modulated sine wave
keep oscillator stable sine wave
Pure un-modulated sine wave at Pure un-modulated sine wave at higher

Frequency multiplier Increases oscillator frequency
oscillator frequency frequency
AF amplifier Amplifies audio signal from microphone Audio signal from

Audio signal with voltage gain
microphone
AF driver Increases audio signal level Audio signal from

Audio signal with power gain
driver
AF modulator Changes amplitude of RF carrier Audio signal

Audio signal
RF voltage amplifier
Increases voltage gain of RF carrier Pure RF sine wave
Pure RF sine wave
RF driver amplifier Prepares RF to operate power amplifier Pure RF sine wave Pure RF sine wave
Drives antenna circuit to produce Pure RF sine wave

RF power amplifier AM waveform
transmitted AM radio-wave and audio
AM RECEIVER
TROUBLESHOOTING AM RECEIVERS
• Signal Tracing Method:
When troubleshooting using the signal tracing method
only a multi-meter and an oscilloscope are needed. The
procedure is as follows:
1. Check the power supply using a volt-meter. If the power
supply is not functioning properly, then nothing on the
receiver stages will work correctly.
2. Go to the “middle” of the system and see if a signal is present
at the output of the IF amplifier. If there is, then this tells you
that all the stages to the left of the IF amplifier output are
working. This means that the problem must be in one of the
stages to the right of the IF amplifier. But if there is NO signal
at the output of the IF amplifier, then the problem must be
left to the receiver.

3. Continue checking each stage until you find a stage with an
input signal but no output signal. This stage is the defective
one.
Signal Injection Method:
To troubleshoot using signal injection method, an RF
generator that can be modulated by an audio tone will be used.
The output frequency of the RF generator must be variable and
can be tuned to represent that of a radio station, local oscillator
or intermediate frequency amplifier.
Similar to the signal tracing method, the first thing to check is

the power supply. If it is working, continue as follows:
1. Inject an audio tone at the input of the audio amplifier. If a
tone is heard at the speaker, then the problem must be to the
left of the audio amplifier.
2. If a tone is not heard, then the problem must be from the

audio amplifier to the speaker. ( See figure)
Problem is in one
of these stages
1 2 3 4
Signal injected Tone at output

here
5 6 7 No tone at output
Signal injected
Here Problem is in one of
these stages
LEGEND:
1. MIXER
2. IF AMPLIFIER
3. DETECTOR
4 . AUDIO AMPLIFIER
5. IF AMPLIFIER
6. DETECTOR
7. AUDIO AMPLIFIER
AM Problems
• A transistor RF power amplifier operating class C is designed to

produce 40 Watt output with a supply voltage of 60 Volts. If the
efficiency is 70%, what is the average collector current?
Let:
Ps – supplied power (W)
Po – output power w/out modulation
Pa – audio power
η – efficiency
Ic – collector current Vcc – supply voltage
AM Problems
• A transistor RF power amplifier operating class C is designed to

produce 40 Watt output with a supply voltage of 60 Volts. If the
efficiency is 70%, what is the average collector current?
Solution:
Po = Ps ÷ η
= 40 W ÷ 0.7 = ______ W
Ic = Po ÷ Vcc = 57.14 W ÷ 60 v
= 952.4 mA
AM Problems
• What is the shape factor of the filter if 10 kHz bandwidth is measured

below 6-dB and 30 kHz below 60-dB?
AM Problems

Let: SF – shape factor
B – bandwidth (dB)
AM Problems

Let: SF – shape factor
B – bandwidth (dB)
Sol’n. SF = B --60 dB / B --6 dB

= 30
KHz / 10 KHz = 3
AM Problems
• An AM transmitter uses high-level modulation. The RF

power amplifier draws 12 A from a 22-volt supply, putting
out a carrier power of 140 watts. What impedance would be
seen at the modulation transformer secondary?
AM Problems

• Let: Vcc – supply voltage
Z – impedance
Ic – collector current
AM Problems

• Let: Vcc – supply voltage
Z – impedance
Ic – collector current
• Sol’n. Z = Vcc / Ic
= 22 volts/12 ampere
Z = 1.83 Ω
AM Problems
• A transmitted signal 5 meters in wavelength is received by

an antenna coil having a 50-ohm resistance and a 0.01-Henry
inductance. What is the capacitance of the tuner shunting
the antenna coil at this point?
AM Problems

• Let: fr – frequency of resonance (Hz)

L – inductance
C -- capacitance
AM Problems

• Sol’n. fr = ___1____
2π √ LC
C =___1___= 0.704 femto Farad

(2πfr)2 L
AM Problems
• An AM receiver uses low-side injection for the local

oscillator, with an IF of 455 kHz. The local oscillator is
operating at 2.1 MHz. What then is the image frequency of
the signal?
Let: fLO – local oscillator (Hz)

fs -- radio freq. signal (Hz)
fi -- intermediate freq. (Hz)
fsi -- freq. of image signal (Hz)
AM Problems
• An AM receiver uses low-side injection for the local

oscillator, with an IF of 455 kHz. The local oscillator is
operating at 2.1 MHz. What then is the image frequency of
the signal?
Sol’n. Low-side injection:

fi = fs -- fLO
fs = fLO + fi
= 2.1MHz + 0.455 = 2.555 MHz
fsi = fs -- 2fi = 2.555 MHz – 2(0.455 MHz)
= 1.645 MHz
AM Problems
• The average collector current of a transistor RF amplifier

operated Class C is 250 mA. If the efficiency of the amplifier
is 60% and operating at 50-volt supply, what is the power
output of the amplifier?
AM Problems

Let: Ps – DC power (no modulation)

Po – output power
Vcc – collector voltage (Volts)
Ic – collector current (Amp)
η -- Efficiency
AM Problems

Sol’n: Ps = Vcc ▪ Ic
= Po ÷ η
Po = η ▪ Vcc ▪ Ic = ( 0.6) ( 50) ( 0.25)
= 7.5 Watt
AM Problems
• An AM transmitter delivers 100 Watt carrier power, when

the supply delivers 8 Amps from a 15-volt supply. How much
power must be supplied by the modulating amplifier for 85%
modulation?
AM Problems

modulation?
• Let:
Ps – DC power (no modulation)
Pa – audio power
Vcc – collector voltage (Volts)
Ic – collector current (Amp
AM Problems

modulation?
Sol’n.: Ps = Vcc ▪ Ic = 15 (8) = 120 Watts
Pa = mA2 • Ps
= [ (0.85)2 ÷ 2 ] (120)
= 43.35 W
AM Problems
• A super-heterodyne receiver tunes at the frequency range

from 25 to 50 MHz. What is the intermediate frequency (IF)
of the receiver if the range of the local oscillator is 10 MHz to
35 MHz?
AM Problems

35 MHz?
Let:
fc – local oscillator freq. (Hz)
fs – signal frequency (Hz)
fi – intermediate frequency(Hz)
AM Problems

35 MHz?
Sol’n.: fo = fs ± fi
AM Problems

35 MHz?
Sol’n.: fo = fs ± fi since:
AM Problems

35 MHz?
Sol’n.: fo = fs ± fi since: fs > fo,

AM Problems

35 MHz?
Sol’n.: fo = fs ± fi since: fs > fo, thus low-side

injection is applied.
AM Problems

35 MHz?
Sol’n.: fo = fs ± fi since: fs > fo, thus low-side

injection is applied.
Therefore, fo = fs – fi
fi = fs -- fo = 25 MHz – 10 MHz
= 15 MHz
AM Problems
• A tuned transformer has a kopt = 1.5kc operating at a

frequency of 455 kHz. The primary Qp is 65 and the
secondary QS is 75. What is the bandwidth of the tuned
transformer?
AM Problems

transformer?
Let: kc – critical coupling factor

kopt – optimum coupling factor
Qp – quality factor of primary
QS – quality factor of secondary
fc – resonant frequency
AM Problems

transformer?
Req’d.: BW (bandwidth of transformer)?

AM Problems

transformer?
Sol’n.: kc = 1 ÷ √ Qp• QS = 1 ÷ √ (65)(75)

AM Problems

transformer?
Sol’n.: kc = 1 ÷ √ Qp• QS = 1 ÷ √ (65)(75) = 0.00143

AM Problems

transformer?
Sol’n.: kc = 1 ÷ √ Qp• QS = 1 ÷ √ (65)(75) = 0.00143
since: kopt = 1.5kc = 1.5(0.0143)

AM Problems

transformer?
Sol’n.: kc = 1 ÷ √ Qp• QS = 1 ÷ √ (65)(75) = 0.00143
since: kopt = 1.5kc = 1.5(0.0143) = 0.0286

AM Problems

transformer?
BW = kopt • fc
= 0.0286 (455 KHz)
= 13.013 Hz
AM Problems
• A receiver has two uncoupled tuned circuits before the

mixer, each with a Q of 75. The signal frequency is 100.1
MHz and IF is 10.7 MHz. If the local oscillator uses high-side
injection, what is the image rejection ratio in dB?
AM Problems

• Let: IR – image freq. rejection ratio

Q – quality factor
fs – signal frequency (Hz)
fi – intermediate frequency(Hz)
AM Problems

• Req’d: fSi – image frequency(Hz)

AM Problems


Sol’n.:
AM Problems


Sol’n.: IR(dB) = 20 log √ 1 + Q2ρ
AM Problems


Sol’n.: IR(dB) = 20 log √ 1 + Q2ρ
= 20 log √ 1 + (75)2(0.39)
AM Problems


Sol’n.: IR(dB) = 20 log √ 1 + Q2ρ
= 20 log √ 1 + (75)2(0.39)
= 29.33 dB
FREQUENCY MODULATION
FM BROADCASTING
Parameters Standards
Bandwidth per Station 200 kHz
Frequency Separation Not less than 800 kHz
Frequency Range 88 MHz to 108 MHz
Number of Stations 100
Maximum Deviation 75 kHz
Pilot Subcarrier 19 kHz± 2 Hz
Intermediate Frequency 10.7 MHz
ITU Emission type F3E (Mono)

F8E (Stereo)
FM BROADCASTING
Parameters Standards
Pre-Emphasis 75 μsec time constant

Antenna Polarization Horizontal or circularly-polarized
Type of Receiver Superheterodyne
Intermediate Frequency 10.7 MHz
Guard band 25 kHz above upper sideband
25 kHz below lower sideband
Baseband Frequency 50 to 15000 Hz
FM CLASSES (RP STANDARD)

Parameters Class A Class B Class C Class D
Minimum
Transmitter Power 10 kW 1 kW _ _
Maximum
Authorized Power 15 kW 10 kW _ 10 kW
EIRP 125 kW 30 kW 1 kW _
Antenna Height 2,000 ft 500 ft _ _
Area Metro Cebu Any Any Any

Metro Manila
Authorized FM Transmitter Power Outputs
Studio-to-Transmitter Link Remote Pick-up Broadcast Communications

BAND (STL) Station Coordination and Control
Link
A 15 W 35 W 100 W
B 15 W 35 W 160 W
C 15 W 35 W 160 W
D _ _ 200 W
FM Broadcast Frequency Allocation
FMn = FM1 + (n – 1) BW
Where: FM – channel frequency in MHz

FM1—frequency of the 1st FM channel (88.1 MHz)
n – channel number
BW – channel bandwidth (200 kHz)
Classes of FM Broadcast Stations
• Class A -- a station shall have an authorized transmitter power

not exceeding 25 kW and an ERP not exceeding 125 kW and
limited in antenna height of 2000 feet above average terrain.
The minimum transmitter power shall be 10 kW.
• Class B -- a station shall have an authorized transmitter power
not exceeding 10 kWatt and an ERP not exceeding 30 kW and
limited in antenna height of 500 feet above average terrain. The
minimum transmitter power shall be 1 kW.
Class C -- a non-commercial, community station having an
authorized radiated power ERP not exceeding 1kW.
• Class D – an Educational station having an authorized
transmitter power not exceeding 10 Watts.
• ERP - Effective Radiated Power --The product of the
transmitter power multiplied by power
gain or square of the field gain
• ERP = PT x GT or ERP = PT x GF
What is the difference between FM and AM
radio?
• AM broadcasting is simpler than FM but the difference in
complexity and price are very marginal at present.
• AM is more prone to signal distortion and degradation compared
to FM.
• FM doesn’t degrade linearly with distance.
• AM usually broadcasts in mono which makes it sufficient for talk
radio.
• FM can transmit in stereo making it ideal for music.
• AM has a longer range than FM.
Advantages of FM over AM
• Less radiated power.

• Low distortion due to improved signal to noise ratio
(about 25-dB) with respect to man-made interference.
• Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations.
• Well defined service areas for given transmitter power.
• Quality of music is better heard in FM because the bandwidth of an
FM radio station is about 200 kHz and the maximum audio frequency
broadcast is 15 kHz.
Disadvantages of FM over AM
• Much more bandwidth (as much as 20 times over AM).

• More complicated receiver and transmitter.
How to Design a Radio Station
1. Perform research about currently available radio stations. Make

notes about their format, style and schedule, and write a list
about their strengths and weaknesses. Keep a file of all the
information you collect throughout the steps for reference.
2. Become familiar with how radio stations are operated.
Volunteer at a local network, hospital or community radio
station or college station to do this. Understand how they
operate, what equipment is needed and the management
system in place that enables the station to function.
3. Decide what type of music your station will play. Jazz,

rock, classical or rock are just a few musical styles available.
Choose the audience at which you want to aim the schedule
and programming. For example, your audience may be teens,
college grads or listeners 55 and older. This effects the tone
of the presenters and style of the station.
4. Choose where and how to broadcast the station. You can

rent an office and set up a transmitter (although this may be
costly), or you could broadcast solely over the Internet. It is
possible to stream your music over a hosting site such as
spacialaudio.com, live365.com or talkshoe.com.
6. Write a schedule. Plan what content the station will feature.

A site such as talkshoe.com is purely speech based
programming so allocate different subjects, presenters and
styles to different days. If you follow a format similar to
spacialaudio.com, which streams music, decide the order of
the music you want to play so that it flows smoothly
together.
7. Draw a floor plan if you are going to have a base for the
station. The basic things you need are a soundproof studio,
computer, mixing desk, microphone, music library and
transmitter. Make a list alongside the plan about the
equipment you need to obtain.
8. Collect the information about the station and review the
information. Review the details you have chosen and check
that the project is cohesive. For example, there is no point
creating a design if your budget is PhP 50,000. This project
would be better suited to the online domain.

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ECE 543

- the airborne transmission of electromagnetic audio

Frequency Band 535 to 1605 kHz 535 to 1605 kHz

No. of Channels 118 107

Bandwidth per Channel 9 kHz 10 kHz

Permitted Bandwidth 30 kHz 30 kHz

Channel Spacing 36 kHz(4 channels apart) 30 kHz(3 channels apart)

Type of Emission A3E A3E

Guard band 36 kHz 36 kHz

Antenna Polarization Vertical Vertical

Type of Receiver Super Heterodyne Super Heterodyne

Intermediate Frequency 455 kHz 455 kHz

Area Low Band Mid Band High Band

Antenna Design Considerations

• The transmitting antenna system shall be vertically polarized

3.) Current Limiting and Interrupting – current in a circuit can be

4.) Grounding and Bonding – used to divert undesired currents

• Ground Resistance – the resistance path of a ground connection

• Made Ground – an electrode buried in the ground for the

4.) Grounding and Bonding – provides certain level of safety

Methods for Ground Resistance Measurements:

Transmitter Location and Layout Considerations:

Operating Frequency Limits ± 10 Hz of assigned Frequency

• Two-thirds of the total hours that it is authorized to operate

• An entry of the time the station begins to supply power to

• Ground Wave Propagation

where: 120 - characteristic impedance of free space

where: 120 - characteristic impedance of free space

• Call signs for Visayas broadcast stations:

Call signs for Mindanao broadcast stations:

1 – RF CARRIER MODULATOR 5 – RF DRIVER

RF carrier oscillator Creates RF signal None Pure un-modulated sine wave

Isolates oscillator from next stage, helps Pure un-modulated

Pure un-modulated sine wave at Pure un-modulated sine wave at higher

AF amplifier Amplifies audio signal from microphone Audio signal from

AF driver Increases audio signal level Audio signal from

AF modulator Changes amplitude of RF carrier Audio signal

Drives antenna circuit to produce Pure RF sine wave

left to the receiver.

Similar to the signal tracing method, the first thing to check is

2. If a tone is not heard, then the problem must be from the

Signal injected Tone at output

• A transistor RF power amplifier operating class C is designed to

• A transistor RF power amplifier operating class C is designed to

• What is the shape factor of the filter if 10 kHz bandwidth is measured

• What is the shape factor of the filter if 10 kHz bandwidth is measured

• What is the shape factor of the filter if 10 kHz bandwidth is measured

Sol’n. SF = B --60 dB / B --6 dB

• An AM transmitter uses high-level modulation. The RF

• An AM transmitter uses high-level modulation. The RF

• An AM transmitter uses high-level modulation. The RF

• A transmitted signal 5 meters in wavelength is received by

• A transmitted signal 5 meters in wavelength is received by

• Let: fr – frequency of resonance (Hz)

• A transmitted signal 5 meters in wavelength is received by

C =___1___= 0.704 femto Farad

• An AM receiver uses low-side injection for the local

Let: fLO – local oscillator (Hz)

• An AM receiver uses low-side injection for the local

Sol’n. Low-side injection:

• The average collector current of a transistor RF amplifier

• The average collector current of a transistor RF amplifier

Let: Ps – DC power (no modulation)

• The average collector current of a transistor RF amplifier

C =_1_= 0.704 femto Farad