Chapter 1

An Overview of the Project

1.1 Background
With the development of cities and towns, concrete has become more and more
extensively used as a construction material worldwide. Of all the building and
construction materials available, concrete remains one of the most economical
and widely used materials. Nothing, so far, has taken its place.

Properties that characterize concrete are its high strength, excellent durability
and limitless flexibility. If the mix design and construction techniques are properly
executed, and the quality of the concrete complies with the requirements, it is
possible to produce structures with colourful, smooth or textured surface finishes
that will satisfy any of the demands of modern architecture. Such a structure will
need no other decorative material – concrete can be used not only for the
structure, but also as a decorative material.

Considering that there are thousands of available aggregates, an almost limitless

range of forming and texturing techniques, together with pigments and cements it
is possible to produce hundreds of different coloured concretes, and surface
finishes in an endless range of colours, textures and shapes. Increasingly,
architectural concrete is being used to give expression to the architect’s
imagination and innovation.

In general, techniques for improving the aesthetics of concrete can be divided

into five categories: as-cast, abrasive blasted, chemically surface retarded,
mechanically fractured and combination [1].

Each of these categories has its own technique and appearance. With
developing technology there is better understanding of architectural concrete.
However, architectural concrete may contain some defects. Some imperfections
are acceptable in a concrete finish, while others will require some form of repair.
In addition, time and environment will impact on the structure and surface of the

16
 concrete, resulting in cracks, damaged areas and discolouration (Figure 1).
These kinds of defects also require some form of repair.

Figure 1: Damaged concrete surface (RAU)

There are currently many repair methods available. Which one would best suit
the project in question? How can the best result be obtained? After long term
exposure outdoors, will the patching area aesthetically remain acceptable and
compatible? How does one ensure that the colour and textures match? How does
one ensure structural quality? There is still a need for more work and research to
be done on repairing architectural concrete.

1.2 Problem Statement

In the field of rehabilitating concrete surface areas, four aspects need to be
considered:
- Analysis of the cause of architectural concrete failure and choice of an
appropriate repair method
- Selection of the repair materials
- The mix design
- The repair process and protection
A small error in any of the aforementioned may result in failure.

17
1.2.1 The causes of architectural concrete failure
Almost all concrete, including architectural concrete, contains defects, such as
[35]
blowholes or bugholes, cracks, discolouration . The detail causes for
blowholes or bugholes refer to chapter 3.3, the detail causes for cracks refers to
chapter 3.5, and the table 1 classify the causes for discolouration.

The same factors that are attributable to concrete failure, are also attributable to
architectural concrete failure. Detailed below are the more commonly occurring
causes of failure:
- Permeability of the concrete cover leading to corrosion of the steel and
spalling
- Mechanical obstruction to the free expansion and contraction of the
structure leading to thermal shrinkage cracks
- Freeze and thaw effects on the surface
- Differential settlement beneath the structure leading to excessive strain on
the joints
- Re-distribution of chemicals and crystal growth
- Absence of drainage gradient on horizontal surface leading to rain
collection
- Diurnal thermal stresses in times of hot sun
- Shock waves
- Fatigue due to thermal stresses or load stresses
- Bad workmanship
Table 1: Causes of discolouration of concrete
Design
Mixing
Workmanship Forming
Discolouration Curing
Moisture
Environment Temperature
Chemical exposure
UV rays
Efflorescence

18
1.2.2 Damage to concrete
At the same time, one has to accept that all concrete structures deteriorate with
time. In addition, the effect of the environment, accidents and other factors can
also damage architectural concrete (Table 2). It is thus easy to understand that
corrective action is very important for architectural concrete.

Table 2: Causes of damage to concrete

Over loading
Accident
One time event Fire
Damage Earthquake
Continual Design error
Inadequate use of
Environmental effects

1.2.3 Remedial process

The remedial process normally consists of seven steps:[1] [2]
- Identifying the cause of the damage
- Removal of the above mentioned cause
- Mix design and colour selection of the patching material
- Preparing the area to be patched
- Mixing
- Applying the patch mix
- Curing

1.2.4 The selection of repair materials

Architectural concrete patches must match the colour and texture of the
surrounding area. The patching material (not taking into account any additives)
must be the same or similar to the material used in the original concrete.

1.2.5 Mix design

The mix design of repair mortar not only influences the strength of the concrete,

19
 but also influences the matching of the concrete surface colour.

A variety of possible solutions can be found in a host of different publications

when colour matching is important in the project.

a. ‘If the original matrix was made with grey cement, an amount of white cement
normally must be added to the patching mix to duplicate the original colour.
The amount of white cement to be added varies, and must be determined
experimentally, substitutions of 25% of grey cement has been reputed.’[2]

b. Perez recommends experimenting with three different blends, using 10%,

30%, 50% white cement substitution[3].

c. Smoak states that ‘Where uniform colour is important, white cement may be
used in sufficient amount (as determined by trial) to produce uniform
appearance.’[4]

d. Already in 1967, the company Bayer AG recommended that ‘Shallow patches

may be filled with mortar using a 50:50 mix of grey and white cement in the
design of the patching mix.’[5]

Which of the abovementioned extracts provides an exact answer to the question

of what percentage of white or grey cement should be added to patching mortar,
when colour matching with the existing concrete is important?

1.2.6 Repair process

Making trial specimens: When the mix design is completed, a series of trial
coloured mixes need to be made and placed in the pre-cut holes in the mock-up[3].
They must all be cured for at least 14 days and preferably 28 days then the best
one chosen, based on certain criteria. The colour of the repaired area changes
[14]
after three or four months . However, for the time-pressed project manager,
waiting one or three months might not be feasible.

20
 The question of how to choose the best trial specimen in a short period of time
then arises and remains a challenge.

Mixing: When mixing, the quantity of clean water is important. A small change in
the quantity of water will result in a different shade of colour. The mixing steps
also are important. Different steps result in different shades. Some bonding
agents can be added to improve the workability of the concrete, but this must be
done with care since bonding agents can also result in colour variations.

Application: The mixture should be applied so that it has the same compaction
as the surrounding material. Different densities of mortar result in different
absorption of moisture leading to colour variation. Another important factor is the
elastic modulus. The higher the elastic modulus, the higher the w:c ratio might
be; the higher the voids ratio, the lighter the colour will be.

Forming: Forming material may also cause discolouration (see Chapter 4.9). It is
important to use the same forming material that was used initially to ensure
aesthetical compatibility.

Curing: During the curing period, an important factor is to keep moisture content
at an acceptable level. Improper curing can cause discolouration and drying
cracks, such as leave the patching area under the sunshine when it is still fresh
or short of the curing time.

1.2.7 Environment
For architectural concrete surfaces exposed to the outdoors, environment plays a
major role in influencing the concrete surface. Weathering (UV radiation,
moisture and temperature) can change the surface of concrete (discolouration
and cracks). The top layer or cement skin is worn away. This process can be
[14]
described as erosion . This degradation cause colour changes. Dirt and other
deposits also can change the colour of the surface. Efflorescence shows as a
white deposit on the concrete surface. Cyclic freeze-thaw conditions, alkali-
aggregate reaction, sulfate exposure, may all cause cracks.

21
 Many environmental factors cause discolouration, cracks and damage, making it
important to research the appropriate corrective action.

1.3 The purpose of the research

In the architectural concrete repair field, architectural concrete patches must
match the surrounding area in terms of colour and texture as far as possible.

The concrete surface texture is achieved by a combination of formwork,

mechanical assistance, and skilled workmanship to hand-texture the concrete.

For exposed aggregate, the texture is created by the aggregate itself, and the
colour is also mainly determined by the aggregate (Figure 2). When repairing
concrete with an exposed aggregate finish, the same or similar aggregate must
be used. However, as Figure 2 shows, the base colour of the cement grout can
also influence the colour of the surface.

Base
Basecolour exposed
colour exposed
Exposed aggregate surface
(densely packed aggregate)
Cement past
Cement past

Aggregate

Exposed aggregates loosely packed

Figure 2: Exposed aggregate finish: base colour of cement grout can also
influence the colour of the surface

It is practically impossible to produce a concrete surface that is completely

uniform in colour, even more so for repairing a concrete surface. To produce a
similar colour or the same degree of variation in a profiled or textured surface is
still a substantial problem for engineers and architects. This problem applies not
only to coloured concrete, but also to as-cast concrete (Figure 3), especially for

22
 historical and aesthetically important structures.

Figure 3: Producing the same colour to match the surrounding

area is a considerable problem for engineers and architects (RAU)

The effects of nature and time are reflected on the surface of architectural
concrete. Figure 4 demonstrates another big problem - how to make the newly
patched area look similar in age to the surrounding area - a rather important
aspect when repairing historical structures.

Figure 4a: Patched area Figure 4b: Area that does not require
patching (RAU)

How is aging achieved? Although there have been trial and error approaches in the
past, the expected result has not been obtained. It is necessary that an effective

23
repair method for architectural repairs is urgently found.

This research is akin to a doctor trying to solve skin problems for concrete.

Considering the above, the purpose of this research is this to investigate repair
methodologies for architectural concrete by doing a series of experiments and tests,
and using a colourimetric method to analyse the appearance of the repair mortar, in
order to find an aesthetically accurate repair system for concrete.

Accordingly, this research project specifically addresses the following:

- Analysis of how the colour of the concrete surface changes during the first six
months.
- The repair method for patching young concrete surfaces (age less than 4
months).
- The repair method for patching old concrete surfaces (age greater than 3
years).
- Changing the colour of the concrete surface and aging the surface of the
repaired area, to match the original area.

1.4 Layout of the research

1.4.1 Literature
A literature review was performed on the following subjects:
- Architectural concrete
- The cause of damage to concrete
- The concrete repair system and process
- The architectural concrete repair method
- CIELAB colour system, colourimetric method
- Classification (young concrete & old concrete)
(strength & colour)
(combination)

1.4.2 Experimental design

In designing the experimental process, the following was considered:

24
- Fair face and coloured concrete sample design
- Patching mix design
- Patching process design
- Colour selection
- Testing and measuring
- Colourimetric evaluation

1.4.3 Experimental process

The experimental work involved the following:
a. Use of the colourimetric method to analyse how the concrete surface
colour changes during the first six months.
b. Analysis of the relationship between colour variation and mix proportion
of patching mixed mortar, to establish a suitable method for rehabilitating
young architectural concrete (< 4 months) surface in an aesthetic way.
c. Use of colourful rock dust, mineral pigments and epoxy resin to make
repair mortar for patching aged concrete surfaces. Establishing the
method for patching old architectural concrete surface (>3 years). This
method is aimed at matching an aged surface colour, which is especially
useful when rehabilitating historic buildings.
d. Using a chemical stain method to change the concrete surface colour,
and to age a colour to match the surrounding area. This provides a
new method for existing repair projects where there is difficulty in
matching the colour.

1.4.4 Experiment program

The organogram in figure 5 present an overview of the experiment program.

25
 Methodology for aesthetic repair and rehabilitation
of architectural concrete

An aesthetic repair method for young An aesthetic repair method for old concrete
concrete (< 4 months) (>3 years)

How concrete Research of an Research of an How to change and

surface colour aesthetic repair aesthetic repair rapidly ‘age’ the
changes during the method for patching method for patching surface colour of
first 6 months young concrete old concrete concrete

Figure 5 : Organogram of experiment program

1.4.5 Testing
Various parameter tests were performed (details see chapter 6), these included:
- Colour measurement of concrete surface
- Slump test (workability)
- Compressive strength test
- Bonding strength test (slant shear test)
- Weathering test (UV ray and moisture)

1.4.6 Analysis
During the analysis of the experimental results, the following were concentrated on:
- Analysis of how the concrete surface changed colour during the first six
months.
- Comparison of each patched area of one batch and quantitive analysis of the
variation of shade in order to find the best repair mortar for patching the young
concrete.
- Establishing the optimal methods and procedures for the whole of the
patching process.

26
- Establishing the relationship between colour variation and the mix proportions
of the patching mortar, seting up the colour coefficient and the colour influence
coefficient.
- Finding a new method to change the surface colour and to age concrete
surfaces.
- Finding the best method for repairing old concrete surfaces.

27