Review of Basic Semiconductor Physics

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 1

 Current Flow and Conductivity
Area = A
• Charge in volume Adx = dQ dx = v dt

= q n A d x = q n A vdt
• Current density J = (dQ/dt)A-1 Electrons moving
Current with velocity v
=qnv Density
= J

• Metals - gold, platinum, silver, copper, etc.

• n = 1023 cm-3 ; s = 107 mhos-cm

• Insulators - silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide

• n < 103 cm-3 ; s < 10-10 mhos-cm

• Semiconductors - silicon, gallium arsenide, diamond, etc.

• 108 < n <1019 cm-3 ; 10-10 < s < 104 mhos-cm

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 2

 Thermal Ionization
broken bond

-
• Si atoms have
thermal vibrations ionized
about equilibrium silicon
atom
+
point.

• Small percentage of
Si atoms have large +
enough vibrational
energy to break -
covalent bond and free
electron
liberate an electron.

covalent bond
neutral silicon atom

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 3

 Electrons and Holes

• T3 > T2 > T1 -
A
t = T1
• Density of free electrons
= n : Density of free
holes = p
• p = n = ni(T) = intrinsic generation of B
B
carrier density.
- +
• ni2(T) = C exp(-qEg/(kT )) A
= 1020 cm-6 at 300 °K t = T
2
• T = temp in °K
• k = 1.4x10-23 joules/ °K recombination of B apparent
movement
• Eg = energy gap = 1.1 eV
-
of "Hole"
in silicon
A
•q= 1.6x10-19 coulombs t = T
3

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 4

 Doped Semiconductors

• Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors:p = po ≠ n = no ≠ ni

• Carrier density estimates:
• Law of mass action nopo = ni2(T)
• Charge neutrality Na + no = Nd + po

• P-type silicon with Na >> ni: • N-type silicon with Nd >> ni:
po ≈ Na , no ≈ ni2/ Na no ≈ Nd , po ≈ ni2/ Nd
extra valance

empty
- electron

-
bond

A D

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 5

 Nonequilibrium and Recombination
• Thermal Equilibrium - Carrier generation = Carrier recombination
• n = no and p = po

• Nonequilibrium - n > no and p > po

• n = no + dn and p = no + dn ; dn = excess carrier density
• Excess holes and excess electrons created in equal numbers by breaking of covalent
bonds
• Generation mechanisms -light (photoelectric effect), injection, impact ionization

• Recombination - removal of excess holes and electrons

• Mechanisms - free electron captured by empty covalent bond (hole) or trapped by
impurity or crystal imperfection
• Rate equation: d(dn)/dt = - dn/t
• Solution dn = dn (0) e -t/t
Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 6
 Carrier Lifetimes

• t = excess carrier lifetime

• Usually assumed to be constant. Changes in two important situations.
• t increases with temperature T
• t decreases at large excess carrier densities ; t = to/[1 + (dn/nb)2 ]

• Control of carrier lifetime values.

• Switching time-on state loss tradeoff mandates good lifetime control.
• Control via use of impurities such as gold - lifetime killers.
• Control via electron irradiation - more uniform and better control.

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 7

 Current Flow
Drift Diffusion
dn dp
+ +
-
-
e
J
+ p
- Jn

+
-
- +

x x
+ V -
• Jdiff = Jn + Jp = q Dndn/dx - q Dp dp/dx
• Jdrift = q µn n E + q p µp E
• Dn/mn = Dp/mp = kT/q ; Einstein relation
• µn = 1500 cm2/V-sec
for silicon at
room temp. and Nd < 1015 cm-3 • D = diffusion constant, m = carrier mobility
• µp = 500 cm2/V-sec for silicon at
room temp. and Na < 1015 cm-3 • Total current density J = Jdrift + Jdiff

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 8

 PN Junction

metallurgical junction

P N

N N ND
ND A
A

N N
A A

x x
- N
D - N
D

Step (abrupt) junction Linearly graded junction

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 9

 Formation of Space Charge Layer

metallurgical
junction x
• Diffusing electrons and holes ionized ionized
leave the region near acceptors donors
metallurgical junction depleted
of free carriers (depletion P + N
region). + +
Electric
field
- opposing

• Exposed ionized impurities - + diffusion

Diffusing
form space charge layer.
electrons + +
Diffusing
holes
+
-
• Electric field due to space + +
charge opposes diffusion.

space charge
layer width = W

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 10

 Quantitative Description of Space Charge Region
r
• Assume step junction.
qN
d

d 2F r x
= - e -x p xn
dx 2
r = - qNa ; x < 0 -qN a

w
r = qNd ; x > 0
E

dF
= - E(x ) x
dx
qNa(x +x p )
E(x ) = e ; - xp <x <0
qNd (x - x n) E max
E(x ) = e ; 0< x < x n

xn
F
Fc = - ÛE(x )dx
ı
x
- xp
Fc
qNax p 2!+!qNd x n2
Fc = - depletion layer
2e

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 11

 Contact (Built-in, Junction) Potential

dF dn
• In thermal equilibrium Jn = q µn n dx + q Dn dx = 0

n(xn)
F(xn)
Dn Ûdn
• Separate variables and integrate ; Û
ıdF = - Ù
µn ı n
F(xp) n(xp)

kT ÈNaNd˘
• F(xn) - F(xp) = Fc = q lnÍ 2 ˙ ; Fc = contact potential
Î ni ˚

• Example

• Room temperature kT/q = 0.025 eV

• Na = Nd = 1016 cm-3 ; ni2 = 1020 cm-6
• Fc = 0.72 eV

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 12

 Reverse-Biased Step Junction
• Starting equations

• W(V) = x n(V) + x p(V) V +

+
qNax p2!+!qNdx n2 P
+
N
• V + Fc = -
2e
+ +
+
• Charge neutrality qNax p = qNdx n Wo
W(V)
F
• Solve equations simultaneously

• W(V) = Wo 1+V/Fc x
F
c

2eFc(Na+Nd) Fc + V
• Wo =
qNaNd
x (V)
n
2Fc
- x p(V)
• Emax = 1!+!V/Fc
Wo

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 13

 Forward-Biased PN Junction

++ N • Forward bias favors

P
+ diffusion over drift.
p-side drift n-side drift
region
W(V) region
Wo
ni 2 qV • Excess minority
ni 2 qV
p n(0) =
Nd
exp(
kT
)
carrier injection into
exp( ) = np (0)
Na kT
both p and n drift
x p n(x) = pn (0) exp(
x
)
regions.
np (x) = np (0) exp(- ) Lp
Ln

np o
p • Minority carrier
no
x diffusion lengths.

!!∞ È ni 2 ˘˙
• Ln = [Dntn]0.5
!-!∞ È
Í ni 2 ˘
˙ Í
Qn = Ú!np (x)dx = q Í np (0)!-! !˙ Qp = !pn(x)dx = q Í p n(0)!-!
Ú !
ÈÎ Na ˚ Î Nd ˙ ˚ • Lp = [Dptp]0.5
0
È 0

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 14

 Ideal PN Junction I-V Characteristics
• Excess carriers in drift regions recombined and thus more must be constantly injected if
the distributions np(x) and pn(x) are to be maintained.
• Constant injection of electrons and holes results in a current density J given by

Qn Qp È Ln Lp ˘ È qV ˘
2
J = t + t = q ni Í + Í ˙
n p N t N t
˙ Í exp( kT )!-!1˙
Î an d p˚ Î ˚

È qV ˘ È Ln Lp ˘
J = Js Í ˙ 2
Í exp( kT )!-!1˙ ; Js = q ni Í + ˙
Î ˚ ÎNatn Ndtp˚

J i
J
v
- Js

v
reverse combined
forward bias bias characteristic v

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 15

 Reverse Saturation Current

• Carrier density gradient

V + immediately adjacent to
+ depletion region causes
+ reverse saturation current to
P N
+ + flow via diffusion.

Wo • Js independent of reverse
W(V) voltage V because carrier
density gradient unaffected by
applied voltage.
np o
p
no
+ • Js extremely temperature
n p (x) p (x) sensitivity because of
n
dependence on ni2(T.)
x
Electric field, J
s
Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 16
 Impact Ionization
-
• E ≥ EBD ; free electron can
acquire sufficient from the field Si
between lattice collisions (tc ≈ - -
10-12 sec) to break covalent bond.
- Si
• Energy = 0.5mv2 = q Eg ; v = q EBDtc
-
-
• Solving for EBD gives Si
2! Eg! m
EBD = Electric field E -
q! tc2
• Numerical evaluation

• m = 10-27 grams, Eg = 1.1 eV, tc = 10-12 sec.

(2)! (1.1)! (1027)

• EBD = = 3x105 V/cm
-19
(1.6x10 )! (10 ) -24

• Experimental estimates are 2-3.5x105 V/cm

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 17