1st Semester SY 2018 – 2019 1st Contact Session

MSEUF – ETEEAP – OFW

NAME: RONIE BOY L. MEDEL INSTRUCTOR: MS. BRENDA DE VEGA

COURSE: BSCE SUBJECT: MKAB 2223

STUDENT ID #: E18-3714 SUBMISSION DATE: SEPTEMBER 23, 2018

Discuss the following:

a. Historical Development of Mechanics
b. Application of Statics
c. Types of Force Systems

A. Historical Development of Mechanics

The first to seriously ponder about the nature of nature were the ancient Greeks.
However, following the Aristotlian views, logic was more important than experiment.
Since it is logical that heavier bodies fall faster to the ground, it necessarily is the case.
For example, an object which is twice as massive as another will reach the ground in
half the time. This faulty perception (as did many others) continued for many centuries.

Modern scientific revolution began in the latter half of the 16th century. The first major
cracks in aristotlian "status quo", came with Nicolaus Copernicus who challenged
Aristo's geocentric view by placing the sun at the "center". His ideas were published in
1543.

Using Tycho Brahe's superb planetary observations, Kepler then improved

Copernicus' picture and derived his famous planetary laws of motion. These were
published in 1609.

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Instruments of Revolutions: Galileo's telescope (at the Florence museum of the history of
science). The discovery of craters on the moon and the four large moons of Jupiter
demonstrated that the heavens are non perfect and that they too are subject to natural law.

Later, Galileo Galilei who is the forefather of experimental physics and

astronomy began experimenting and taking astronomical observations. He found that
the Heavens are not as perfect as previously believed (e.g, by noticing craters on the
moon, or other moons orbiting Jupiter) and he could also quantify for the first time
simple mechanical results, such that the velocity of a ball rolling down an incline
increases in proportion to the square root of time or that objects of different masses fall
at the same speed.

Other contemporary contributions to the scientific revolution are those of the "science
philosophers" Sir Francis Bacon and Giordano Bruno. Bacon's scientific philosophy
is the basis for modern scientific methodology. Namely, drawing knowledge from the
natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses. His
contemporary Giordano Bruno is the first to suggest that even the sun is not at the
center of the universe, that other stars are like the sun and they too may have life
harboring planets. For this and other heresy, he was burned at the stake in 1600.

The greatest theoretical breakthrough was achieved of course with Sir Isaac Newton.
He formulated three basic laws of motion to describe both earthly and celestial objects,
published in his famous "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in 1687 (aka
"Principia" for short). Along the way, he also invented the calculus required to use
these laws. Incidentally, the notation we use today follows the independent derivation
by Leibniz, not the one by Newton.

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Over more than a century following the Newtonian formulation, the notion
of energy slowly evolved. First steps towards the understanding of kinetic energy were
already done by Leibniz, in the late 17th century, but it took many more decades of
thought and experiment by several people to realize that total energy, which includes
mechanical, potential and thermal, is conserved. This equivalent between mechanical
work and heat was independently concluded by Julius Robert von Mayer and James
Prescott Joule, around 1843. A few years later, the idea was generalized by
Hermann von Helmholtz.

In 1786, Lagrange published his formulation for mechanics. Unlike the Newtonian
formalism, Lagrange’s' did not include the notion of force, but instead was based on the
minimization of action, related to kinetic and potential energies. Using the formalism,
many problems which seem hopelessly complicated in the Newtonian formalism
become surprisingly simple.

A few decades later, in 1833, Hamilton published his yet another reformulation of
classical mechanics. It too avoids using the somewhat problematic notion of forces. In
the 20th century, this formalism was the basis for the development of quantum
mechanics.

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B. Application of Statistics

Statistics

 Outline
 Statisticians
 Glossary
 Notation
 Journals
 Lists of topics
 Articles
 Portal
 Category

 v
 t
 e

Statistics is the mathematical science involving the collection, analysis and

interpretation of data. A number of specialties have evolved to apply statistical and
methods to various disciplines. Certain topics have "statistical" in their name but relate
to manipulations of probability distributions rather than to statistical analysis.

 Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods
to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries.

 Astrostatistics is the discipline that applies statistical analysis to the understanding

of astronomical data.

 Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and

observations by means of statistical analysis, and includes medical statistics.

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 Business analytics is a rapidly developing business process that applies statistical

methods to data sets (often very large) to develop new insights and understanding of
business performance & opportunities

 Chemometrics is the science of relating measurements made on

a chemical system or process to the state of the system via application of
mathematical or statistical methods.

 Demography is the statistical study of all populations. It can be a very general

science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population, that is, one that
changes over time or space.

 Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical methods to the

empirical study of economic theories and relationships.

 Environmental statistics is the application of statistical methods

to environmental science. Weather, climate, air and water quality are included, as
are studies of plant and animal populations.

 Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of

populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the
interest of public health and preventive medicine.

 Geostatistics is a branch of geography that deals with the analysis of data from
disciplines such as petroleum
geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, g
eography.

 Machine learning is the subfield of computer science that formulates algorithms

in order to make predictions from data.

 Operations research (or operational research) is an interdisciplinary branch of

applied mathematics and formal science that uses methods such as
mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at optimal or near
optimal solutions to complex problems.

 Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics of

species populations and how these populations interact with the environment.

 Psychometrics is the theory and technique of educational and psychological

measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits.

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 Quality control reviews the factors involved in manufacturing and production; it

can make use of statistical sampling of product items to aid decisions in process
control or in accepting deliveries.

 Quantitative psychology is the science of statistically explaining and changing

mental processes and behaviors in humans.

 Reliability engineering is the study of the ability of a system or component to

perform its required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of
time.

 Statistical finance, an area of econophysics, is an empirical attempt to shift

finance from its normative roots to a positivist framework using exemplars from
statistical physics with an emphasis on emergent or collective properties of
financial markets.

 Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes

mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics,
which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a
force.

 Statistical physics is one of the fundamental theories of physics, and uses

methods of probability theory in solving physical problems.

 Statistical signal processing utilizes the statistical properties of signals to

perform signal processing tasks.

 Statistical thermodynamics is the study of the microscopic behaviors

of thermodynamic systems using probability theory and provides a molecular
level interpretation of thermodynamic quantities such as work, heat, free energy,
and entropy.

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C. Types of Force Systems

 1 INTRODUCTION

2.1 Definition of ‘force’ can be given in several ways. Most simply it can be defined as
‘the cause of change in the state of motion of a particle or body’. It is of course, the
product (multiplication) of mass of the particle and its acceleration.

Force is the manifestation of action of one particle on the other. It is a vector quantity.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE

A Force has following basic characteristics

i) Magnitude

ii) Direction

iii) Point of application

iv) Line of action

Force is represented as a vector .i.e an arrow with its magnitude.

e.g. for the force shown in Fig. 2.1, magnitude of force is 4KN, direction is 40° with the
horizontal in fourth quadrant, point of application is C and line of action is AB.

Fig.2.1 Characteristics of a force

Smaller magnitudes of forces are measured in Newton (N) and larger in kilonewton
(KN).

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2.3 SYSTEMS OF FORCES

When a mechanics problem or system has more than one force acting, it is known as a
‘force system’ or ‘system of force’.

Fig.2.2 Force System

2.3.1 Collinear Force System

When the lines of action of all the forces of a system act along the same line, this force
system is called collinear force system.

Fig.2.3 Force System

2.3.2 Parallel Forces

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Fig.2.4 Force System

2.3.3 Coplanar Force System

When the lines of action of a set of forces lie in a single plane is called coplanar force
system.

2.3.4 Non-Coplanar Force System

When the line of action of all the forces do not lie in one plane, is called Non-coplanar
force system

Fig.2.5 Force System

2.3.5 Concurrent Force System

The forces when extended pass through a single point and the point is called point of
concurrency. The lines of actions of all forces meet at the point of concurrency.
Concurrent forces may or may not be coplanar.

2.3.6 Non-concurrent Force System

When the forces of a system do not meet at a common point of concurrency, this type of
force system is called non-concurrent force system. Parallel forces are the example of
this type of force system. Non-concurrent forces may be coplanar or non-coplanar.

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2.3.7 Coplanar and concurrent force system

A force system in which all the forces lie in a single plane and meet at one point, For
example, forces acting at a joint of a roof truss (see fig.2.6)

P = External force

F1 to F5 = Member forces (internal) RA and RB = Reactions

C = Point of concurrency

Fig.2.6 Coplanar concurrent force system

2.3.8 Coplanar and non-concurrent force system

These forces do not meet at a common point; however, they lie in a single plane, for
example, forces acting on a beam as shown in Fig.2.7:

Fig.2.7 Coplanar non-concurrent force system

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2.3.9 Non-coplanar and concurrent force system

In this system, the forces lie in different planes but pass through a single point. Example
is forces acting at the top end of an electrical pole (see Fig.2.8)

Fig.2.8 Force System

Example 2.1: The tension in the guy wires OA and OB of the electrical pole are 500 N
and 300 N respectively as shown in Fig.2.9. Determine the horizontal and vertical
components of these tensions exerted by the guy wires on the pole at O.

Fig 2.9

Solution: The tensions exerted by the guy wires on the pole at O are acting as shown in
the above figure. The components of each of the forces are determined as given in the
following table:

Cable Force Inclination with x- x-component y-component

axis
P Px = P cos Ө Py = P sin Ө
Ө

OB 500 N tan-1 6/2 = 71.57° 500 cos 71.57° 500 sin 71.57°

= 158.07 N (→) = 474.36 N (↓)

OA 300 N tan-1 6/1.5 = 75.96° 300 cos 75.96° 300 sin 75.96°

= 72.78 N (←) = 291.04 N (↓)

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2.3.10 Non-coplanar and non-concurrent force system

The forces which do not lie in a single plane and do not pass through a single point are
known as non-coplanar and non-concurrent forces. Example is the loads transferred
through columns to the rectangular mat foundation as shown in Fig.2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Non-coplanar non-concurrent force system

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