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EXERCISE NOTES
gm
Physics 2 nd Year
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Ali Raza
9
73
a1
az
ir
al
 Electrostatics
QUESTIONS
1
12

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12.1. The potential is constant throughout
oughout a given region of space.
space Iss the electric field is zero or non-zero
in this region?

Ans The electric field will be zero in the given region of space.

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Reason
The electric field
ld intensity at a point can also be defined as negative potential gradient of that point
i.e.

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∆V
E=-
∆r
gm
In other words, electric field intensity is the rate of change of potential with distance while negative
sign shows the direction of E along the direction
direction of decreasing potential. Since
Since, potential V is
constant throughout the region, so we can say;
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∆V = 0

Therefore,
9

0
E=-
∆r
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or

E=0
a1

Hence, we can say that if potential is constant throughout the given region of space then electric
field will be zero in this region.
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12.2. Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge
charge. Do electric field and the
potential increases or decreases?
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Ans Both the electric field and the potential will decrease.
Reason
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If we follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge, then it

means that we are moving away from it as shown in the figure. Thus,
the distance from the charge increases.
q q
E=k V=k
r2 r
Or Or

1 1
E∝ V∝
r2 r

As it is clear from above relations that both electric field and potential will decrease due to increase
of distance from positive charge.
12.3. How can you identify that which plate of a capacitor is positively charged?

Ans A device called Gold Leaf Electroscope

lectroscope (GLE) detects the presence of
charge on a body.
Identification:
As we know, the disc of gold leaf electroscope is positively charged.
There may be following two cases:
Case I:
When we touch the disc with any plate of capacitor and the divergence
of the gold leaves decreases
creases, then it means the plate of capacitor is
negatively charged.
Case II:
When we touch the disc with any plate of capacitor and the divergence

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of the gold leaves increases, then it means the plate of capacitor is
negatively charged.

12.4. Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed between parallel plates;
(a) with
ith similar and equal charges.

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(b) with
ith opposite and equal charges.

Ans We placed the positive charge between the plates and deduced following
following results;

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(a) Similar and Equal Charges
When a positive charge is placed between parallel plates with similar + +
and equal charges, then the net force on the charge will be zero. Thus,
gm
the value of resultant electric intensity E is zero because the electric + +
intensity E1 due to one plate is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction of electric intensity E2 due to other plate i.e. + + +
E = E1 – E2 = 0
+ +
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Hence, the net force on the positive charge is zero. Thus, it will remain at
+ +
rest.
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(b) Opposite and Equal Charges

harges
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When a positive charge is placed between parallel plates with opposite + -

and equal charges, then the value of resultant electric intensity E will be;
+ -
a1

E = E1 + E2
+ + -
It is because the electric intensity E1 due to one plate is equal qual in
magnitude but in same direction of electric intensity E2 due to other plate. + -
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Hence, the net force on the positive charge will be from positive to
negative plate. Thus, it will be accelerated towards negative plate.
+ -
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12.5. Electric lines of forces never cross each other. Why?

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Ans Electric lines of forces never cross each other.

other
Reason:
Electric field lines reveal information about the direction
and the strength of an electric field within a region of
space. If the lines cross
ross each other at a given location,
then there must be two distinctly different values of
electric field with their own individual direction at that
given location. This could never be the case.
Therefore, the lines representing the field cannot cross
eachh other at any given location in space.
space
Concisely, if they did cross, they would represent a
location with two different strong electric field vectors,
something that cannot exist in nature.
12.6. If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with field lines pointing in the
same direction, will it make a rectilinear motion?

Ans Yes, it will make a rectilinear motion.

Reason:
Rectilinear motion is defined as a motion along a straight line. If a
point charge q of mass m is placed in a non-uniform electric field, it
moves along the field lines. However, in the present case, the field
lines are pointing in the same direction i.e. radially outward due to
positive point charge +q, it will experience a repulsive force.
Hence, the e charge will make rectilinear motion along the field lines
outward due to force of repulsion.

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12.7. Is E necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if balloon is spherical? Assume that charge is
distributed uniformly over the surface?

Ans Yes, E⃗ is necessarily

cessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon, if balloon is spherical
spherical.

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Proof:
Imagine a Gaussian surface inside the balloon. Then it does not enclose any charge i.e. q = 0.
Applying Gauss’s law, we have
q Gaussian

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ϕe =
εo Surface
Therefore,
ϕe = 0
gm
Since,
ϕe = E⃗ . A⃗
or
E⃗ . A⃗ = 0
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Then we can say, here,

(i) A⃗ ≠ 0
(ii) E⃗ = 0
9

Hence, electric field will be zero inside a spherical balloon.

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12.8. Is it true that Gauss’s law states that the total number of lines of forces crossing any closed surface
in the outward direction is proportional to the net positive charge enclosed within surface?
a1

Ans Yes, it is true that Gauss’s law states that the total
total number of lines of forces crossing any closed
surface in the outward direction is proportional to the net positive charge enclosed within surface
surface.
Proof:
According to the Gauss’s law, the flux i.e. the number of electric field lines through a closed surface,
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is 1/εo times the net charge enclosed in it.

it
1
Flux = x total charge enclosed
εo
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or
Flux = constant x total charge enclosed
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or
Flux α total charge enclosed
It follows that the total number of electric field lines through a closed surface is directly proportional
to the net positive charge enclosed in it.

12.9. Do electrons tend to go to region of high potential or of low potential?

Ans Electrons tend to go to the region of high potential.

Reason:
The electrons are negatively charged particles.
particles. When they enter the electric field, they tend to go
from a region of low potential i.e. negative end to the region of high potential i.e. positive end.
But in case of conventional current, positive charge flows from higher to lower potential re regions.
 PROBLEMS
Problem 12.1
1
= .
4
Problem 12.2
1
= .
4
Problem 12.3
1
= .
4
Problem 12.4
1

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⃗= . ̂
4
Problem 12.5
1
= .
4

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Problem 12.6
= = =

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Problem 12.7
∆ . .= ∆
Problem 12.8
= ×
4
3
gm
=
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Problem 12.9
∆ = −
9

= ∆
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∆ = −( )

∆ . .= ∆
a1

1
. .=
2
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Problem 12.10
1
= .
4
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Problem 12.11
1 1
= . = .
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4 4
1
= . .+ . .= + (− )
2
= −
Problem 12.12
1
=
2
Problem 12.13
=
=
 Current Electricity
QUESTIONS
13

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13.1. A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect on the drift
velocity of free electrons by:
(i) increasing the potential difference.
(ii) decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire.

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Ans A small uniform velocity that an electron gains in the presence of an electric field of the battery is
called the drift velocity in the direction of E⃗.

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Case I:
The drift velocity of an electron increases with the increase in the potential difference.
As we know, the drift velocity of free electrons in conductor of length l and area of cross section A is
given by,
gm I
vd =
neA
We also know, I = V/R
V
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vd =
neAR
This equation shows that by increasing potential difference, I increases and hence vd increases.
Case II:
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The drift velocity of an electron increases by decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire.
As we know, the drift velocity of free electrons in conductor of length l and area of cross section A is
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given by,
I
vd =
neA
We also know, I = V/R
a1

V
vd =
neAR
We also know, A = πr2ℓ
V
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vd =
neπr2 ℓR
Here, R α l and R α T
Hence, by decreasing length and temperature of wire, R decreases due to which I increase.
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Therefore, vd increases.
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13.2. Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.

Ans No, bends in the wire do not affect its electrical resistance.
Reason:
As we know, the resistance R of wire is given by

L
R=ρ
A
As it is obvious from the equation, that resistance of a wire depends upon length, area and nature of
the wire. Therefore, the resistance R remains constant.
13.3. What are the resistances of the resistors given in the figures A and B? What is the tolerance of
each? Explain what is meant by the tolerance?

Ans Definition of tolerance:

The possible variation in the resistance of a carbon resistor from the marked value is called
tolerance. For example, a 1000 Ω resistor with the tolerance ± 10% will have an actual value
anywhere between 900 Ω and 1100 Ω.
Resistances of given Resistors
Resistor A: Brown Green Red Gold
According to colour code,
Brown has value 1, Green has value 5, and Red has value 2.
Gold band shows tolerance equal to ± 5%
Therefore, R = 1500 Ω (± 5%)

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Resistor B:
According to colour code, Yellow White Orange Silver

Yellow has value 4, White has value 9, and Orange has value
3. Silver band shows tolerance equal to ± 10%
Therefore, R = 49000 Ω (± 10%)
%)

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13.4. Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature?

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Ans The resistance of a conductor rise with temperature.
Reason:
As the temperature of the conductor rises; gm
 The amplitude of vibration of the atoms in the lattice increases.
 The collision of the atoms increases.
 The atoms offer a bigger target.
 The probability of their collision with the free electrons also increases.
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Hence, resistance of conductor increases.

13.5. What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament

filament of lighted bulb obeys O
Ohm’s law?
9

Ans The main difficulty is the rise in temperature of filament with increase in current
current.
Reason:
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Ohm’ss law states that the potential difference is proportional to the current provided, when there is no
change in the physical state of the conductor.
conductor The physical state means the density, elasticity,
temperature etc. of conductor.
ductor. As the temperature increases,
increases resistance
esistance of the filament goes on
a1

increasing according to the relation.

Rt = Ro (1 + αt)
Where α is the temperature co-efficient
co efficient and t is the rise of temperature. It means that temperature of
the lighted bulb does not remain constant, so its filament does not obey Ohm’s law.
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13.6. Is the filament resistance lower or higher in a 500 W, 220 V light bulb than in 100 W, 220 V bulb?
ir

Ans The resistance of filament is lower in a 500 W, 220 V light bulb.

Bulb with 500 W, 220 V:
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As
P1 = 500 W
V1 = 220 V
R1 = ?
Applying the formula for power,
V1 2
P1 =
R1
or
V1 2 (220)2
R1 = = = 96.8 Ω ------------- (i)
P1 500
 Bulb with 100 W, 220 V:
As
P2 = 100 W
V2 = 220 V
R2 = ?
Applying the formula for power,
V2 2
P2 =
R2
or
V2 2 (220)2
R2 = = = 484 Ω ------------- (ii)
P2 100

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Result:
Comparing equation (i) and (ii), we come to know R2 > R1.

13.7. Describe a circuit, which will give a continuously varying potential?

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Ans A potentiometer can be used to give a continuously varying potential.
Explanation:
Consider a resistance R in the form of a wire on which a terminal C can slide as shown in figure. The

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resistance between A and C can be varied from 0 to R, as C slides from A to B.

gm
R

A B
r C
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If we connect a battery of emf E across a resistance R as shown in figure, the current flowing through
it is,
E
I=
9

R
If we represent the resistance between A and C by r, the
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E
potential drop between these points will be,
V = Ir
Putting above equation in it, R
E
a1

V = r
R
Thus, as C slides from A to B, r varies from 0 to R, and the A r B
C
potential drop between A and C changes from zero to E. this G
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arrangement by which potential can be varied continuously

from 0 to E is known as a potential divider.
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13.8. Explain why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when a current drawn from it is
increased?
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Ans The terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when a current drawn from it is increased.
Reason:
As, we already know a relation for terminal potential difference of a battery, that is
I R = E – Ir
or
Vt = E – Ir
Here,
E = emf of battery
r = internal resistance of battery
Ir = potential difference across internal resistance
This equation shows that when I is increased, the factor Ir becomes large and Vt becomes small.
Thus, potential difference of a battery decreases when the current drawn from it is increased.
13.9. What is the Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to determine an unknown resistance?

Ans Wheatstone bridge is the electrical circuit, which provides an accurate method for the measurement
of an unknown resistance.
Explanation:
The circuit of Wheatstone bridge is shown in the figure. It consists of four resistances R1, R2, R3 and
R4 connected in such a way as to form loop or mesh ABCDA as in figure. A battery of emf E is
connected between points A and C. A galvanometer of resistance Rg is connected between the
points B and D.
B
When the bridge is balanced, it satisfied the following relation
R1 R3
= R1 R2,
R2 R4
or

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R2 A I1 I1 C
G
R4 = × R3
R1
If the values of R1, R2 and R3 are known then R4 can be calculated R3 R4
by using equation provide the bridge is balanced. It means that

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terminals B and D are at same potential so the galvanometer D
shows no deflection. S E

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PROBLEMS
Problem 13.1
= = ; =
gm
Problem 13.2
=
8@

Problem 13.3
1 1
= + = + +
9
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=
a1

=
az

=
Problem 13.4
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Problem 13.5
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−
∝=
×
Problem 13.6
= −
Problem 13.7
ℎ ℎ
Problem 13.8
ℎ
=
 Electromagnetism
QUESTIONS
1
14

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14.1. A plane-conducting
conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along the x-axis. For
what orientation of the loop, is the flux a maximum? For what orientation, is the flux a minimum?

Ans As we know, flux through any surface is expressed as;

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ϕB = B⃗. A⃗ = BA cos θ
(a) Maximum Flux:
When the plane of loop is held perpendicular to direction of B⃗, flux is maximum.

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In other words, when the loop is in yz-plane,
yz flux is maximum.
As, in the present case, θ = 0°
So, gm
ϕB = B⃗. A⃗ = BA cos θ = BA cos 0° = BA (1) = BA ∴ cos 0° = 1
Hence, in this case flux is maximum.
(b) Minimum Flux:
When the plane of loop is held parallel to direction of B⃗, flux is maximum.
8@

In other words, when the loop is in xy-plane or xz-plane, flux is minimum.

As, in the present case, θ = 90°
0°
So,
ϕB = B⃗. A⃗ = BA cos θ = BA cos 90° = BA (0) = 0 ∴ cos 90° = 0
9

Hence, in this case flux is minimum.

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14.2. A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, which can be calculated using Ampere’s law.
Since current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, what can you conclude about the magnetic field
a1

due to stationary charges? What about moving charges?

Ans As we know, Ampere’s law is given as;

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B⃗. ∆L⃗ = μo I
(a) Stationary Charges:
Magnetic field due to stationary charges is zero. As, in the case of stationary charges, rate of flow of
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charges is zero i.e. current I us zero.

So, from Ampere’s law,
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B⃗. ∆L⃗ = μ I = μ (0) = 0

o o
Here,
∆L⃗ ≠ 0
B⃗ = 0
Hence, stationary charges do not produce magnetic field i.e. they produce electric field only
only.
(b) Moving Charges:
Moving charges produce magnetic field. In case of moving charges, there is rate of flow of charge.
Therefore, moving charges produce current. Flow of current produces magnetic field field in the
surrounding space. Hence, moving charges produce magnetic field along their path of motion, which
can be calculated by using Ampere’s law.
14.3. Describe the change in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current I, if (a) the
length of the solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains same and (b) the number of turns
is doubled, but the length remains same.

Ans As we know, expression for magnetic field due to solenoid is;

is
B = μo nI
As
N
n=
ℓ
N
B = μo I ---------------(i)
ℓ
(a) Length
ength of the solenoid is doubled but number of turns remains same
same:
In this case, magnetic field is reduced to half.

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Proof:
When the length of solenoid is doubled and the number of returns same then
ℓ′ = 2ℓ
N′ = N

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Then, from (i),
N 1 N 1
B′' = μo I= μo (B) I =
2ℓ 2 ℓ 2
In this, strength of magnetic field becomes half.

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(b) Number
umber of turns is doubled but length
ength of the solenoid remains same
same:
In this case, magnetic field is increased to double.
double
Proof: gm
When the number of returns is doubled and the length of solenoid same then
ℓ′ = ℓ
N′ = 2N
Then, from (i),
8@

2N N
B′' = μo I = 2 μo I = 2(B)
ℓ ℓ
In this, strength
rength of magnetic field is doubled.
doubled
9

14.4. At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x direction in a region where there is magnetic field
in the negative z direction. What is the direction of the magnetic force? Will the proton continue to
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move in the positive x direction? Explain.

Ans (a) Direction of Magnetic Field:

a1

Magnetic field is directed along positive y-direction.

y
Reason:
As, force on proton in magnetic field is,
F⃗ = +e ( v⃗ × B⃗) ----------(i)
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Given proton is moving along positive x-direction

x so,
v⃗ = v i
Magnetic field is in the negative z-direction
z so,
ir

B⃗ = B -k
Then, from (i),
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F⃗ = +e {(v i) × B -k }
F⃗ = -evB ( i × k)
F⃗ = -evB (- j ) ∴ ( i × k) =- j
F⃗ = evB j
Hence, magnetic force on proton will be directed in positive y-direction.
(b) Movement in positive x-direction:
direction:
No, the proton will not continue to move in the positive x direction but it moves in a circle.
Reason:
Since, the magnetic force is at right angle to the motion of the proton, therefore it will move along a
circular path in xy plane. Thus, the magnetic force (F = qvB) provides the centripetal force.
14.5. Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field perpendicular to
their velocities. If the chargers are deflected in opposite directions, what can you say about them?

Ans Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field perpendicular to
their velocities. If the chargers are deflected in opposite directions, there are two possibilities;
Possibility I:
Then one charge is proton and other charge is electron and they are projected from same direction
perpendicular to magnetic field then they will be deflected in opposite directions.
Explanation:
Opposite charges projected from same direction.
Let B⃗ is along y-axis then of B⃗ = Bj
Charges are moving along x-axis i.e. v⃗ = vi
Then, for proton

om
F⃗ = +e ( v⃗ × B⃗)

F⃗ = +e (vi × Bj)
F⃗ = evB ( i × j)

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⃗
F = evB (k) ∴ ( i × j) = k
Similarly, for electron
F⃗ = -e ( v⃗ × B⃗)

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F⃗ = -e (vi × Bj)
F⃗ = -evB ( i × j)
gm
F⃗ = -evB (k) ∴ ( i × j) = k
Force on electron is along positive z-axis while force on electron is in negative z-axis. Therefore,
electron and proton when projected from same direction perpendicular to magnetic field, they are
deflected in opposite directions.
Possibility II:
8@

When both charges are protons or both charges are electrons and they projected from opposite
directions perpendicular to magnetic field then they will be deflected in opposite direction.
Explanation:
Same charges projected from opposite directions. When both are protons one enters into magnetic
9

field B⃗ = Bj from positive x-direction so v⃗ = v(-i) and other proton enters into magnetic field from
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negative x-direction so v⃗ = vi
Then, force on proton from positive x-direction is,
F⃗ = +e ( v⃗ × B⃗)
⃗
a1

F = +e {v(- i) × Bj}
F⃗ = +evB (- i × j)
F⃗ = +evB (- k ) ∴ ( - i × j) =- k
Similarly, force on proton from negative x-direction is,
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F⃗ = +e ( v⃗ × B⃗)

F⃗ = +e (vi × Bj)
ir

F⃗ = evB ( i × j)
F⃗ = evB (k)
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∴ ( i × j) = k
Therefore, one proton is deflected along positive z-axis while other along negative z-axis. Similarly
same explanation for electron can be provided..

14.6. Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity v. Why is there no work
done by the magnetic force that acts on the charge q?

Ans If a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity v, then there is no work done by the
magnetic force that acts on the charge q.
Reason:
The magnetic force acting on a charged particle q is given by,
F⃗ = q ( v⃗ × B⃗)
 v

90°
F

Magnetic force is perpendicular to velocity. Displacement is always directed along the direction of
velocity hence we can say that direction of velocity and displacement are same. Hence, the angle
between F⃗ and d⃗ is 90°. In this case, work done by magnetic force is zero i.e

om
W = F⃗ . d⃗ = Fd cos θ = Fd cos 90° = Fd (0) = 0 ∴ cos 90° =0
We can say that, circle is a closed path and displacement in a closed path is always zero so W = 0.

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14.7. If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you say that the
magnetic field in the region is zero?

Ans When magnetic force acting on particle is zero it follows the straight path. Following possibilities may

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arise;
Possibility I:
F⃗ = q ( v⃗ × B⃗) = qvB sin θ = qv(0) sin θ = 0
gm
When in some region of space, magnetic field is zero then charge moves in a straight path.
Possibility II:
When charged particle moves in the direction of magnetic field then angle between v⃗ and B⃗ is 0°,
then,
8@

F⃗ = q ( v⃗ × B⃗) = qvB sin θ = qvB sin 0° = 0 ∴ sin 0° =0

Thus, particle moves in a straight path.
When charged particle moves in the direction opposite of magnetic field then angle between v⃗ and
9

B⃗ is 180°, then,
F⃗ = q ( v⃗ × B⃗) = qvB sin θ = qvB sin 180° = 0 ∴ sin 180° =0
73

In this case, the charged particle moves in a straight path.

Possibility III:
When charge particle enters into a region where magnetic field and electric field are simultaneously
a1

acting perpendicular to each other, then they cancel the effect of each other and particle moves in
straight path. For instance, motion of charge particle in velocity selector.

14.8. Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is brought near the screen?
az

Ans The picture on a TV screen becomes distorted, when a magnet is brought near the screen.
Reason:
ir

The beam of electrons forms the picture on TV screen. When the magnet is near brought the TV
screen, the magnetic field of magnet interacts with the magnetic field around the beam of electrons.
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So a magnetic force acts on the electrons, which is given by

F⃗ = q ( v⃗ × B⃗)
Due to this force, electrons beam is deflected. Hence, the picture is distorted.

14.9. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop will not tend to
rotate? Explain.

Ans Yes, it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop will not tend to
rotate.
Explanation:
When a current carrying loop is placed in magnetic field, it experiences a torque which is given by,
τ = BINA cos α
 where α is the angle between B⃗ and plane of the loop. When plane of the loop is placed at right
angle i.e. perpendicular to magnetic field B⃗ , then α = 90°.
τ = BINA cos 90° = BINA (0) = 0 ∴ cos 90° =0
As the value of torque is zero in uniform magnetic field so loop will not tend to rotate.

14.10. How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field in a given region of
space?

Ans When a current carrying loop is placed in uniform magnetic field, a torque is produced in a loop due
to the current. If the loop is deflected in a given region of space, then it confirms the presence of
magnetic field otherwise not. If magnetic field B⃗ makes an angle α with the plane of loop, the
magnitude of the torque is given by,

om
τ = BINA cos α

14.11. How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element?

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Ans An apparatus called Aston Mass Spectrograph uses magnetic field to separate the isotopes of
chemical element. In such apparatus, when isotopes of certain element are projected perpendicular
to magnetic field then they follow circular path due to centripetal force provided by magnetic force.
For circular motion,

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Magnetic Force = Centripetal Force
mv2
qvB sin 90° =
gm r
2
mv
qvB = ∴sin 90° = 1
r
mv
r =
qB
8@

As isotope of an element, have same charge q but different mass m so, for constant q, v and B.
r ∝ m
Isotope with greater mass will move in a circle of large radius and isotope having less mass will
9

move in circle of small radius. Thus, isotopes in magnetic field can be separated on the basis of their
different masses and radii.
73

14.12. What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that torque acting upon
the coil is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
a1

Ans Torque acting on current carrying coil in a magnetic field is

τ = BINA cos α −−−−−( )
(a) Maximum
az

When the plane of current carrying loop is held parallel to the field, torque will be maximum.
Proof:
As we know, when plane of loop is parallel to magnetic field then α = 0°. Hence, from (i)
ir

τmax = BINA cos 0° = BINA ∴ cos 0° =1

(b) Minimum
al

When the plane of current carrying loop is held perpendicular to the field, torque will be minimum.
Proof:
As we know, when plane of loop is perpendicular to magnetic field then α = 90°. Hence, from (i)
τmin = BINA cos 90° = 0 ∴ cos 90° =0

14.13. A loop of wire is suspended between the poles of a magnet with its plane parallel to the pole faces.
What happened if a direct current is put through the coil? What happens if an alternating current is
used instead?

Ans Whenever a current carrying loop of wire is placed in a magnetic field it tends to orient itself so that
maximum flux is passes through it. When plane of loop is parallel to the poles of the magnet then it
will not rotate and τ = 0 because already maximum flux is passing through it. Plane of loop makes an
angle α = 90° with B⃗ so,
 τ = BINA cos 90° = 0 ∴ cos 90° =0 B⃗
Therefore, no torque is produced whether DC is passed
through loop or AC is passed through it.

N S

14.14. Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?

Ans The resistance of an ammeter should be very low. low

Reason:
Ammeter is a low resistance device. It is always connected in series so that it
does not produce any change in current or resistance in the circuit. If its

om
resistance is not small it will decrease the circuit current.
current Under such condition,
current measured will not be accurate.

14.15. Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?

l.c
Ans The voltmeter should have a very high resistance.
resistance
Reason:
Voltmeter is high resistance device. It is always connected in parallel in circuit

ai
to measure voltage in volts between two points. Its resistance is kept large as
compared to the resistance of circuit so that circuit current does not change
and accurate potential
resistance of voltmeter
gm
tential difference between two points can be measure. If the
meter is not very large then current will flow through it.
it. A
As a
result,, circuit current will change. Hence, potential difference to be measured
will decrease. Under such condition,
condition, potential difference measured will not be
accurate.
8@

PROBLEMS
Problem 14.1
9

= sin ; = ; =
73

Problem 14.2
= ⃗× ⃗ = sin ; = =
sin sin
a1

Problem 14.3
= ; =
Problem 14.4
az

= cos ; =
Problem 14.5
=
ir

2
Problem 14.6
=
al

Problem 14.7
= =
Problem 14.8
=
−
Problem 14.9
= −
Problem 14.10
= ℎ = , ,
−
 Electromagnetic
Induction
QUESTIONS
15

om
15.1. Does the induced emf in a circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does the induced current
depend on the resistance of the circuit?

Ans (a) Dependence of Induced emf:

l.c
No, the induced emf in a circuit does not depend on the resistance of the circuit.
Reason:
Since by Faraday’s law
∆φ ∆B.A

ai
ε = -N = -N
∆t ∆t
Thus, induced emf depends upon,
(i) Number of turns of coil gm
(ii) Rate of change of flux (∆B.A) through the coil where increase in flux increases induced emf
ε while decrease in flux decreases induced emf ε.
(b) Dependence of Induced Current:
Yes, the induced current in a circuit depends on the resistance of the circuit.
8@

Reason:
Product of current I and resistance R is always constant called induced emf ε i.e.
I × R = ε
ε
9

I =
R
73

Induced current depends upon resistance. If resistance increase, current will decrease while
decrease in resistance causes increase in current.

15.2. A square loop of wire is moving through a uniform magnetic field. The normal to the loop is oriented
a1

parallel to magnetic field. Is an emf induced in the loop? Give reasons.

Ans emf is not induced in the loop. A

az

Reason I:
Since by Faraday’s law B⃗
∆φ
ε = -N
∆t
ir

Constant number of magnetic lines of force are passing through A⃗

square loop so there is no change in magnetic flux with time.
al

Thus, induced emf depends upon i.e.

∆φ B
= 0
∆t
Then from Faraday’s law,
ε = -N(0)
ε = 0
Therefore, induced emf in the loop is zero.
Reason II:
As normal, to loop is zero. So velocity of loop is parallel to B⃗. Angle between B⃗ and B⃗ is 0°.
Hence,
ε = -vBL sin 0° = 0 ∴ sin 0° = 0
15.3. A light metallic ring is released from above in to a vertical bar magnet (in the fig). Viewed for above,
does the current flow clockwise or anticlockwise in the ring?

Ans The current flows in clockwise direction in the ring.

Reason:
When metallic ring is releaseded from above
a into a vertical bar magnet, magnetic
agnetic flux
in the ring is changed.
(i) According to Faraday’s law, change in flux produces an induced emf and hence an
induced current in the ring. Induced emf produces magnetic field.
(ii) According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced current is opposite to the cause,
which produces it. Therefore, the side of ring, which is toward N-pole
N pole of bar magnet,
must be N-pole
pole of induced magnetic field.
(iii) Right hand rule shows that this type
type of induced magnetic field is produced when side

om
of ring facing N-pole
pole of bar magnet have current in clockwise direction. When ring is
viewed from above, current is in clockwise direction.

15.4. What is the direction of the current through resistor R in the fig?
fig? When switch S is;
(a) closed

l.c
(b) opened

Ans (a) Switch is Closed:

ai
When switch S is closed, current in the circuit increases
from zero to maximum, which produced changing magnetic
flux. During this interval, magnetic flux linked with
gm
secondary coil also changes and a n induced current is
produced in it. Magnetic field produced by induced current
will be opposite to magnetic filed in first coil, when current
flows in anticlockwise direction in R. in this way, by Lenz’s
law it opposes the cause, which produces it.
8@

(b) Switch is Opened:

When switch S is opened,, the current in first circuit decreases from maximum to zero
zero, flux linked with
second coil decreases and an induced current is produced but opposite to ffirst direction i.e. current in
R flows in clockwise direction.
9
73

15.5. Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?

Ans No, induced emf does not always act to decrease the magnetic flux through the circuit.
Explanation:
a1

Since, emf is produced by change of magnetic flux. When magnetic flux in circuit decreases then
(i) Byy Faraday’s law, induced emf is produced.
(ii) By Lenz’s law, induced emf opposes the decrease in magnetic flux.
Therefore, induced emf tries to increase
i magnetic flux in this case.
az

15.6. When the switch in the circuit is closed a current established in the coil and the metal ring jumps
upward (see the fig). Why? Describe what would happen to the ring if battery polarity were reversed?
ir

Ans When the switch tch in the circuit is closed a current established in the coil and
al

the metal ring jumps upward. When polarity of battery is reversed,, same effect
is observed.
Explanation:
When switch S is closed, magnetic field is produced around the coil, which
changes from zero to maximum. Magnetic flux of coil linking with ring also
changes and an induced current is produced in the ring. This induced current
produces induced magnetic field, which is opposite to the magnetic field of
coil. The end of ring which faces N-pole
N of coil becomes N-pole.
pole. Similar poles
produce repulsion. Hence, metal ring jumps upward momentarily. When current in the soil becomes
constant, there is no longer change in magnetic flux so induced current lost and therefore induced
magnetic field in ring lost and ring comes back to its original position. Hence, when polarity of battery
is reversed,, same effect is observed.
15.7. The figure shows
hows a coil of wire in the xy plane with a magnetic field directed along the yy- axis. Around
which of the three
ree coordinate axes should the coil be rotated in order to generate an emf and a
current in the coil?

Ans When the coil is rotated about x-axis,

x an emf and current is induced in the coil
coil.
Reason:
(i) When the coil of wire is rotated along x-axis then in this case, coil of
wire willll cut magnetic field lines and change of magnetic flux occur.
This change of magnetic flux will produce induced emf and hence
induced current in the coil of wire.
(ii) If the coil is rotated about y-axis
axis, even then the flux passing through the
coil remains zero because plane of the coil is at all times parallel to the
lines of magnetic field B⃗.

om
(iii) If coil of wire is rotated along z-axis,
z it will not cut any magnetic field
lines because in this case plane of coil will be parallel to direction of B⃗. Therefore, no change of
magnetic flux will produce and hence no induced emf and induced current.

l.c
15.8. How would you position a flat loop of wire in a changing magnetic field so that there is no emf
induced in the loop?

Ans If a flat loop of wire is placed parallel to the changing magnetic

ai
field, there will be no emf induced in the loop.
loop A⃗
Reason:
gm
When flat loop of wire is placed in such a way that its plane is
parallel to B⃗ then direction of vector area A⃗ makes an angle
B⃗

of 90° with B⃗. Therefore,, magnetic flux is

A B
∆ϕ = ∆ B⃗.∆ A⃗ = B∆A cos 90° 90 = 0 ∴ cos 90° = 0
8@

According to Faraday’s law,

∆φ
ε = -N
∆t
Here, as
9

∆φ = 0
73

Then from Faraday’s law,

0
ε = -N
a1

∆t
ε = 0
Hence, no emf is induced in loop of wire.
az

15.9. In a certain region the earth’s magnetic field point, vertically down. When a plane flies due north,
which wingtip is positively charged?
ir

Ans West wingtip is positively charged.

charged North
al

Reason: x x x x x x xx x x x
Magnetic force on electron is
F⃗ = -e ( v⃗ × B⃗) x x x x x x x x x x x
Direction of force on electron tells us which wingtip is
v⃗
positively charged. Consider right hand rule, x x x x x x x x x x x
West East
Let forefinger gives the direction of plane toward north, x x x x x x xx x x x
middle finger points in the direction of field B⃗ then thumb
points in the direction of force on electron present the x x x x x x x x x x x
wing of plane. As thumb point towards west. So, left
wingtip towards west is positively charged.
char Plane is a x x x x x x x x x x x
conductor it contains free electrons. South
 ∆Φ
15.10. Show that ε and have the same units.
∆t

Ans As we know,
W
ε =
q
Then, unit of ε is given as,
Unit of Work J Joule
Unit of ε = = = = Volt − − − ( )
Unit of Charge C Coulomb

Similarly, we know
∆Φ B∆A F A
= = ×

om
∆t ∆t IL ∆t
∆Φ
Then, unit of is given as,
∆t
∆Φ F A N m2 N.m Nm J Joule
Unit of = Unit of × = × = = = = = Volt − − − ( )
Cs-1 .s

l.c
∆t IL ∆t A.m s C C Coulomb
Comparing (i) and (ii),
∆Φ J Joule
Unit of ε = Unit of = = = Volt

ai
∆t C Coulomb

15.11. When an electric motor, such as an electric drill, is being used, does it also act as a generator? If so
what is the consequences of this?
gm
Ans Yes, it acts like a generator.
Reason:
When motor is running then coil of motor called armature rotates in the magnetic field. Due to
8@

rotation of armature, change of magnetic flux takes place and on emf is induced which is called back
emf. Back emf opposes the rotation of armature. So running motor acts like generator.
Consequences:
In the absence of load, motor rotates quite fast. Magnitude of back emf increases with the speed of
9

motor and so current flowing through motor becomes small. When motor derives load then back emf
73

decreases due to decrease in speed of motor. This allows motor to draw more current. If motor is
overloaded beyond its limit, the current rises to very high value and motor burns out.

15.12. Can a D.C. motor be turned into a D.C. generator? What changes required to be done?
a1

Ans Yes, a D.C. motor can be turned into a D.C. generator.

Explanation:
When electric current is passed through motor. Armature of motor starts rotating in the magnetic
az

field. So magnetic field passing through armature produces change in magnetic flux which produces
an induced emf called back emf. Thus electric motor acts like generator because due to induced emf,
induced current will flow as output. Two changes are required to convert D.C. motor into D.C.
ir

generator.
(i) The magnetic field must be provided by a permanent magnet and not by an electromagnet.
al

(ii) As back emf produced opposes the motion of armature. So an arrangement should be
made to rotate the armature.

15.13. Is it possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field passing through the loop and
still not have an induced emf in the loop?

Ans Yes, it is possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field passing through the
loop and still not have an induced emf in the loop.
Explanation:
Here θ = 0°
Then the change of magnetic flux through a loop of area ∆A⃗ placed parallel to magnetic field B⃗ is
given by,
 ∆ϕ = ∆ B⃗.∆ A⃗ = B∆A cos θ = B∆A cos 0° = B∆A ∴ cos 0° = 1 − − − ( )
It shows that B and ∆A are inversely proportional to each other. If we change B and ∆A in such a way
that the product B∆A remains constant, thus the change in magnetic flux through the loop will be
zero, i.e.
∆φ = 0
As we know that,
∆φ
ε = -N
∆t
Then from Faraday’s law,
0
ε = -N
∆t
ε = 0 −−−( )

om
Therefore, the induced emf is zero. Hence, no induced emf in the loop will be produced.

15.14. Can an electric motor be used to drive an electric generator with the output from the generator being
used to operate the motor?

l.c
Ans No, an electric motor cannot be used to drive an electric generator with the output from the generator
being used to operate the motor.
Reason:

ai
It is not possible because when motor derives generator, output of generator is less than the input,
the reason for this is the dissipation of energy due to frictional losses. If the output of generator is
gm
feedback to the motor, it will be insufficient to operate the motor. If it becomes possible then
combination of motor and generator will be a self operating system, which does not get any energy
from outside source. In this case, it also violates law of conservation of energy.
8@

15.15. A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in horizontal plane. Oscillations are strongly damped when
a metal plate is placed under the magnet. Explain why this occurs?

Ans A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in horizontal plane. Oscillations are strongly damped when
9

a metal plate is placed under the magnet.

Reason:
73

If suspended magnet oscillates freely in horizontal plane and a metal plate is placed under magnet
then due to oscillations of magnet, magnetic flux passing through the metallic plate changes. The
change of magnetic flux produces induced emf in the plate and hence, an induced current. This
induced current according to Lenz’s law opposes the oscillatory motion of bar magnet by producing
a1

its own magnetic field. Magnetic field due to induced current decreases the oscillation of bar magnet.
In this way, oscillatory motion of bar magnet is damped.
az

15.16. Four unmarked wires emerge from a transformer. What steps would you take to determine the turns
ratio?
ir

Ans Four unmarked wires emerge from a transformer. We would take following steps to determine the
turns ratio.
al

Step I:
First, the continuity test is made to identify the two ends of same wire.
Step I:
Use ohmmeter to find their electrical resistance. For step down transformer (say) the greater
resistance coil is secondary, then other coil will be primary.
Step III:
Supply known voltage of AC to primary coil. Suppose it is Vp. Measure voltage Vs across secondary
with the help of voltmeter.
Step IV:
Finally, turns ratio can be found by using following relation,
Ns Vs
=
Np Vp
15.17. (a) Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?
(b) In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary. How is, then
the power transferred?

Ans (a) No, it cannot increase the power level.

Reason:
A step-up transformer can only increase the voltage level but it cannot increase the power level. In
actual transformer, dissipation of energy in the coil takes place due to Eddy currents so output power
is always less than input power i.e.
Ps < Pp

Ans (b) In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary. Then the power
is transferred magnetically.

om
Reason:
There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary coils of transformer, they are
magnetically linked with each other i.e. electrical power or energy is transferred from primary to
secondary coil with the help of magnetic field. When some input is given to the primary coil, the
change in magnetic flux of primary coil occurs. This flux is linked with secondary coil. Therefore,

l.c
change in magnetic flux of secondary coil produces emf. Thus, change in magnetic flux of secondary
coil transfers power from primary to the secondary coil.

ai
15.18. When the primary of a transformer is connected to AC mains the current in it
(a) is very small if the secondary circuit is open, but
(b) increases when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these facts.
gm
Ans (a) When the primary of a transformer is connected to AC mains the current in it is very small if the
secondary circuit is open.
Reason:
8@

If the secondary circuit is open then it means there is no load on the transformer so Is = 0.
As we know, in a transformer,
Power input = Power output
VpIp = VsIs
9

Then, according to given condition,

VpIp = Vs(0)
73

VpIp = 0
Here,
Vp ≠ 0
But
a1

Ip = 0.
In short we can say that, output power Ps = VsIs is zero. Thus, primary draws very small current from
AC mains.
az

Ans (b) When the primary of a transformer is connected to AC mains, the current in it increases when the
secondary circuit is closed.
Reason:
ir

If secondary circuit is closed then it means transformer is provided with load, so output power will be
increases. As for transformer,
al

Power input = Power output

VpIp = VsIs
Therefore, transformer will draw large current from AC mains to increase the primary power. Hence,
greater current is needed in primary to equalize power in secondary coil.

PROBLEMS
Problem 15.1

= ; = ×
Problem 15.2

ℎℎ = 60°

ℎ = = 90° − 60° = 30°

= sin

Problem 15.3

∆ ∆ .
= − =−
∆ ∆

om
Problem 15.4

= = 40°

l.c
= = 90° − 40° = 50°

∆ ( − ) ( . ′− . ′) ( − ) ′
= − =− =− =−

ai
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆

Problem 15.5

=
∆
; =
gm
∆ ∆ /∆

Problem 15.6
8@

∆
=
∆
9

∆ ∆
= ; ∆ =
73

Problem 15.7
a1

= ; =

∆
az

=
∆

Problem 15.8
ir
al

= = = ∴ =

∆
=
∆

Problem 15.9

∆
=
∆
1 1
∆ = ∆ = ( − )
2 2
Problem 15.10

1
∆ = ( )
2

Problem 15.11

= ; =

Problem 15.12

= = ( × ) ; =

om
Problem 15.13

= = (2 ) ; =

l.c
(2 )

Problem 15.14

ai
= = ; = ×

Problem 15.15
gm
= −
8@

Problem 15.16

∆ ∆ . ∆ .
= = =
∆ ∆ ∆
9
73

ℎ = ; =

Problem 15.17
a1

∆ ∆ .
= =
∆ ∆
az

Problem 15.18

= ; =
ir
al

= ; =

=
 Alternating Current
QUESTIONS
1
16

om
16.1. A sinusoidal current has rms value of 10 A. What is the maximum or peak value?

Ans The maximum or peak value of current is 14.14 A.

A
Explanation:

l.c
According to the given data;
Root mean square value of sinusoidal current = Irms = 10 A
Maximum or peak value of current = Io = ?
Using the formula;

ai
Io
Irms =
√2
gm
or
Io = Irms √2 = (10)√2 = 14.14 A

16.2. Name the device that will

8@

(a) permit flow of direct current but oppose the flow of alternating current
(b) permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.

Ans Device (a):

9

An inductor is a device, which permit the flow of direct current but oppose the flow of alternating
current. As we know,
73

XL = 2πfL
For D.C., f = 0 so XL = 0, hence Current I is maximum
Device (b):
A capacitor is a device, which permit the flow of alternating current but oppose the flow of direct
a1

current. As we know,

1
XC =
az

2πfC
For D.C., f = 0 so XC become infinite,
infin hence Current I is zero.
ir

16.3. How many times per second, will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when connected
to a 50 Hz source?
al

Ans It reaches maximum brilliance 100 times per second.

second A = Maximum Brilliance
Reason:
The brilliance of lamp will become maximum twice in one
cycle because the current also becomes maximum two
times in a cycle (i.e. for positive half cycle and negative half
cycle).

As the frequency f of AC
C cycle = 50 Hz
Maximum brilliance = Twice the frequency = 2f = 2 x 50 = 100 Hz A’ = Maximum
Hence, the brilliance will be maximum 100 times in one second. Brilliance
16.4. A circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D.C. source arranged in series. The switch is
closed and after an interval, reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the switch contacts?

Ans A circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D.C. source arranged in series. The switch is
closed, and after an interval, reopened. Then a spark jumps across the switch contacts.
Reason:
When the switch is closed, then the current increases from zero to maximum value. This changing
current produces change of magnetic flux and an induced emf is produced. When a switch is
reopened after an interval, then again current changes from maximum value to zero. Once again, the
emf is produced across the inductor. It is in the form of back emf i.e. alternating voltage. As a result,
it is flux change, which causes an induced emf leading to a spark across the switch contacts.

16.5. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of (a) an inductor (b) a capacitor?

om
Ans (a) Inductor
The capacitance of inductor becomes double.
As reactance of an inductor is given by,

l.c
XL = 2πfL
If f’ = 2f then,
XL’ = 2π(2f)L

ai
XL’ = 2(2πfL)
XL’ = 2 XL
gm
(b) Capacitor
The capacitance of capacitor becomes half.
As reactance of a capacitor is given by,
1
8@

XC =
2πfC
If f’ = 2f then,
1
9

XC ' =
2π(2f)C
73

1 1
XC ' =
2 2πfC
1
XC ' = XC
a1

2
16.6. In an R-L circuit, will the current lag or lead the voltage? Illustrate your answer by a vector diagram.
az

Ans In R-L circuit, current lags the voltage by π/2 = 90°.

Illustration:
We can also say that voltage leads the current by θ which is given by; VL = Irms XL
VL
ir

θ = tan-1
VR V = Irms Z
-1 Irms XL
al

θ = tan
Irms R
XL
θ = tan-1 VR = Irms R
R
16.7. A choke coil placed in series with an electric lamp in an AC circuit causes the lamp to become dim.
Why is it so? A variable capacitor added in series in this circuit may be adjusted until the lamp glows
with normal brilliance. Explain, how this is possible?

Ans Dimness of lamp:

Let an electric lamp connected to a source of alternating voltage V in AC circuit. When there is no
inductance or capacitance in the circuit, the impedance is equal to the resistance of the circuit, say
R. it means that the current flowing through the lamp is,
 V
I = −−−−−( )
R
If now, a choke coil of inductive reactance XL is placed in series with the electric lamp, the new
impedance of the circuit will be,

Z1 = R2 + XL 2
Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit in this case is
V V
I1 = = −−−−−( )
Z1 2 2
R + XL
From the comparison of equation (i) and (ii) it is obvious that I1 is smaller than I and that is why the
electric lamp is dimmed on placing a choke coil in the circuit.
Normal brilliance of lamp:

om
When a variable capacitor also is in series with the circuit, its capacitive reactance XC opposes XL
and thus the impedance of circuit is,
Z2 = R2 + (XL - XC )2

l.c
Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit in this case is
V V
I2 = = −−−−−( )
Z2 2 2
R + (XL - XC )

ai
If the capacitance of capacitor is also adjusted that XC = XL, then

Z2 = gmR2 = R
Hence, the current flowing through the circuit is
V V
I2 = = −−−−−( )
Z2 R
From the comparison of equation (iii) and (iv) it is obvious that I2 becomes equal to I as if there is no
8@

reactance in the circuit and hence the lamp glows with normal brilliance.

16.8. Explain the conditions under which electromagnetic waves are produced from a source?
9

Ans When alternating voltage i.e. V = Vo sin 2πft is applied across the ends of a metallic antenna, an
73

oscillating electric field comes into existence which accelerates the electrons again and again as the
polarities of the antenna change after half a cycle. If the electric charge on the antenna is +q at the
moment, it becomes –q at the other moment. The accelerated electrons radiate energy carried by
electric field. The changing electric field produces changing magnetic field. Thus, each field produces
a1

the other turn by turn and so this process continues all along the direction of propagation. The
changing electric and magnetic fields both confined to a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of electromagnetic waves.
az

16.9. How the reception of a particular radio station is selected on your radio set?

Ans A particular radio station can be selected on a radio set by tuning it.
ir

Explanation:
Radio programmes of different stations are present in the form of electromagnetic waves of different
al

frequencies. We can choose the programme of our interest by adjusting the frequency of out
receiving set equal to the frequency of the radio station of our choice. This is done by rotating the
tuning knob to vary capacitance and thus the frequency of the radio set. It is given by,
1
f =
2π√LC
By doing so, the phenomenon of resonance takes place. The current of this radio signal becomes
maximum because impedance becomes minimum and so, the signal becomes detectable.

16.10. What is meant by A.M. and F.M.?

Ans (a) A.M.

A.M. stands for Amplitude Modulation.
 Definition:
It is a type of modulation in which amplitude of the carrier wave
is increased or decreased as the amplitude of the superposing
modulating signal increases or decreases.
Range:
The A.M. transmission frequencies range from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz.
(b) F.M.
F.M. stands for Frequency Modulation.
Definition:
It is a type of modulation in which frequency of the carrier wave
is increased or decreased as the amplitude of the superposing
modulating signal increases
creases or decreases but the amplitude of
the carrier wave remains constant

om
Range:
The F.M..M. transmission frequencies are much higher and range between 88 M
MHz to 108 MHz.

PROBLEMS

l.c
Problem 16.1
= sin 2
= 0.71
Problem 16.2

ai
= 0.71
= sin 2
Problem 16.3
= =2
gm
=
Problem 16.4
8@

= =2
= ( ) +( )
Problem 16.5
9

= ( ) +( ) = ( ) +( ) = (2 ) +( )
73

=
= 0.71
2
= tan = tan = tan
a1

Problem 16.6
=
= =2
az

= ( ) +( )
=
Problem 16.7
ir

= = (2 )
al

Problem 16.8
1
= tan = tan
2
Problem 16.9
1
=
2 √
Problem 16.10
1
=
2
1
=
2
 Physics of Solids
QUESTIONS
1
17

om
17.1. Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids.
solids

Ans Solid is a state of matter in which atoms are very close to each other. Atoms are rigidly bounded so
they can only vibrate about their mean position.

l.c
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
Solids are classified into following types:

ai
gm
Crystalline Solids Polymeric Solids Amorphous or Glassy Solids
8@

A. CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
Definition:
Solids in which atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in regular manner repeatedly and periodically
9

are called crystalline solids.

Properties:
73

(i) They have strict long-rangerange ordered structure of atoms, ions or molecules due to cohesive
forces, which exist between atoms, ions or molecules of same substance.
(ii) Study of crystalline solids using various X-ray
X ray techniques tells us that atoms, ions, or molecules
a1

in crystalline solids are not static.

(iii) In metal crystal, atoms vibrate about
about their mean positions. Therefore, atoms of crystalline solids
possess vibrational motion whose amplitude increases with the increase in temperature.
az

(iv) In crystalline solids, change of state from solid to liquid at higher temperature is abrupt and
discontinuous.
uous. So structure of solid beaks suddenly and solid melts.
(v) Every crystalline solid have definite melting point.
ir

(vi) Pattern of crystalline solids is three-dimensional

three dimensional which repeats itself repeatedly.
Examples:
al

 Metals: Copper, Iron, Zinc etc

 Ionic Compound: NaCl
 Ceramics: Zirconia
B. AMORPHOUS or GLASSY SOLIDS
Definition:
Solids in which atoms, ions, or molecules have no regular arrangement are called amorphous or
glassy solids.
Properties:
(i) They have no regular arrangement of molecules.
(ii) These solids are more like liquid with frozen disordered structure.
(iii) On heating, they become soft and attain paste like state.
 (iv) At about 800 °C, they are converted into viscous liquid.
(v) They have no definite melting point.
(vi) Molecules have short-range non-repetitive order.
Examples:
Ordinary glass, rubber, plastic, glue etc.
C. POLYMERIC SOLIDS
Definition:
Material whose structure is intermediate between solid (order) and liquid (disorder) are called
polymeric solids.
They are called polymers because they are formed by polymerization reaction.
Polymerization
Simple Molecules ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Massive Long Chain Molecules / Three Dimensional Structure

om
Properties:
(i) Their structure is partially and poorly crystalline.
(ii) They have limited arrangement.
(iii) They have low specific gravity.

l.c
(iv) They have good strength to weight ratios, as is observed in polythene bag.
(v) These solids are combination of carbon with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other metallic or
non-metallic elements

ai
Examples:
 Cellulose is natural polymer, which provides strength and stiffness to roots, stems and leaves
of plants. gm
 Natural rubber is a polymer composed of hydrocarbon with formula (C5H6)n.
 Polythene, polystyrene, nylon and synthetic rubber are manmade artificial polymers.

17.2. Define stress and strain. What are their SI units? Differentiate between tensile, compressive and
8@

shear modes of stress and strain.

Ans STRESS
Definition:
9

The force applied on unit area to produce any change in the shape, volume or length of a body is
73

called stress. Mathematically, it is described as:

Force (F)
Stress (σ) =
Area (A)
SI Unit:
a1

The SI unit of stress is newton per square meter (Nm-2), which is given the name pascal (Pa).
Types:
(i) Tensile Stress or Compressive Stress:
A stress that causes the change in length of an object is called tensile stress.
az

(ii) Shear Stress:

A stress that causes the change in shape of an object is called shear stress.
(iii) Volume Stress:
ir

A stress that causes the change in volume of an object is called volume stress.
al

STRAIN
Definition:
Strain is the measure of deformation of a solid when stress is applied to it. For the case of one-
dimensional deformation, strain is defined as the fractional change in length.
If ∆l is the change in length and l is the original length, then the strain is given by:
Change in length (∆l)
Strain (ε) =
Original length (l)
SI Unit:
Since strain is the ration of two same quantities, it is dimensionless, and therefore, has no units.
Types:
(i) Tensile Strain and Compressive Strain:
If the strain is due to tensile stress, it is called tensile strain. If the strain is due to compressive stress,
it is called compressive strain.
 (ii) Shear Strain:
A strain produced in the object when it is subjected to shear stress is called shear strain. When the
opposite faces of a rigid body are subjected to shear stress, the shear strain produced is given by
∆a
Shear Strain (γ) = = tan θ
a
(ii) Volumetric Strain:
When the applied stress changes the volume, then the change in volume per unit volume is called
volumetric strain. Thus,
∆V
Volumetric Strain =
Vo

17.3. Define modulus of elasticity. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and stress are the same.
Also discuss its three kinds.

om
Ans MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Definition:
The ratio of stress to strain is a constant for a given material, provided the external applied force is
not too great, called modulus of elasticity. Mathematically, it is described as:

l.c
Stress
Modulus of Elasticity =
Strain
SI Unit:

ai
Since the strain is a dimensionless quantity, the units of modulus of elasticity are the same as that of
stress, i.e., Nm-2 or Pa.
Proof
As we know
gm Stress Nm-2 Pa
Modulus of Elasticity = = =
Strain no units no units
Then we can say that units of modulus of elasticity and stress are same.
Types:
8@

(i) Young’s Modulus:

For the case of linear deformation, the ration of tensile stress to tensile strain is called Young’s
Modulus (Y).
F
9

Tensile Stress A
Young's Modulus (Y) = =
Tensile Strain ∆l
73

l
(ii) Shear Modulus:
When the shear stress τ = (F/A) and shear strain (γ = tan θ) are involved, then their ratio is called
shear modulus (G).
a1

Shear Stress F
Shear Modulus (G) = = A
Shear Strain tan θ
(iii) Bulk Modulus:
For three-dimensional deformations, when volume is involved, then the ratio of applied stress to
az

volumetric strain is called bulk modulus (K).

Volumetric Stress F
Bulk Modulus (K) = = A
ir

Volumetric Strain ∆V
V
Where ∆V is the change in original volume V
al

17.4. Draw a stress-strain curve for a ductile material, and then define the terms: Elastic limit, Yield point
and Ultimate tensile stress?

Ans In tensile test, metal wire is extended at a specified deformation rate. The stresses generated in the
wire during deformation are continuously measured by a suitable electronic device fitted in the
mechanical testing machine. Stress-strain curve is plotted automatically on XY chart recorder. A
typical stress strain curve for a ductile material is shown in the figure.
(i) Proportional Limit (σp):
In the initial stages of deformation, stress is increased linearly with strain until point A on stress-strain
curve. This is called proportional limit. Hence, proportional limit is defined as the greatest stress that
a material can endure without losing straight-line proportionality between stress and strain.
 (ii) Yield Stress or Elastic Limit (σe):
From A to B, the stress and strain are not proportional, but
nevertheless, if the load is removed at any point between O
and B, the curve will be retraced and the material will return
to its original length. The point B is called yield point and
the value of stress at this point is known as yield stress or
elastic limit. Hence, elastic limit is the greatest stress that a
material can endure without any permanent deformation.
(iii) Ultimate Tensile Stress UTS (σm):
If the stress is increased beyond elastic limit, the specimen
becomes permanently deformed. This kind of behavior is
called plasticity. The region of plasticity is represented by the portion of the curve from B to C. The
point C represents ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Therefore, ultimate tensile stress is the maximum

om
stress that a material can withstand. Once point C corresponding to UTS is crossed, the material
breaks at point D, responding to fracture stress.

17.5. What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from force-extension graph?

l.c
Ans Strain Energy:
The amount of potential energy stored in a material due to displacement of its molecule from its
equilibrium position, under the action of stress, is called strain energy.

ai
Derivation of the expression of Strain Energy:
Consider a wire whose one end is attached to a fixed support, is stretched vertically by connecting a
weight at its lower end. The suspended weight acts as a stretching force. The extension in the wire is
gm
increased by increasing the stretching force. The graph plotted between extension l for the different
value of stretching force is shown in the figure.
8@

F2 C H

F1 B
→F

F
73

A D G
O ∆x l1 l2
→I
a1

It is clear from the figure that the force is constant in producing extension l1 but is changing linearly
from 0 to F1. In order to calculate the work done for extension l1 by a certain force F1, it is convenient
to find the work done by graphical method.
az

The work done for extension l1 by a certain force F1 will be equal to the area under force – extension
curve, which is equal to the area of triangle OAB. Therefore,
Work done = Area of triangle OAB
ir

1
Work done = (base)(altitude)
2
al

1
Work done = OA × AB
2
1
Work done = l × F1
2 1
This work done is appeared as strain energy inside the wire. So,
1
Strain Energy = l × F1 ---------------(i)
21
If A is the cross-sectional area of the wire of length L, then the modulus of elasticity E of the wire can
be described as:
Stress
Modulus of Elasticity =
Strain
 F1 ⁄A
E =
l1 ⁄L
EAl1
F1 =
L
Putting in (i)
1 EAl1 1 EAl1 2
Strain Energy = l1 × =
2 L 2 L

17.6. Describe the formation of energy bands in solids. Explain difference amongst electrical behaviour of
conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of energy band theory.

Ans ENERGY BAND THEORY

om
The electrical properties of solids determine its ability to conduct electric current. The conventional
free electron theory based on Bohr Model failed to explain completely the vast diversity in the
electrical behavior of solids. On the other hand, the energy based on wave mechanical model has
been found successful in resolving this problem.

l.c
(i) Energy Band:
When the large numbers of atoms are brought together, as in a crystal, they interact with one
another to form a solid. As the result, each energy level splits up into several sub-levels due to the
action of force exerted by other atoms in the solid. A group of such energy sublevels is called an

ai
energy band.
(ii) Forbidden Energy Band:
There is a large number of energy states between two consecutive permissible energy bands, which
gm
cannot be occupied by electrons. These are called forbidden energy states. The energy bands are
separated by gaps in which there is no energy level. Such energy gaps are called forbidden bands.
 TYPES OF ENERGY BANDS
(a) Valence Band:
8@

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valance electrons. Therefore, the energy
band occupied by valance electrons is called the valance band. The valance band may be either
completely filled or partially filled with the electrons but can never be empty.
(b) Conduction Band:
9

The energy band next to the valance band is called the conduction band. The valence and
conduction bands are separated by forbidden energy gaps. The conduction band may be empty or
73

partially filled. The electrons in the conduction band can drift freely in the materials and are called
free or conduction electrons.
(c) Completely Filled Energy Band:
a1

The bands below the valence energy band are normally completely filled. They do not take part in
conduction process. Therefore we consider valence and conductive while discussing the electrical
conductivity.
 APPLICATION OF ENERGY BANDS
az

The width of forbidden energy gap between valance and conduction band decide whether a material
is a conductor, insulator or a semiconductor.
(i) Insulators:
ir

Insulators are those materials in which valance electrons are bound very tightly to their atoms and
are not free. In terms of energy bands, it means that an insulator has:
al

(a) An empty conduction band (no free electron)

(b) A full valence band
(c) A large energy gap (several eV) between them

Empty Conduction Band Conduction Band

Conduction Band

Forbidden Band Overlap Forbidden Band

Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band

Insulator Conductor Semi-conductor

 (ii) Conductors:
Conductors are those, which have plenty of free electrons ele for electrical conduction. In terms of
energyrgy bands, conductors are those materials in which valence and condu conduction band largely overlap
each other. There is no physical distinction
distinction between the two bands, which ensures the availability of
free electrons. That is why; the conductions are good conductors of electricity.
(iii) Semiconductors:
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors
semiconducto are those materials, which at room temperature have
(a) A partially
artially filled conduction band
(b) A partially filled valence band
(c) Very
ery narrow forbidden energy
en gap (of order of 1 eV) between conduction and valence bands

At 0 K, there are no electrons in the conduction band and their valence ban band is completely filled. It
means at 0 K a piece of Ge e or Si is a perfect insulator. However,
owever, with the increase of temperature,

om
some electrons posses
osses sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap from the valance band
to conduction band. This transfers
transf some free electrons in the conduction band and creates some
holes in the valancee band. The vacancy of electron in the valence ban band is known as a hole. It
behaves like a positive charge.
charg Thus at room temperature, Ge or Si crystals becomes a
semiconductor.

l.c
17.7. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors.
semi conductors. How would you obtain n-type and p-type
material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schematic diagram.

ai
Ans INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS
SEMI CONDUCTORS
There are two types of semi-conductors
conductors. gm
(a) Intrinsic semi-conductors
(b) Extrinsic semi-conductors
(i)) INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor in its extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconduct
semiconductors. Pure elements of
8@

silicon and germanium are intrinsic semiconductors.

9
73
a1
az
ir

Doping
al

The electrical behavior of semiconductors is extremely sensitive to the purity of the material. It is
substantially changed on introducing a small impurity into pure semi-conductor.
conductor. This process is
called doping.
(ii) EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS
CONDUCTORS
The doped semi-conducting
conducting materials are called extrinsic semi-conductors.
semi conductors.
Explanation:
Pure elements of silicon and germanium are intrinsic semiconductors.
semiconductors. These semi
semi-conductor
elements have atoms with four valence electrons. In solid crystallinealline form, the atoms of these
elements arrange themselves in such a pattern that each atom has four our equidistant neighbors. Each
atom with its four valence electrons,
electron shares an electrons from its neighbors. This effectively allocates
eight electrons in the outermost shell of each atom, which is a stable state. The sharing of electrons
between two atoms is called covalent bonds. Due to this, electrons are bound in their respective
shells.
 Types:
The conductivity of silicon and germanium can be drastically increased by the controlled addition of
impurities to the he intrinsic (pure) semi conductive material.
material. There are two types of extrinsic
semiconductors.
(a) n-Type Semi-conductors
When a silicon crystaltal is doped with a pentavalent element, e.g., arsenic, ant
antimony or phosphorous
etc., four valance electrons of impurity atom form covalent bond with the four neighboring Si atoms,
while
hile the fifth valence electron provides a free electron in the
he crystal. This extra electron becomes a
conduction electron n because it is not attached to any atom. Such a doped ext extrinsic semiconductor is
n-type semiconductor.

om
l.c
ai
gm
(b) p-Type Semi-conductors
8@

When a silicon crystal

tal is doped with the trivalent element, e.g., aluminum, boron
boron, gallium or indium
etc., three valence electrons of the impurity
impurity atom form covalent bond with three neighboring Si
atoms. While the one missing electron in the covalent bond with the fourth rth-neighboring Si atom, is
called a hole, which in fact is vacancy, where an electron is accommodated. Such a semi
semiconductor is
9

called p-type semiconductor.

73
a1
az
ir
al

17.8. Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure semi-conductor
element.

Ans ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION BY HOLES AND ELECTRONS IN SOLIDS

It has been observed that whenever a covalent bond is broken, an electron hole p pair is created.
Explanation:
In order to explain it, consider a semiconductor crystal lattice e.g.
e. . Ge or Si. The circles indicate the
positive ions core and dots are valence electrons. These electrons are bound by covalent bond. At
room temperature, they have thermal kinetic motion. This is so strong that the electrons break the
covalent bond. They get themselves free and create a hole. Thus, whenever
a covalent bond is broken, an electron-hole
electron hole pair is created. Both of them
move in the semiconductor crystal lattice.

MECHANISMANISM OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION:

For this Purpose,se, we consider a row of Si atoms in crystal lattice. Suppose a
hole is present in the valence shell of atom A. The core of atom A has a net
positive charge as shown in figure because hole is a deficiency of electron.
Thus, this attracts an electron from a neighbouring
neig atom `B’. Therefore,, the hole moves to B as
shown in figure and a hole (positive charge) appears at B which attracts en electron from C. This
creates a hole at C and a positive charge at a C as shown in figure, which in return attracts an electron
from D, thus creating
reating a hole and a positive charge at D as shown figure. From the above discussion,
we draw the following conclusions.

om
(i) Stay of Hole:
If a hole is present in any valence shell, it
cannot stay there but it moves from one A +
atom to the other with the electron moving in
opposite direction.

l.c
(ii) Charge of a Hole:
Itt is observed that hole appears with a B +
positive charge. Thus, a moving hole is
equivalent to a moving positive charge.

ai
(iii)) Random Motion of Holes:
Itt is observed that hole has random motion C +
because positively charged core of the atom
can attract an electron from any of its
gm
neighbouring atoms.
(iv) Kinds of Charge Carriers:
Carriers +
D
There are two kinds ds of charge carriers in
8@

semiconductors (a) (b) (c) (d)

(a)
a) A free electron i.e. (-e)
(
(b) A hole i.e. (+e)
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION BY HOLES AND ELECTRONS IN AN A ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT:
9

The phenomenon n of electrical conduction due tot holeses and electrons in a circuit is proved by
considering the circuit as shown in figure.
73
a1
az
ir
al

When a battery is connected to a semiconductor, it produces an electric field across it due to which a
directed flow of electrons and holes takes place. The electrons flow toward
towards the positive end and the
holes flow towards the negative end of the semiconductor as shown in figure. The current flowing
through the semiconductor is carried by both electrons and holes. The electrical current and the hole
current add up together to give the total current.
I = Ie + Ih
17.9. Write a note on superconductors.

Ans SUPERCONDUCTORS
Definition:
Materials whose resistivity becomes zero below a certain temperature are called superconductors.
Explanation:
A class of elements such as metals, alloys and ceramics show a
remarkable change in resistivity with temperature. Thus,
superconductors are alloys that at certain temperature conduct
electricity with zero resistance. In these, no energy is dissipated and
the current at once setup continues to exist indefinitely without the
source of an emf. The superconductor offers no resistance to electric
current and is called perfect conductor.

om
Critical Temperature:
The temperature at which the resistivity of a material falls to zero is called critical temperature. It is
denoted by Tc.
Types of superconductors:
There are two types of superconductors

l.c
(i) Low Temperature Superconductors
Kmaerlingh Ornes discovered the first Material Critical Temperature Tc
superconductor in 1911, when it was observed LOW TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS
Aluminium 1.18 K

ai
that resistance of mercury disappears suddenly
as the temperature is reduced below 4.2 K. Tin 3.72 K
(ii) High Temperature Superconductors Lead 7.2 K
Any superconductor having a
temperature above 77 K (the boiling point of
gm
critical HIGH TEMPERATURE
Class of Ceramics
SUPERCONDUCTORS
125 K
liquid nitrogen) is referred as high temperature Yttrium Barium Copper
163 K or 110 °C
superconductor. Oxide (YBa2Cu3O7)
APPLICATIONS:
8@

Superconductors have many technological applications such as in

(a) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
(b) Magnetic Levitation Trains
(c) Powerful but small electric motors
9

(d) Fast computer chips

73

17.10. What is meant by para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for each.

Ans (A) Paramagnetic Substances:

a1

The solids in which the orbital and spin axes of the electrons in an atom are so oriented that their
fields support each other are called paramagnetic substances. In these solids, each atom behaves
like a tiny magnet.
For example: Aluminium, Manganese, Oxygen gas, Uranium and Plantinum
az

(B) Diamagnetic Substances:

In diamagnetic substance, there is no resultant field as the magnetic field produced by both orbital
ir

and spin motions of the electron might add up to zero.

For example: the atoms of Water, Copper, Bismuth and Antimony are diamagnetic.
al

(C) Ferromagnetic Substances:

In ferromagnetic substances, the atoms cooperate with each other in such a way so as to exhibit a
strong magnetic effect.
For example: Fe, Co, Ni, Chromium dioxide and Alnico
In ferromagnetic substance, there exist small regions called domains (contain 1012 to 1016 atoms).
Within each domain, the magnetic fields of all spinning electrons are parallel to one another, i.e.,
each domain is magnetized to saturation. Each domain behaves as a small magnet with its own
north and south poles. Following are two types of ferromagnetic substances:
(i) Soft Ferromagnetic Substances
In soft ferromagnetic substances, the domains are easily oriented on applying an external field and
readily return to random positions when the field is removed. This is desirable in an electromagnet
and in transformers. Iron is a soft magnetic material.
 (ii) Hard Ferromagnetic Substances
In hard ferromagnetic materials, domains are no so easily oriented to order. They required very
strong external fields but once oriented retain the alignment. These solids are used to make
permanent magnet. Steel and Alnico V is an example of hard ferromagnetic material.

17.11. What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a transformer?

Ans Definition:
The area of the loop is the measure of the energy needed to magnetize and demagnetize the
specimen during each cycle of the magnetizing current. This is the energy required to do work
against internal friction of the domains. This work is dissipated as heat. It is called hysteresis loss.
The loss of the energy depends on the hysteresis loop.
Explanation:

om
Hard magnetic material like steel cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized, so they have large
loop area as compared to soft magnetic materials such as iron, which can easily be magnetized. The
energy dissipated per cycle, thus, for iron is less than for steel.
Construction of transformer:
The cores of electromagnets used for alternating current where the specimen repeatedly undergoes

l.c
magnetization and demagnetization should have narrow hysteresis curve of small area to minimize
the waste of energy. This is the principle used in the construction of transformer to reduce energy
loss.

ai
PROBLEMS
Problem 17.1
4
gm
= = = =
/4
Problem 17.2
ℎ ℎ ∆
8@

= = =
ℎ
∆
= × 100 = × 100
9

Problem 17.3
ℎ ℎ ∆
73

= = =
ℎ
′
= =
∆
1
a1

= = ×∆
2
Problem 17.4
′
= = = ; = =
az

= = ; = =
ir

Problem 17.5
1
al

= = ×∆ = ×∆
2
′
= = ; ∆ =
∆
Problem 17.6
∆
=
∆
=
′
∆
= = ; =
∆
′
∆
= = ; =
∆
 Electronics
QUESTIONS
1
18

om
18.1. How does the motion of an electron in a n-type
n type substance differ from the motion of holes in a p
p-type
substance?

Ans n-type substance:

l.c
As we know, electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carrier in n n-type
substances. In such substances, current is produced by the flow of electrons and is called electronic
current. Whenhen a battery is connected in electronic
circuit,, the electrons move from lower potential

ai
(negative end) to the higher potential (positive end)
in an electric field.

p-type substance:
gm
As we know, holes are majority charge carriers and
electrons are minority charge carrier in p-type p
substances.. In such substances, current is
8@

produced by the flow of holes and is called

conventional current. When a battery is connected in conventional circuit circuit, the holes move from
higher potential (positive end) to the lower potential (negative end) in an electric field.
9

18.2. What is the net charge on a n-type

type or a p-type
p substance?
73

Ans The net charge on both, n-type

type and p-type
p substance is zero.
Reason:
n-type
type substance is formed when small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to pure semi semi-
a1

conductors. Similarly, p-type

type substance is formed when a small amount of trivalent impurity is added
to pure semi-conductors.
conductors. Since all the atoms in n-type
n or p-type
type substance are electrically neutral so
net charge on n-type or p-type
type substance is zero.
az

18.3. The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward or reverse biased?

Ans The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. It is forward biased.
ir

Reason:
As the anode (p-type)
type) of the diode is at high potential with respect to cathode (n
(n-type), so it is said to
al

be forward biased. In this case, potential of anode is 0.2 V than that of cathode. Therefore, this diode
(pn-junction)
junction) is forward biased. Moreover, in the case of forward biased junction, the electrons
always flow from lower to higher potential against the electric field, so the flow of electrons takes
place from cathode to anode. Hence, the diode is forward biased.

18.4. Why charge carriers are not present in the depletion region?
region

Ans Charge carriers are not present in the depletion region.

region
Reason:
In the case of pn-junction, n-region
region contains free electrons as majority charge carriers a and p-region
contains holes as majority charge carriers. The electrons in the n-region
n region due to their random motion
diffuse in the p-region
region forming positive ion behind. As a result, of their diffusion, the recombination of
 electrons and holes takes place within the depletion region and negative ion is formed at p p-region.
Since, the charge carriers are removed, so a charge-less
cha less region is formed around the junction in
which charge carriers are not present. Thus we, can say that depletion region has no net charge
charge.

p-region Depletion region n-region

om
18.5. What is the effect of forward and reverse biasing of a diode on the width of depletion region
region?

Ans Forward Biasing:

When the pn-junction
junction is forward biased, the

l.c
width of depletion region reduces. It is
because, barrier potential is reduced which
allows more current
ent to flow across the junction.
Reverse Biasing:

ai
When the pn-junction is reversed biased, the
width of depletion region increases.
increase It is
because, majority carriers are pulled away
from the junction.
gm
18.6. Why ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light?
8@

Ans The ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light.

lig
Reason:
Height of potential barrier is between p and n side of silicon diode. When electron recombines with a
hole, 0.7 eV energy is released in the form of a photon.
9

Here, Energy = E = 0.7 eV = 0.7 x 1.6 x 10-19 J

73

As,
E
E = hf or f =
h
c ch
a1

λ = or λ =
f E
Hence,
ch 3 ×108 (6.63 ×10-34 )
az

λ = = -19
= 1.776 × 10-6 m = 1776 nm
E 0.7 x 1.6 x 10
Hence, photons emitted from silicon diodes have wavelength much greater than visible light whose
wavelength ranges from 750- 400 nm. Hence, they lie in infrared region and not visible.
ir

Moreover, it is opaque to light and when electrons from n-side

n side cross the junction and recombine the
holes on p-side,
side, greater percentage of energy
energy is released in form of heat. That is why they do not
al

emit light.

18.7. Why a photodiode

diode is operated in reverse biased state?

Ans A photodiode
diode is operated in reverse biased state.
Reverse Current

Reason:
Such diode which coverts light energy into electrical energy is called
photodiode. In reverse-biased
biased state, the reverse current is almost negligible in
the absence of light. However, a reverse-current starts when its pn-junction
junction is
exposed to light. When light
ight enters the junction, it creates electron-hole
electron pair,
which causes the flow of small current in the reverse direction. As the
intensity of light increases,, so the number of electrons and holes also Intensity of Light
 increase. As a result, reverse current increases as shown in figure.. Such a photodiode can turn its
current ON and OFF in house circuits in nano-seconds.
na

18.8. Why is the base current in a transistor very small?

small

Ans The base current in a transistor very small.

Reason:
It is because of following reasons;
(i) The base is very thin of the order 10-6 m as compared to either emitter or collector.
(ii) The base has very small doping level as compared to emitter and collector.
(iii) Biasing voltage between base-collector
base junction VCC is larger than the voltage between base
base-
emitter junction VBE i.e. VCC > VBE.
Thus, it has only a small number of electrons and holes to recombine with the charges already

om
present in the base. In other words, majority of electrons coming from emitter do not combine with
some holes and escape out of the base. Almost majority of free electrons are attracted towards the
collector. As a result, IC ≈ IE and hence IB is very small.

l.c
18.9. What is the biasing requirement of the junctions of a transistor for its normal operation? Explain how
these requirements are met in a common emitter amplifier?
amplifier

Ans For normal operation of a transformer connected in a circuit, emitter-base

emitter base junction ((E-B input) is

ai
forward and collector-base junction (C-B
( output) is reverse-biased.
Common-Emitter
Emitter (CE) Amplifier:
Amplifier
In common-emitter
emitter amplifier, input is applied between the base and emitter. The output is obtained
gm
between collector and emitter. Thus, emitter-base
emitter junction (E-B) is forward
forward-biased while collector-
base junction (C-B) is reverse--biased. Voltage applied across E-C C junction is always greater than the
voltage applied across E-BB junction.
8@

18.10. What is the principle of a virtual ground? Apply it to find the gain of an inverting amplifier.

Ans Principle of a Virtual Ground

round:
In an inverting amplifier, the input signal voltage Vi to be amplified is applied at inverting terminal
9

(negative) through a resistor R1 and Vo is the output voltage. The non-inverting

inverting terminal (positive) is
grounded and its potential is zero. As open loop gain AOL is very high ((≈ 105) so by knowing the
73

relation;
output Vo
AOL = =
input V+ - V
a1

For any value of Vo,

V+ - V- ≈ 0
or
V+ ≈ V
az

Since, V+ is zero at ground potential so V- is virtually at ground potential i.e. V- ≈ 0.

This is called principle of virtual ground.
R2
ir

R1 I2
al

I1 0V
Vi 0V VO

Ground
Calculation of Voltage Gain:
Vi - V-
Current through R1 = I1 =
R1
As V- ≈ 0 , so
Vi - 0 Vi
I1 = = −−−−−( )
R1 R1
 V- - Vo
Current through R2 = I2 =
R2
As V- ≈ 0 , so
0-Vo -Vo
I = = −−−−−( )
R2 R2
Using Kirchhoff’s Current Rule
I1 = I2
Putting values from (i) and (ii) in above equation
Vi -Vo
=
R1 R2
or

om
Vo R2
= -
Vi R1
Also
output
Gain of Inverting Amplifier =

l.c
input
Hence,
R2
Gain of Inverting Amplifier = -
R1

ai
18.11. The inputs of a gate are 1 and 0. Identify the gate if its output is (a) 0 (b) 1?

Ans (a) Output = 0

gm
The gate may be AND, NOR or XNOR.
Inputs Outputs
A B AND Gate NOR Gate XNOR Gate
8@

X = A . B + A .B
X=A.B X=A+B X = 1 . 0 + 1 .0
9

1 0 X=1.0 X=1+0 X=1.1 + 0.0

73

X=0 X=0
X=1 + 0
X=0
a1

(b) Output = 1
The gate may be OR, NAND or XOR.
Inputs Outputs
az

A B OR Gate NAND Gate XOR Gate

X = A . B + A .B
ir

X=A+B X=A.B X = 1 . 0 + 1 .0
1 0 X=1+0 X=1.0 X=1.1 + 0.0
al

X=1 X=1 X=1 + 0

X=1

18.12. Tick () the correct answer.

(i) A diode characteristic curve is a plot between

a. current and time
b. voltage and time
c. voltage and current
d. forward voltage and reverse voltage
(ii) The colour of light emitted by a LED depends on
a. its forward bias
b. its reverse bias
c. the amount of forward current
d. the type of semi-conductor material used

(iii) In a half-wave rectifier, the diode conducts during

a. both halves of the input cycle
b. a portion of the positive half of the input cycle
c. a portion of the negative half of the input cycle
d. one half of the input cycle

(iv) In a bridge rectifier of fig. when Vi is positive at point B with respect to point A, which diodes are ON

om
A

D4 D1

l.c
Vi
~
D3 D2

ai
B
R
gm
a. D2 and D4
b. D1 and D3
c. D2 and D3
8@

d. D1 and D4

(v) The common emitter current amplification factor β is given by

I
9

a. C I
E
73

IC
b. IB 

IE
a1

c. IB
IB
d. IE
az

(vi) Truth table of logic function

a. summarizes its output values
b. tabulates all its input conditions only
ir

c. display all its input/output possibilities

d. is not based on logic algebra
al

(vii) The output of two inputs OR gate is 0 only when its

a. both inputs are 0
b. either input is 1
c. both inputs are 1
d. either input is 0

(viii) A two inputs NAND gate with inputs A and B has an output 0 if
a. A is 0
b. B is 0
c. Both A and B are zero
d. Both A and B are 1
 (ix) The truth table shown below is for
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
a. XNOR gate
b. OR gate
c. AND gate
d. NAND gate

PROBLEMS

om
Problem 18.1

= +

l.c
=

ai
Problem 18.2

=
gm
= +
8@

Problem 18.3

−
=
9
73

=
a1

= or = −

Problem 18.4
az

+ =

Problem 18.5
ir

= =1+
al
 Dawn of Modern
Physics
QUESTIONS
19

om
19.1. What are measurements on which two observers in relative motion always agree upon?

Ans The measurements on which two observers in uniform relative motion (i.e. moving with uniform
motion w.r.t. each other) will agree upon;

l.c
(i) Speed of light in free space i.e. 3.0 x 108 ms-1
(ii) Magnitudes of force and acceleration of a moving object

19.2. Does the dilation means that time really passes more slowly in moving system or that it only seems

ai
to pass more slowly?

gm
Ans The dilation means that time only seems to pass more slowly.
Reason:
As we know, the time dilation is given by the formula,
to
t =
v2
8@

1- 2
c
This result shows that a clock moving with respect to the observer appears to tick less rapidly than it
does when it is at rest w.r.t. him. It means that moving clock appears to run slow to the observer at
rest. Therefore, time dilation is apparent change and it is not the actual change. In other words, it
9

only seems to pass more slowly but not actually.

73

19.3. If you are moving in a spaceship at a very high speed relative to the Earth, would you notice a
difference (a) in your pulse rate (b) in the pulse rate of people on Earth?
a1

Ans (a) In our Pulse Rate:

We feel no change in our own pulse rate.
Reason:
As we know, the time dilation is given by the formula,
az

to
t =
v2
1-
c2
ir

Inside the spaceship, the clock is at rest w.r.t. moving spaceship so speed of clock is zero.
When v = 0 then from formula of time dilation
al

t = to
Hence, no change in pulse rate occurs.
(b) In the Pulse Rate of People on Earth:
The pulse rate of people on Earth will be slower as measured by the people in space ship.
Reason:
Earth and spaceship are two different frame of references. A person will feel a change in the pulse
rate of people on the Earth because the clock on which he is measuring the pulse rate is moving at
very high-speed w.r.t. to Earth. According to time dilation formula, the clock inside the spaceship will
move slowly due to large speed of spaceship, as compared to the clock on the Earth.
to
t =
v2
1- 2
c
Thus, the person in the spaceship will feel slower pulse rate of the people on Earth.
19.4. If the speed of light were infinite, what would the equations of special theory of relativity reduce to?

Ans If c → ∞, then
v2 v2
= = 0
c2 ∞2

Therefore, the equations of relativity reduce to;

(i) Time Dilation
There may be no time dilation.
to
t = ⟹ t = to
v2
1- 2
c
(ii) Length Contraction

om
There will be no length contraction.
v2
l = lo 1 - ⟹ l = lo
c2

l.c
(iii) Mass Variation
There will be no increase in mass.
mo
m = ⟹ m = mo
v2

ai
1- 2
c
(iv) Mass-Energy Relation
As ∆m = 0 so there will be no increase in energy.
gm
∆E = ∆mc2 ⟹ ∆E = 0

19.5. Since mass is a form of energy, can we conclude that a compressed spring has more mass than the
same spring when it is not compressed?
8@

Ans Yes, there would be an increase in the mass of compressed spring.

Reason:
However, the increase in mass is slightly greater than the mass of uncompressed spring due to
9

condensation of energy of compressed string into mass (i.e. work done in compressing the spring
has changed into energy, which increases the mass of the spring). However, this increase in mass is
73

negligibly small. According to Einstein’s energy-mass relation

∆E = ∆mc2
This increase in energy increases the mass as;
a1

∆E
∆m = 2
c
As, ∆E is very small, therefore ∆m is in too small to be measured.
az

19.6. As a solid is heated and begins to glow, why does it first appear red?

Ans As a solid is heated and begins to glow, it first appears red.

ir

Reason:
According to Wien’s displacement law, wavelength is inversely proportional to temperature i.e.
al

1
λ ∝
T
When a body is heated, it emits radiations. The nature of radiations depends upon temperature. At
low temperature, a body emits radiations of longer wavelengths. Since the longest visible wavelength
is red, so it first appears red. As the temperature of solid is further increased, the proportion of
radiations of short wavelength increases. This is why the solids when heated look red first.

19.7. What happens to total radiation from a black body if its absolute temperature doubled?

Ans The total energy radiated per second is increased to 16 times.

Proof:
According to Stefan-Boltzmann’s law,
E = σ T4
 When absolute temperature is increased to double of its value then T = 2T,
E' = σ (2T)4
E' = σ × 16T4
E' = 16(σT)4
E' = 16 E
Thus, the total radiation energy E’ will increase sixteen times.

19.8. A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which beam contains the
greater number of photons?

Ans A beam of red light contains greater number of photons.

Reason:

om
As we know, the energy of single photon is given by,
E = hf
Let n be the number of photons, then the energy becomes
E = nhf −−−−−( )

l.c
However, c = f λ or f = c / λ
Putting the value of f in equation (i)
nhc
E =
λ

ai
or
Eλ
n = −−−−−( )
hc gm
As red and blue light have the same energies, so E, h and c have constant values. Thus,
n = constant × λ
n ∝ λ
The above equation shows that greater wavelength will have greater number of photons. But
8@

wavelength of red light is greater than that of blue light i.e. λred > λblue, so beam of red light will contain
greater number of photons.

19.9. Which photon, red, green, or blue carries the most (a) energy and (b) momentum?
9

Ans (a) Energy

73

Photon of blue light has most energy.

Reason:
As we know, the energy of the photon is given by,
E = hf
a1

However, c = f λ or f = c / λ
hc
E =
λ
az

However, h and c have constant values. Thus,

1
E = constant ×
λ
ir

1
E ∝
λ
al

This relation shows, smaller the wavelength greater the energy. As the wavelength of photon of blue
light is shorter among red and green light photons so, photon of blue light has maximum energy.
(b) Momentum
Photon of blue light has more momentum.
Reason:
As we know, the momentum of the photon is given by,
h
p =
λ
However, h is constant. Thus,
1
p = constant ×
λ
1
p ∝
λ
 This relation shows, smaller the wavelength greater the momentum. As the wavelength of photon of
blue light is shorter among red and green light photons so, photon of blue light has maximum
momentum.

19.10. Which has the lower energy quanta? Radio waves or X-rays.

Ans Radio waves have lower energy quanta.

Reason:
Since,
E = hf
or
E ∝ f
As frequency of X-rays is greater than that of radio waves or wavelength of X-rays is smaller than

om
that of radio waves, so from the above relation it is obvious that X-rays quantum is greater than that
of radio waves. In short, the radio waves have lower energy quanta.

19.11. Does the brightness of a beam of light primarily depends on the frequency of photons or on the
number of photons?

l.c
Ans The brightness of a beam of light depends on the number of photons.
Reason:

ai
When the light is visible or not, it depends upon frequency. However, the brightness of a beam light
depends upon the number of photons not on the frequency of light or photons. Brightness or intensity
means the energy delivered per unit time per unit area. Hence, the brightness of beam of light
gm
depends upon the number of photons.

19.12. When ultraviolet light falls on certain dyes, visible light is emitted. Why does this not happen, when
infrared light falls on these dyes?
8@

Ans When infrared light falls on certain dyes, visible light is not emitted.
Reason:
The ultraviolet light has photons of high energy. When they fall on certain dyes, they can excite the
9

atoms of dyes. When the excited atoms return to their ground state, they emit frequencies, which are
detectable by normal human eye.
73

However, when infrared light are made to fall on the atoms of dyes, then they may be excited.
However, the de-excitation takes place in such a way that photons of frequencies are emitted whose
values are below the least value of frequency of visible spectrum. Thus, they cannot be detected by
normal human eye. Hence, the ultraviolet light falling on dyes cause the light visible while the infrared
a1

light cannot do so.

19.13. Will bright light eject more electrons from a metal surface than dimmer light of the same colour?
az

Ans Yes, bright light will eject more electrons from a metal surface than dimmer light of the same colour.
Reason:
As we have studied in the phenomenon of photoelectric effect, the number of electrons emitted from
ir

the metal surface is directly proportional to the intensity of light i.e.

al

Number of electrons ∝ Intensity of Light

Therefore, bright light being more intense will emit more electrons from a metal surface than a
dimmer light of the same colour and less intensity.

19.14. Will higher frequency light eject greater number of electrons than low frequency light?

Ans Both higher and lower frequency lights will eject same number of electrons from a metal surface.
Reason:
The number of photoelectrons does not depend upon frequency but depends on intensity of light i.e.

Number of electrons ∝ Intensity of Light

 Therefore, high frequency light will not emit more electrons than low frequency light. However, the
higher frequency light ejects electrons whose K.E. will be greater than those electrons emitted by low
frequency light.

19.15. When light shines on a surface, is momentum transferred to the metal surface?

Ans Yes, when light shines on a surface, momentum is transferred to the metal surface
Reason:
According to Einstein, light behaves like particle.
Since,
E = pc
or
E ∝ p

om
Transfer of momentum depends upon energy of incident light.
For instance, we have observed in photoelectric effect that when a metal surface is exposed to a
light of suitable frequency, electrons are emitted out of surface. It is possible only when photons of
light transfer their energy and momentum to surface electrons.

l.c
19.16. Why can red light be used in a photographic dark room when developing films, blue or white light
cannot?

ai
Ans Red light can be used in a photographic dark room when developing films.
Reason:
As we know, the energy of the photon is given by,

However, c = f λ or f = c / λ
gm
E = hf

hc
E =
λ
Since the frequency of red light is smaller than that of blue or white light so red light has less energy
8@

as compared to blue and white light. Therefore, red light cannot affect the photographic plate and
make no chemical reaction on other concerned material. That is why red light is preferred in
photographic dark room.
9

19.17. Photon A has twice the energy of photon B. What is the ratio of the momentum of A to that of B?
73

Ans As we know, the energy of the photon is given by,

E = hf
Then,
a1

Energy of photon A = EA = hfA

Energy of photon B = EB = ½ hfA
or we can say
az

EB = ½ EA − − − − −( )
As we know, momentum of photon is given by,
h hf E
p = = =
ir

λ c c
Now,
Momentum of photon A = pA = EA/c − − − − −( )
al

Momentum of photon B = pB = EB/c

But from equation (i)
EB ½ EA
pB = =
c c
Dividing equation (ii) with this equation
pA EA c 1
= × = = 2
pB c ½ EA ½
or
pA
= 2
pB
Hence, momentum of photon A is also two times greater than the momentum of photon B.
19.18. Why don’t we observe a Compton Effect with visible light?

Ans We do not observe a Compton Effect with visible light.

Reason:
Compton Effect is observed with X-ray and γ-ray photons. These photons have energy, which is
thousand times greater than visible light photons. During Compton Effect, an X-ray photon knocks an
electron out of the atom. Even after this interaction, the X-ray photon has sufficient energy so that it
retains its identity. On the other hand, visible light photon loses all its energy in single interaction with
an electron in an atom. Therefore, we cannot observe a Compton Effect with visible light.

19.19. Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain.

Ans No, pair production cannot take place in vacuum.

om
Reason:
During the process of pair production, the law of conservation of energy and law of conservation of
momentum are observed. In order to conserve the momentum and energy, the presence of heavy
nucleus is essential. As, pair production takes place near the nucleus, which take the recoil to
conserve the momentum. Therefore, pair production cannot take place in vacuum because vacuum

l.c
has no particle to stop the photon.

19.20. Is it possible to create a single electron from energy? Explain.

ai
Ans No, it is not possible to create a single electron from energy.
Reason:
In the phenomenon of pair production, when a photon of energy E = hf greater than 2moc2 strikes a
gm
nucleus, an electron-positron pair is created. A positron is an antiparticle of an electron. It is also
called positive electron. Hence, creation of electron will be against the law of conservation of charge,
which cannot be violated.
8@

19.21. If electrons behaved only like particles, what pattern would you expect on the screen after the
electrons passes through the double slit?

Ans If electrons behaved only like particles, then they would pass through either of the two slits straight
9

and strike the screen only just in the front of the slits to produce exact images of the double slit on
the screen. No interference pattern would be seen.
73

19.22. If an electron and a proton have the same de Broglie wavelength, which particle has greater speed?

Ans Electron will have greater speed.

a1

Reason:
According to de-Broglie, we know that wavelength associated with a particle is given by
h
λ =
az

mv
or
h
v =
ir

mλ
as, de-Broglie wavelength λ for both the particles is same and h is also constant, so we can write
1
al

v = constant ×
m
1
v ∝
m
It shows that greater the mass of the particle, smaller will be its velocity. As mass of photon is greater
than the mass of the electron, so speed of electron would be greater than the speed of photon.

19.23. We do not notice the de Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket ball. Explain why?

Ans Electron will have greater speed.

Reason:
According to de-Broglie relation
h
λ =
mv
 Due to large mass of cricket ball and small speed, the value of wavelength λ associated with a
moving cricket ball is extremely small. Therefore, it cannot show the wave property and no diffraction
can be produced. Hence, we cannot notice the de-Broglie wavelength for pitched cricket ball. In other
words, wavelength of wave associated with ball cannot be detected.

19.24. If the following particles all have the same energy, which has the shortest wavelength? Electron,
alpha particle, neutron, proton.

Ans Alpha particle will have the shortest wavelength.

Reason:
According to de-Broglie relation
h
λ = −−−−−( )
mv

om
Also, the energy of moving particle
1
E = mv2
2
2E
v2 =
m

l.c
2E
v = −−−−−( )
m

ai
Putting (ii) in (i)
h
λ =
gm 2E
m m
h
λ = −−−−−( )
√ 2mE
where h is Planck’s constant for the same energy value for all particles, then from equation (iii) we
8@

get to know that wavelength λ varies inversely as the square root of mass of the particle,
1
λ ∝
√m
This relation shows that the particle, which has the largest mass, will have the shortest wavelength.
9

Since the mass of alpha particle is greatest, therefore, alpha particle will have shortest wavelength
associated with it.
73

19.25. When does light behave as a wave? When does it behave as a particle?
a1

Ans (a) Wave-like nature of LIGHT:

Light behaves as wave in the phenomenon of
(i) Interference
(ii) Diffraction
az

(iii) Polarization
(b) Particle-like nature of LIGHT:
Light behaves as particle in the phenomenon of
ir

(i) Photoelectric Effect

(ii) Compton Effect
(iii) Pair Production
al

19.26. What advantages an electron microscope has over an optical microscope?

Ans Electron microscope has many advantages over optical microscope.

ELECTRON MISCROSCOPE OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
(i) Focusing: (i) Focusing:
Focusing of invisible electron is done by Focusing of invisible electron is done by
electron and magnetic field. optical lens.
(ii) Picture:
(ii) Picture:
Picture of internal structure of an object can
Picture of internal structure of an object
be obtained with the help of electron
cannot be obtained by optical microscope.
microscope.
 (iii) Resolving Power: (iii) Resolving Power:
It is thousand times greater than that of It is thousand times less than that of
optical microscope. electron microscope.
(iv) Magnification: (iv) Magnification:
It is thousand times higher than that of It is thousand times less than that of
optical microscope. electron microscope.

19.27. If measurements show a precise position for an electron, can those measurements show precise
momentum also? Explain.

Ans No, these measurements cannot show precise momentum also.

Reason:
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, position and momentum of a particle cannot be

om
measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy.
∆x × ∆p ≈ h
h
∆p ≈
∆x

l.c
So, if ∆x is very small then ∆p will be large.

PROBLEMS
Problem 19.1

ai
=
1 − gm
Problem 19.2
=
1 −
8@

Problem 19.3
ℎ
=ℎ =
9

Problem 19.4
. . =
73

ℎ
=ℎ −ℎ =ℎ − = −
Problem 19.5
a1

ℎ
∆ = (1 − cos )
Problem 19.6
ℎ ℎ
az

= ; =
ℎ ℎ
∆ = (1 − cos ) ; − = (1 − cos )
ir

Problem 19.7
ℎ
al

=ℎ =
Problem 19.8
ℎ ℎ ℎ
( ) = ( ) = ( ) =
Problem 19.9
ℎ
=
Problem 19.10
ℎ
∆ ×∆ ≈ ℎ ; ∆ × ∆ ≈ ℎ ; Δ =
Δ
 Atomic Spectra
QUESTIONS
20

om
20.1. Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom is based upon several assumptions. Do any of these assumptions
contradict classical physics?

Ans Bohr’s first postulate contradicts the classical physics.

l.c
Explanation:
According to first postulate of Bohr’s theory, an electron in an orbit revolving around the nucleus
does not radiate energy by radiation. However, according to the classical physics, an accelerated
electron radiates energy due to its circular motion around the nucleus. As the revolving electron is

ai
accelerated,
ated, so it radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Due to the emission of
radiation energy, the electron would gradually come closer to the nucleus and ultimately should be
absorbed in it. gm
9 8@
73

Classical Physics (Rutherford) Modern Physics (Bohr)

a1

20.2. What is meant by a line spectrum? Explain, how line spectrum can be used for the identification of
elements?
az

Ans Line Spectrum:

When the gas at much low pressure is excited by passing an electric current (discharge) through it,
the spectrum of emitted radiation is in the form of discrete sharp lines. This type of spectrum is called
ir

line spectrum.
Line spectrum of an element is due to
excitation of electrons from lower to higher
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energy level. The excited electrons come

back to their ground state by emitting
radiation which they have absorbed during
excitation. The emitted radiations when
passed through ugh prism and fall on the
photographic film, a spectrum in form of
discrete spectral lines is observed which is
called line spectrum.
Identification of Elements:
Elements can be identified by observing their line spectrum because each element when heated
gives off different coloured spectral lines of its own which have definite wavelength and frequency.
For instance,
  Sodium salt gives golden yellow colour.
 Strontium salt gives bright red light.
l
 Neon glows with an orange light.
 Helium gives pink light etc.

20.3. Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy 13.6 eV and greater
than 13.6 eV?

Ans Yes, the electron in the ground state of hydrogen can absorb a photon of energy 13.6 eV and greater
than 13.6 eV.
Reason:
(i) Photon of 13.6 eV

om
13.6 eV is the ionization energy of electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom. Thus when
electron absorbs photon of 13.6 eV energy in the ground state then it leaves the hydrogen atom. Due
to this hydrogen atom is ionized. Outside the hydrogen atom,
tom, kinetic energy of electron is zero.
(ii) Photon of greater than 13.6 eV
When electron of hydrogen atom in the ground state absorbs photon of energy greater than 13.6 eV,

l.c
then 13.6 eV of energy is utilized by electron to ionize the hydrogen atom while remaining energy is
used by electron as its kinetic energy.

ai
20.4. How can the spectrum
trum of hydrogen contain so many lines when hydrogen contains one electron
electron?

Ans The gm
he spectrum of hydrogen contains so many lines even hydrogen contains one electron
Reason:
electron.

When electron of hydrogen atom absorbs energy from any outside source source, it jumps from lower
energy state to higher energy state. An electron cannot stay in excited state (higher energy state) for
a long time, so it soon returns to ground state (lower energy state) by emitting energy, which was
8@

originally absorbed. The electron emits one

one spectral line if it jumps direct from some higher state to
lower state.. In addition, a number of spectral lines of different wavelengths are emitted if transition
takes place in several steps from excited to ground state. That is why; spectrum of hydroge hydrogen
contains so many spectral lines although it contains one electron.
electron
9
73
a1
az

Excitation De
De-excitation (One Step) De-excitation
excitation (Two Steps)
ir

20.5. Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light?

light
al

Ans Yes, energy is conserved when an atom emits a photon of light.

light
Reason:
When electron of an atom absorbs energy from any outside source, it jumps from lower energy state
to higher energy state. The atom is then said to be excited.
excited The electron cannot stay in excited state
(higher energy state) for a long time, so it soon returns to ground state (lower energy state) by
emitting energy, which was originally absorbed. This is called de-excitation
de excitation of atom. Thus, total
energy remains constantnt because

Energy absorbed by atom during excitation = Energy emitted by atom during de-excitation

Hence, law of conservation of energy holds when an atom emits a photon of light
light.
20.6. Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and why that gas is capable of
absorbing the same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to other wavelengths
wavelengths?

Ans A glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and it is capable of absorbing the same
wavelengths. In addition, it is transparent to other wavelengths.
wavelengths
Reasons:
(i) Emit certain wavelengths of light
Atoms of gas are isolated. Isolated atoms have definite energies. When the electrons of isolated
atom jump from higher to lower energy state, then they emit photon of definite wavelength. It means
that atoms of gas have fixed energy levels i.e. photons of particular wavelength. Therefore, a glowing
gas emits photon of particular wavelength whose energy is equal to energy difference between two
levels.
(ii) Absorb same wavelengths of light and transparent to other

om
When white light pass through gas then atoms of the gas absorb those radiations, which these atoms
have emitted during their transition between en higher and lower energy level while radiation whose
wavelength is different, will not be absorbed. Photons of such wavelengths will pass through the gas.
Thus, gas is transparent for these photons.

l.c
20.7. What do you mean when we say that the atom is excited?
excited

Ans When electron of an atom absorbs energy from any outside source, it jumps

ai
from lower energy state to higher energy state. The atom is then said to be
excited. The electron cannot stay in excited state (higher energy state) for a
long time, so it soon returns
ns to ground state (lower energy state) by emitting
gm
energy, which was originally absorbed. This is called de-excitation
de excitation of atom.
The law of conservation of energy holds during excitation and de-excitation
excitation of
atom.
8@

20.8. Can X-rays

rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted
diffracted and polarized just like any other waves? Explain
Explain.

Ans Yes, X-rays can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized just like any other waves
waves.
Reason:
9

X-rays
rays are also electromagnetic waves of smaller wavelength and higher frequency
frequency. Their nature is
similar to ordinary light.. Therefore, X-rays
X possess the entire properties specific to light waves.
73

However, their condition may be different from that of ordinary light waves.
waves. For instance, diffraction of
light takes place by diffraction grating while X-rays
X rays are diffracted by crystals.

20.9. What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?

light
a1

Ans Lasers have many advantages over ordinary light.

az

LASER LIGHT ORDINARYARY LIGHT

(i) Wavelength: (i) Wavelength:
It is monochromatic source of light i.e. it It is polychromatic source of light i.e. it has
ir

has one wavelength. more than one wavelength.

(ii) Intensity: (ii) Intensity:
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It is more intense than ordinary light. It is less intense than laser light.
(iii) Coherency: (iii) Coherency:
It is coherent i.e. light waves are in same It is not coherent i.e. light waves are out of
phase. phase.
(iv) Production: (iv) Production:
It is produced due to stimulated emission of It is produced due to spontaneous
pontaneous emission
radiation. of radiation.
(v) Direction
on of Propagation: (v) Direction of Propagation:
It is emitted in one direction. It is emitted in all direction
directions.

20.10. Explain, why laser action could not occur without population inversion between atomic levels
levels?

Ans Laser
aser action could not occur without inversion between atomic levels.
 Definition of Population Inversion:
When number of atoms in the excited state becomes greater than ground state then population
inversion takes place.
Reason:
As, laser action is based upon stimulated emission which becomes possible and simple in presence
of population inversion. In the presence of population inversion, more intense monochromatic and
coherent photons are emitted in the same direction due to de-excitation of atoms in metastable state.
If there is no population inversion then less de-excitation of atoms in metastable state occurs and
laser light will not be emitted. Thus, for laser action population inversion is must.

PROBLEMS
Problem 20.1
ℎ

om
=
4
2 2 2
= ; = ; =
ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ
= = = =

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2
1
. .=
2

ai
. .= −
= . .+ . .
Problem 20.2 gm
ℎ
=ℎ =
Problem 20.3
ℎ ℎ
8@

=ℎ = ; − =
Problem 20.4
1 1 1
= −
9

Problem 20.5
1 1 1
73

= −
2
Problem 20.6
1 1 1
= −
a1

3
Problem 20.7
. .= ℎ
. .=
az

ℎ =
ℎ
=
ir

ℎ
=
al

Problem 20.8
ℎ
=ℎ =
Problem 20.9
ℎ
=
Problem 20.10
2 2
= ; =
ℎ ℎ
ℎ
=
4
2
=
ℎ
 Nuclear Physics
QUESTIONS
21

om
21.1. What are isotopes? What do they have in common and what are their differences?

Ans Definition:
The nuclei of an element which have the same charge number Z but different mass number A are

l.c
called isotopes.
Similarities of Isotopes:
(a) Isotopes of an element have same number of protons in nucleus or Atomic Number Z.
(b) They have same number of electrons around the nucleus.

ai
(c) They have same chemical properties due to same number of electrons.
Dissimilarities of Isotopes:
gm
(a) Isotopes of an element have different number of neutrons in nucleus or Neutron Number N.
(b) They have different physical properties.
(c) They have different abundance in nature as compared to each other. For instance, neon has
three isotopes but neon-20 is most abundant in nature.
Examples:
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(i) Hydrogen has three isotopes i.e. Protium 11 H , Deuterium 21 H , Tritium 31 H

(ii) Helium has two isotopes i.e. 32 He , 42 He
(iii) Chlorine has two isotopes i.e. 35 36
17 Cl , 17 Cl
9

(iv) Isotopes of uranium are 92 U , 92 U , 238

234 235 239
92 U , 92 U
73

21.2. Why are heavy nuclei unstable?

Ans A nucleus is unstable if it is too big i.e. its atomic number becomes greater than 82.
a1

Reason:
Heavy nuclei contain large number of neutrons in nucleus. Coulomb’s repulsive force acts on all
positively charged protons. As we know, Coulomb’s force is long-range force, so it dominates the
short-range force i.e. strong nuclear force. As a result, heavy nuclei become unstable. Moreover,
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due to decrease of strong nuclear force, binding energy per nucleon in heavy elements decreases
because

Binding Energy ∝ Strong Nuclear Force

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Hence, less energy is required to break or split the heavy nuclei i.e. they are unstable.
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21.3. If a nucleus has a half-life of 1 year, does it mean that it will be completely decayed after 2 years?
Explain.

Ans If a nucleus has half-life of 1 year, it does not mean that it will be completely decayed after 2 years.
Explanation:
(i) 1st Proof
According to radioactive law;

N = No e-λt

where N = number of un-decayed atoms at time t

No = original number of atoms
 λ = decay constant
It is obvious that N = 0, if and only if t → ∞
(ii) 2nd Proof
If No is the original number of atoms of any radioactive element then
n
1
Number of un-decayed atoms after n-half lives = N
2 o
So, for n = 2
1 2 1
Number of un-decayed atoms after 2-half lives = N = N
2 o 4 o
This shows that 25% of nuclei are left un-decayed after two half-lives.
Result:
It is obvious from both equations; radioactive sample always takes infinite time for its complete
decay.

om
21.4. What fraction of a radioactive sample decays after two half-lives have elapsed?

Ans ¾ th of radioactive sample decays after two half-lives.

l.c
Explanation:
If No is the original number of atoms of any radioactive element then
No
Number of atoms decayed after first half life =
2

ai
No /2 No
Number of atoms decayed after second half life = =
gm 2 4
No No 2No + No 3No
Total number of atoms decayed after two half lives = + = =
2 4 4 4

Then fraction of atoms decayed will be given as;

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Number of atoms decayed 100

Fraction of atoms decayed = ×
Total Number of atoms 100
3No ⁄4 100
9

= ×
No 100
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3No 100
= ×
4No 100
75
=
a1

100
= 75%
Result:
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25% of original sample of radioactive element is left un-decayed.

21.5. The radioactive element 226 3

88 Ra has a half-life of 1.6 x 10 years. Since the earth is about 5 billion
ir

years old, how can you explain why we still can find this element in nature?
al

Ans The radioactive element 226 3

88 Ra has a half-life of 1.6 x 10 years. It does not mean that it will be
completely decayed within 5 billion years.
Explanation:
According to radioactive law;
N = No e-λt
where N = number of un-decayed atoms at time t
No = original number of atoms
λ = decay constant
It is obvious that N = 0, if and only if t → ∞
Result:
It is obvious from equation; radioactive sample always takes infinite time for its complete decay but
5 billion years is finite time. Hence, we can still find this element in nature.
21.6. Describe a brief account of interaction of various types of radiations with matter.

Ans INTERACTION OF α-PARTICLE WITH MATTER

(1) Ionization:
α-particles interact with matter through ionization. Ionization in atoms of gas, liquid or solid is
produced by two different ways.
(i) By direct collision:
In this case, α-particle directly hits the electron as a result electron is ejected from atom.
(ii) By electrostatic collision:
In this case, α-particle attracts the electron as a result electron is knock out from atom.
(2) Path of motion:
During ionization process, α-particles and electrons exert force upon each other. As α-particle is
7000 times more massive than electron, so it does not suffer any deflection from its straight path.

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Therefore, it moves along straight path.

-+---++-+--+--+-++--+-
α-particle

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-++-+-- +---- +-+-+-++
(3) Loss of Energy:
α-particle loses energy during ionization. The process of ionization continues till the α-particle loses
all its energy and comes to rest. α-particle captures two electrons from the medium and become a

ai
neutral helium atom.
(4) Range:
gm
Distance covered by α-particle before coming to rest in the medium is called the range of α-particle.
Range of α-particle in air is very small due to intense ionization – it is only several centimeters.
Range of α-particle depends upon:
(i) Charge, mass and energy of the particle
(ii) Density of the medium
8@

(iii) Ionization potential of the atoms of the medium

(5) Effect of electric field:
In the presence of electric field of charged particle, α-particles are slowed down; as a result they
radiate energy as X-ray photons.
9

(6) Fluorescence:
α-particles produce fluorescence when they strike with screen which are coated with zinc sulphide,
73

sodium iodide or barium platinocyanide.

INTERACTION OF β-PARTICLE WITH MATTER

(1) Ionization:
a1

β-particles are fast moving electrons. They produce ionization when they knock out electrons from
the atoms of medium due to Coulomb’s force of repulsion. Ionizing ability of β-particles is 100 times
less than α-particles.
az

(2) Path of motion:

When β-particle collides with the atoms of medium, they are deflected from the path. Path of β-
particle in matter is not straight. It is erratic (zigzag) because they show straggling or scattering.
ir

-+---++-+--+--+-++--+-
β-particle
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-++-+-- +---- +-+-+-++

(3) Loss of Energy:
β-particle lose energy when they produce ionization.
(4) Range:
Effective depth of penetration into the medium gives range of β-particle. Their range in air is several
meters. However, their range is shorter in denser medium.
(5) Effect of electric field:
In the presence of electric field of charged particle in solid material, β-particles are slowed down; as
a result, they radiate energy as X-ray photons.
(6) Fluorescence:
β-particles produce fluorescence when they strike with screen which are coated with zinc sulphide,
sodium iodide or barium platinocyanide.
 INTERACTION OF γ-RAYS WITH MATTER
(1) Ionization:
γ-rays are electromagnetic radiations and consists of uncharged photons. γ-rays produce very little
ionization in the medium. They are removed from the medium by either scattering or absorption in it.
They interact with matter in three different ways depending mainly on their energy;
(i) At low energies (less than 0.5 MeV), photoelectric effect takes place.
(ii) At intermediate energies, Compton Effect takes place
(iii) At higher energies (more than 1.02 MeV), the pair production takes place.
(2) Loss of Energy:
γ-rays lose energy by following three ways;
(i) Photoelectric effect
(ii) Compton Effect
(iii) Pair production

om
(3) Intensity:
Intensity of γ-rays depends up on the medium through which they pass.
(i) Air:
In air, the γ-rays intensity falls off as Inverse Square of the distance from the source.
1

l.c
I ∝ 2
r
(ii) Solids:
In solids, the intensity decreases according to the formula
I ∝ Io e-μx

ai
Here,
Io = Intensity of γ-rays before passing through the medium
gm
I = Intensity of γ-rays after passing through the medium
x = Thickness of medium
µ = Absorption co-efficient of the medium (depends on photon energy & property of medium)
(4) Fluorescence:
γ-rays produce fluorescence when they strike with screen which are coated with zinc sulphide,
8@

sodium iodide or barium platinocyanide.

INTERACTION OF NEUTRON WITH MATTER

(1) Ionization:
9

Neutrons are neutral particles so they are more effective than α-particles and β-particles. When it is
captured by nucleus radioisotope is formed. Neutron causes fission in heavy nuclei. Its ionization
73

power is very small. When it interacts with materials, which contain hydrogen atoms the they cause
direct ionization.
(2) Speed:
a1

Neuron being neutral cannot be stopped or slowed down easily. They can be stopped;
(i) When it directly collides with nucleus
(ii) When it strikes with a material whose mass is equal to that of neutron.
Water and plastic can stop neutron.
az

(4) Penetration:
As neutrons cannot be easily stopped, so they are more penetrating than other radiations.
ir

21.7. Explain how α and β-particles may ionize atom without directly hitting the electrons? What is the
difference in the action of the two particles for producing ionization?
al

Ans As we know that α and β-particles are electrically charged, so they can cause ionization without
hitting an atom either by repelling or attracting the electrons of the target atom.
Ionization:
(i) α-particle
Since, α-particle is positively charged particle; therefore, it ionizes the atoms through electrostatic
force of attraction.
(ii) β-particle
Similarly, β-particle is negatively charged particle; therefore, it ionizes the atoms through
electrostatic force of repulsion.
Difference in Action:
α-particle pulls an electron out of the atom while β-particle repels an electron out of the atom in
ionizing the atom.
21.8. A particle, which produces more ionization, is less penetrating. Why?

Ans A particle, which produces more ionization, is less penetrating.

penetrating
Reason:
Ionization of atom requires energy. When a particle ionizes an atom, it loses energy in each
ionization. If rate of ionization is greater, it loses energy at greater rate and stops after covering
short distance in a medium. We can say that
1
Penetration Ability ∝
Ionization
For example, α-particle has greater ionization power so it will lose its energy quickly an
and will cover
small distance in the medium. That is why α-particle penetrates less in a medium. β-particle has
less ionization power as compared to α-particle, so it will lose less energy and will cover more
distance in the medium. That is why β-particle penetrates greater in a medium.

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Thus, we can say that a particle, which produces more ionization, is less penetrating.
21.9. What information is revealed by the length and shape of the tracks of an incident particle in Wilson
Cloud Chamber?

l.c
Ans By length and shape of tracks, we can identify the incident particle. In Wilson Cloud Chamber,
(i) α-particle

ai
gm
Straight, thicker and continuous track represents α-particle.
particle. Thickness of track tells us that α
α-particle
is more ionizing. Short length of track tells us that α-particle
α is less penetrating
penetrating.
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(ii) β-particle
9
73

Short, thinner and discontinuous

continuous track in erratic manner represents β
β-particle, which tells that
a1

β-particles
particles are more penetrating but less ionizing.
ionizing
(iii) γ-rays
az
ir
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No definite track represents γ-rays,

γ which shows that γ-rays
rays produce no ionization but are more
penetrating.
21.10. Why must G. M. Tube for detecting α-particles
α particles have a very thin window? Why does G. M. Tube for
detecting γ-rays
rays do not need a window?
window

Ans G. M. Tube for detecting α-particles

particles must have a very thin window but for detecting γγ-rays, no
window is needed.
(i) α-particle
α-particle
particle has less penetrating power and possess short range so thin mica window is used in G. M.
Tube so that they can easily enter in G. M. Tube. Hence, thickness of window is important. If
window is thick, then α-particle
particle will be absorbed and it will not be detected.
 (ii) γ-rays
For detecting γ-rays, window is not used because presence of window has no effect on γ-rays due
to their high penetrating power. Whether window is thick or thin, it makes no difference for γ-rays.
Because can penetrate even through the window.

21.11. Describe the principle of operation of solid state detector of ionizing radiation in terms of generation
and detection of charge carriers.

Ans SOLID-STATE DETECTOR

A solid-state detector is a specially designed p-n junction, operating under a reverse bias in which
electron hole pairs are produced by the incident radiation to cause a current pulse to flow through
the external circuit. Then the electrical pulse is amplified and recorded.
Principle:

om
When ionizing radiations (e.g. α-particles) enter the depletion region, electron hole pairs are
produced which cause current pulse that flows through the external circuit. In this way, conductivity
of semi-conductor is suddenly increased.
Construction:

l.c
Particles

ai
n-type
+
Depletion Region 50 V
gm –

p-type
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To Amplifier
Thin Gold Foil R and Scaler
9

 It is made up of p-type Ge or Si.

73

 An n-type thin layer is produced by doping the surface with impurity of fifth group (e.g. As or Sb).
 The top and bottom sides are coated with gold foil, which make good conducting contact with
external circuit.
a1

 Combine thickness of gold layer and n-type layer absorbs so less energy of the incident particle
that the junction may be assumed to be situated at the surface. So solid-state detector is also
called surface barrier type detector.
Working:
az

When n-type side gold foil is connected to positive terminal of battery and gold foil of p-type is
connected to negative terminal of the battery, then semiconductor diode is in reverse bias. This
enlarges depletion region. Normally no current flows during reverse bias condition.
ir

 When particles are incident from n-type side then a particle enters into depletion region. It
produces hole-pairs.
al

 Electrons move towards positive terminal of the battery while holes move towards the negative
terminal of the battery. This produces potential drop across the junction as a result current flows
through the resistor.
 The size of current pulse depends upon energy of incident particle.
 The current pulse is amplified and recorded by counter.
Advantages and Usage:
a) Solid-state detectors are small in size due to which they are placed inside other pieces of
equipment.
b) They require low voltage for their operation.
c) Collection time of electrons and holes is much less (≈ 10-8 seconds) than gas-filled counters.
Therefore, particles counting rate of detector is very fast.
d) The device is used for detecting low energy particles (α-particles and β-particles) because
energy needed to produce electron hole pair is 3 eV to 4 eV.
21.12. What do we mean by the term critical mass?

Ans The mass of uranium in which one neutron out of all neutrons of one fission reaction produces
further fission is called critical mass. The volume of this mass of uranium is called critical volume.
Prediction of Fission Reaction:
(i) No Reaction
Actual Mass < Critical Mass
If mass of uranium is less than critical mass, the fission reaction does not take place.
(ii) Reaction at Initial Speed
Actual Mass = Critical Mass
If mass of uranium is equal to critical mass, the fission reaction takes place at its initial speed.
Atomic reactors work at this principle.
(iii) Reaction at Rapid Speed

om
Actual Mass > Critical Mass
If mass of uranium is greater than critical mass, the fission reaction takes place at rapid speed. This
is the principle of atomic bomb.

21.13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power compared to the use of fossil fuel

l.c
generated power.

Ans ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER

ai
# Nuclear Power Fossil Fuel Generated Power

1 It produces large amount of energy.

gm It produces limited amount of energy.

1 kg of uranium produces 2 x 107 kwh The same amount of energy is

2
of energy during fission process. produced by using 3 million of coal.
It does not produce smoke. Therefore, It produces smoke and causes air
3
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atmosphere is free of pollution. pollution.

The cost of electricity produced by The cost of electricity produced by fossil
4
nuclear power is cheap. fuels is high.
9

5 Waste products can be reprocessed. Waste products cannot be reprocessed.

73

It continuously produces equal amount It does not continuously produces equal

6
of energy for a given time. amount of energy for a given time.

DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER

a1

# Nuclear Power Fossil Fuel Generated Power

The fuel for its production is not easily The fuel for its production is easily
1
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available in the market. available in the market.

2 Its handling/control is dangerous. Its handling/control is not dangerous.

ir

Its waste products are dangerous to be Its waste products are not dangerous
3
handled. to be handled.
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4 It produces harmful radiations. It has no radiation hazard.

21.14. What factors make fusion reaction difficult to achieve?

Ans Fusion reaction is difficult to achieve due to two main factors:

Factor I:
Fusion reaction takes place in the presence of very high temperature nearly 10 million °C, which is
impossible to obtain on the laboratory scale.
Factor II:
To form heavy nucleus from two light nuclei is difficult because in order to overcome Coulomb’s
repulsive force present between two positively charged nuclei, large amount of energy is required to
bring the nuclei close to one another. Such a large amount of energy cannot be achieved.
21.15. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fusion power from the point of safety, pollution and
resources.

Ans Advantages:
(i) Since, the fusion reaction is free from radioactive products, so it will be safe, exempted from
pollution and resourceful.
(ii) The fusion reaction produces more energy per nucleon as compared to nuclear fission
reaction.
(iii) The energy produced by fusion process will be cheaper than that of fission process.
Disadvantages:
(i) It is more difficult to start fusion reaction because a very large amount of energy and a very
high temperature is needed.
(ii) Fusion reaction has not been brought under control like fission reaction. Thus, it cannot be

om
used to produce electricity.

21.16. What do you understand by background radiation? State two sources of this radiation.

Ans Definition:

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The radiations present in the space near a radioactive radiation detector such as Geiger Tube are
called background radiations.
Sources:
Following are the two sources of this radiation:

ai
(i) The cosmic rays entering the earth from the upper atmosphere along with the sunlight
(ii) The presence of radioactive materials in the atmosphere or the presence of radioactive wastes
of nuclear reactors etc gm
(iii) Naturally occurring radioactive substances present in the Earth’s crust
(iv) Radioactive potassium and carbon in the body

21.17. If you swallowed an α-source and a β-source, which would be more dangerous to you? Explain
8@

why?

Ans α-source would be more dangerous.

Reason:
9

Ionizing ability of is α-particle 100 greater less than β-particle. It means that the ionization energy of
α-particle is greater than β-particle. Here,
73

Ionization Energy of α-particle > Ionization Energy β-particle

Hence, α-particle will cause more damage to body tissues than β-particle.
a1

21.18. Which radiation dose would deposit more energy to your body (a) 10 mGy to your hand, or
(b) 1 mGy dose to your entire body?
az

Ans 1 mGy dose to your entire body would deposit more energy to our body.
Proof:
Absorbed dose is defined as the energy E absorbed from ionizing radiation per unit mass m of the
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absorbing body i.e.

Energy E
Absorbed Dose = D = =
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Mass m
or we can say,
E = D × m −−−−−( )
(i) For Hand
Suppose mass of hand = m1
Dose = D = 10 mGy
Then from equation (i)
E1 = 10 × m1 = 10 mGy m1 − − − − − ( )
(ii) For Body
Suppose mass of body = m2
Dose = D = 1 mGy
Then from equation (i)
E2 = 1 × m2 = 1 mGy m2 − − − − − ( )
 Result:
Comparing equation (ii) and (iii), we came to know that the mass of body m2 is far greater than m1.
Hence, 1 mGy dose to entire body would deposit more energy in our body.

21.19. What is radioactive tracer? Describe one application each in medicine, agriculture and industry.

Ans A radioactive tracer is definite quantity of radioisotope introduced into a biological or a mechanical
system so that its path through the system and its concentration in a particular area can be
measured by measuring its radioactivity with G. M. Counter or gamma camera.
Medicine:
In medicine, radioactive iodine is used to check whether a thyroid gland of a person is working
properly. A diseased thyroid gland absorb two times more radioactive iodine as compared to a
normal thyroid gland. For skin cancers, phosphorous-32 or strontium-90 may be used. In some

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cases, encapsulated seeds are implanted in the malignant tissue for local and short ranged
treatment.
Agriculture:
In agriculture, radioactive carbon-14 is given to plant. It releases β-radiation and thus by measuring
radioactivity in different parts of the plant, the path taken by carbon atoms can be known. This

l.c
technique helps in understanding photosynthesis.
Result:
In industry, they can play a very important role in the precise quality control system. The thickness

ai
of sheets can be checked with radioisotopes. These are also used in manufacturing of tyres.

21.20. How can radioactivity help in the treatment of cancer?

Ans
gm
Cancerous cells which increase, rapidly absorb more radiations and are more easily destroyed than
normal cells by ionizing radiation.
Radiotherapy:
Radiotherapy with γ-rays from cobalt-60 is often used in the treatment of cancer. The γ-rays are
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carefully focused on to the malignant tissue. Strict safety precautions are necessary for both patient
and attendant medical staff.
Thyroid Gland Cancer:
Radioactive iodine-131 is used to cure cancer of the thyroid gland. Since iodine tends to collect in
9

the thyroid gland, radioactive isotopes lodge where they can destroy the malignant cells.
73

Skin Cancer:
For skin cancers, phosphorous-32 or strontium-90 may be used. They produce β-radiations.
Encapsulated Seeds:
In some cases, encapsulated seeds are implanted in the malignant tissue for local and short ranged
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treatment.

PROBLEMS
az

Problem 21.1

∆ = +( − ) −
ir

= . .= = ∆
al

Problem 21.2

0.693
= =

Problem 21.3

= +
Problem 21.4

= ∆ .

∆ =( + )− ( + )

Problem 21.5

= ∆ .

∆ =( )− ( + )

om
Problem 21.6

l.c
= +

ai
= + +

Problem 21.7
gm
= ∆ .
8@

∆ =( + )− ( + )
9

Problem 21.8
73

=
a1

Problem 21.9
az

=
ir
al

Problem 21.10

= ×

= ×