Water Control

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Water Control
Reference: InTouch content ID # 4133663
Version: 5.2
Release Date: Provisory
EDMS UID: 274757115
Produced: 25-Nov-2009 23:08:53
Owner: WS Training
Author: Bernadette Gomez
Private Basic, offsho

Modules, Interface,
re, water,
WCS,contr
WPC,ol, SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
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Copyright © 2009 Schlumberger, Unpublished Work. All rights reserved.
Water Control / Legal Information
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Legal Information
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to identify the products and services described herein are either trademarks,
trade names or service marks of Schlumberger and its licensors, or are the
property of their respective owners. These marks may not be copied, imitated
or used, in whole or in part, without the express prior written permission of
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other design elements may be service marks, trademarks, and/or trade dress
of Schlumberger, and may not be copied, imitated, or used, in whole or in part,
without the express prior written permission of Schlumberger.
A complete list of Schlumberger marks may be viewed at the Schlumberger

Oilfield Services Marks page: http://markslist.slb.com
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Water Control / Document Control
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Document Control
Owner: WS Training
Author: Bernadette Gomez
Reviewer: Bernadette Gomez
Approver: Torsten Braun, Alice Lee
Contact Information
Name: WS Training
LDAP Alias: IPC-DOC
Revision History
Version Date Description Prepared by
5.2 19-Nov-2009 Changed instructions for taking module test Author: John Schneider
online using iLearn.
5.1 18-Jul-2008 Updated exercises link-url to the Author: Beena Hemkar

perception-resp server.
5.0 25-Oct-2006 Changed instructions for taking module Author: Stuart Averett
test online. Test may be launched from
perception-ws server via LMS or taken online.
4.1 11-Apr-2006 Changed label contents, erased list-trademark Author: Torsten Braun
tags, updated revision info.
4.0 30-Sep-2005 updated graphics and text. .Added captions Author: Luisa Attaway, Torsten
Braun
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iv Water Control / Table of Contents iv
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Table of Contents
1 Objectives _____________________________________________________ 1-1
2 Introduction ____________________________________________________ 2-1

3 Water Control Strategy _________________________________________ 3-1

3.1 Strategies for the Phases of Water Control _____________________ 3-1
3.2 Exercise _____________________________________________________ 3-3
4 Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem Types _____________________ 4-1

4.1 Water Flow Mechanisms of A Reservoir _______________________ 4-1
4.2 Good Water and Bad Water __________________________________ 4-5
4.3 Exercise _____________________________________________________ 4-6
5 Problem Types _________________________________________________ 5-1

5.1 Open Flow Path Problems ____________________________________ 5-1
5.2 Edge Water Problems ________________________________________ 5-5
5.3 Bottomwater Problems _______________________________________ 5-9
5.4 Completion Problems _______________________________________ 5-11
5.5 Exercise ____________________________________________________ 5-11
6 Diagnostic Plot _________________________________________________ 6-1

6.1 Examples of the Diagnostic Plot ______________________________ 6-1
6.2 Examples of Production History Plots _________________________ 6-4
6.3 Exercise _____________________________________________________ 6-8
7 Economic Analysis of Water Control ___________________________ 7-1

7.1 Economic Limit of The Water/Oil Ratio ________________________ 7-1
7.2 Costs of Water Production ____________________________________ 7-1
7.3 Economic Limit of WOR ______________________________________ 7-2
7.4 NODAL Analysis and Water Control Economics ________________ 7-3
7.5 Exercise _____________________________________________________ 7-7
8 Solutions _______________________________________________________ 8-1

8.1 Categories of Solutions _______________________________________ 8-1
8.2 Exercise _____________________________________________________ 8-3
9 Design Placement ______________________________________________ 9-1

9.1 Bullhead Injection ____________________________________________ 9-1
9.2 Mechanical Isolation _________________________________________ 9-2
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v Water Control / Table of Contents v
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9.3 Dual Fluid Injection ___________________________________________ 9-4
9.4 Design Placement Summary __________________________________ 9-8
9.5 Exercise _____________________________________________________ 9-8
10 Fluids _________________________________________________________ 10-1

10.1 Water Control Fluid Systems _________________________________ 10-1
10.2 Water Control Fluid Costs ___________________________________ 10-2
10.3 Water Control Fluid Temperature Applications _________________ 10-2
11 MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels ________________________________ 11-1

11.1 MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels _____________________________ 11-1
11.2 Exercise ____________________________________________________ 11-1
12 Summary ______________________________________________________ 12-1
13 Take the module test __________________________________________ 13-1
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vi Water Control / List of Figures vi
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List of Figures
3-1 Schlumberger policy _______________________________________________ 3-1

4-1 Displacement efficiency: pore volumes______________________________ 4-2
4-2 Diagram of vertical sweep __________________________________________ 4-4
5-1 Fissures to water layer _____________________________________________ 5-3
5-2 Fissures to an injector _____________________________________________ 5-4
5-3 Diagram of poor areal sweep _______________________________________ 5-6
6-1 Diagnostic plot ____________________________________________________ 6-2

6-2 Diagnostic plot: Coning ____________________________________________ 6-3
6-3 Diagnostic plot with various complications ___________________________ 6-4
6-4 Production history of well plot_______________________________________ 6-5
6-5 Diagnostic plot: edge water problem ________________________________ 6-6
6-6 Diagnostic plot: multiple formation layers____________________________ 6-6
6-7 Diagnostic plot: near-wellbore problem______________________________ 6-7
7-1 Benefit of water control graph ______________________________________ 7-2
7-2 Inflow performance and tubing intake curves ________________________ 7-3
7-3 Oil-producing layer, water-producing layer and total production _______ 7-4
7-4 Tubing intake curves _______________________________________________ 7-5
7-5 Before treatment plot ______________________________________________ 7-6
7-6 After water control treatment plot ___________________________________ 7-6
7-7 Nodal analysis summary plot _______________________________________ 7-7
9-1 Bullhead injection plot______________________________________________ 9-1
9-2 Gel penetration and critical rate graph_______________________________ 9-3
9-3 Results of dual fluid injection graph _________________________________ 9-5
9-4 Dual injection job illustration ________________________________________ 9-6
9-5 Elements of a dual injection job _____________________________________ 9-7
10-1 Relative cost per barrel chart ______________________________________ 10-2
10-2 Relative temperature applications of various water control fluids _____ 10-3
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vii Water Control / List of Tables vii
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List of Tables
10-1 Fluids used in water control _______________________________________ 10-1

11-1 Comparison of MARA-SEAL and MARCIT gels _____________________ 11-1
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1-i Water Control / Objectives 1-i
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1 Objectives
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1-1 Water Control / Objectives 1-1
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1 Objectives Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
In this training module, you will learn to do the following:
• Demonstrate a knowledge of the Schlumberger water control strategy.

• Demonstrate an understanding of the mechanisms of water flow in a reservoir.

• Demonstrate a knowledge of "good" and "bad" water.
• Demonstrate a knowledge of the four main categories of problems in the
reservoir.
• Demonstrate a knowledge of the three types of problems that are candidates
for Schlumberger water control service.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the diagnostic plot.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the concepts of economic analysis for
water control.
• Demonstrate a basic understanding of NODAL analysis.
• Demonstrate a knowledge of the solutions to water control problems.
• Demonstrate a knowledge of design placement techniques.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the application of fluids in water control.
• Demonstrate a knowledge of the applications of MARA-SEAL and MARCIT
gels.
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2-i Water Control / Introduction 2-i
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2 Introduction
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2-1 Water Control / Introduction 2-1
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2 Introduction Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
Water control is a chemical or mechanical treatment that isolates (or shuts off)
water encountered downhole so that it is not produced along with oil.
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3-i Water Control / Water Control Strategy 3-i
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3 Water Control Strategy
3.1 Strategies for the Phases of Water Control _____________________ 3-1
3.1.1 Candidate Identification ______________________________________ 3-2
3.1.2 Design ______________________________________________________ 3-2
3.1.3 Execution ___________________________________________________ 3-3
3.1.4 Evaluation ___________________________________________________ 3-3
3.2 Exercise ________________________________________________________ 3-3
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3-1 Water Control / Water Control Strategy 3-1
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3 Water Control Strategy Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
Figure 3-1: Schlumberger policy
Schlumberger policy is to propose only treatments that are exactly what is

needed to isolate or shut off the water encountered downhole.
This strategy emphasizes the importance of finding successful solutions for

specific water control problems, that is, providing just what the customer needs
to improve production and to achieve a profitable bottom line.
When there is no low-risk, economic solution to a problem, it is Schlumberger

policy to recommend no treatment rather than an inappropriate one.
Our slogan: Just what you need – Water Control.
3.1 Strategies for the Phases of Water Control

Today, the strategy behind water control treatment is weighted toward the
engineering aspects of candidate identification and design. In the past, water
control was treated more as a fluids problem.
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A complete engineering service for water control is the Schlumberger goal.
Here are the four phases of a water control treatment.
1. candidate identification
2. design
3. execution
4. evaluation.
3.1.1 Candidate Identification

The process of candidate identification involves a strategy of treating only
suitable wells and understanding that only bad water (water that does not help to
produce oil, or is produced without any oil in it) should be shut off.
The most important aspect of candidate identification is to identify the existing

type of water control problem. In water control, the solution depends greatly
on the type of problem.
One tool used to identify the problem type is the diagnostic plot, discussed later
in the module.
3.1.2 Design
The design phase of water control involves
• proposing the appropriate solution

• targeting low-risk treatments with rapid payout
• using standard, tested fluids.
Appropriate solutions may include
• fluids
• lateral drainholes
• completion changes
• stimulations
• no treatment.
If there is no cost-effective solution to a water control problem, the customer may

be advised that the best choice is no treatment.
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To establish a credible image for water control, it is important to achieve a high
success rate by only applying the appropriate treatment to suitable wells.
3.1.3 Execution
Execution of a water control treatment includes
• an emphasis on the quality-testing of fluids

• the placement of fluids where they are required downhole to shut off water.
All Schlumberger fluids are permanent and plugging. This requires correct fluid
placement to avoid shutting off oil zones.
Schlumberger does not offer selective fluids except MARCIT fluids, as

discussed later, which are bullheaded into the well (that is, pumped downhole
without the use of a packer or other device), and which shut off the water without
shutting off the oil. Although selective fluids are requested by customers and
offered by some service companies, to date none has met the Schlumberger
standards for consistent behavior in field applications.
3.1.4 Evaluation
Part of the evaluation phase is to monitor the treatment for correct placement of
the fluid. This allows for an understanding of what is happening downhole. In
addition, the evaluation should assess the effect of treatment and determine how
much extra oil is produced as a result.
3.2 Exercise
Water Control Strategy (online)
Water Control Strategy (offline)
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4-i Water Control / Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem Types 4-i
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4 Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem Types
4.1 Water Flow Mechanisms of A Reservoir ________________________ 4-1
4.1.1 Displacement Efficiency ______________________________________ 4-1
4.1.2 Areal Sweep Efficiency _______________________________________ 4-3
4.1.2.1 Areal sweep efficiency animation __________________________ 4-3
4.1.2.2 Examples of Factors Affecting Areal Sweep Efficiency ______ 4-4
4.1.3 Vertical Sweep Efficiency _____________________________________ 4-4
4.2 Good Water and Bad Water _____________________________________ 4-5
4.2.1 Good Water and Bad Water __________________________________ 4-5

4.2.1.1 Single-layer reservoir– animation __________________________ 4-6
4.3 Exercise ________________________________________________________ 4-6
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4-1 Water Control / Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem Types 4-1
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4 Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem

Types Basic, offshore,
Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
Before a water control problem can be identified, it is important to understand

the water flow mechanisms in the reservoir and the differences between good
water and bad water.
4.1 Water Flow Mechanisms of A Reservoir

Efficiency ratings are used to estimate the amount of oil that can be recovered
from a reservoir under water drive or water flood. Three ratings are used.
Typically, each of the three ratings is an average of 0.7, or 70%. The total
efficiency of a reservoir is the product of the three efficiency ratings. When
the ratings are multiplied by each other, the product is approximately 35%. In
other words, the typical recovery of oil from a reservoir under a water sweep is
approximately 35% of the original oil in place (OOIP).
Here are the three ratings.
1. displacement efficiency
2. areal sweep efficiency
3. vertical sweep efficiency.
4.1.1 Displacement Efficiency
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Figure 4-1: Displacement efficiency: pore volumes
Displacement efficiency is a measure of the fraction of oil displaced from a

rock that is swept with water.
The initial pore volume of a hypothetical reservoir is represented on the left. The
top (green) portions indicate the area of porosity that is filled with oil. The bottom
portion indicates the initial water saturation (SWI).
The pore volume after the reservoir has been swept with water is represented
on the right. The top (green) portion represents the oil left behind, that is, the
residual oil saturation, SOR.
The amount of oil that can be produced, is calculated as
1 - SOR - SWI.
Displacement efficiency is the result of this equation divided by the amount of

oil initially in place, or
(1 - SOR - SWI) / (1 - SWI).
Displacement efficiency improvement is not a candidate for water control

treatment. Treatment cannot affect the SWI, which represents the initial state of
the reservoir, and which cannot be changed.
The SOR can be changed by surfactant flooding. However, surfactant flooding is

very expensive and rarely used. It is a large-volume treatment performed over
several years. Surfactant flooding is not considered a water control treatment.
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Schlumberger does not offer improvement to displacement efficiency as part
of the Water Control service.
4.1.2 Areal Sweep Efficiency

Areal sweep efficiency is a measure of the fraction of the horizontal section of
the reservoir that has been swept by water.
The producer is at the right; the injector is at the left. The blue area has been
swept by water and represents about 40% of the total area.
A 40% areal sweep efficiency is unacceptable. Sweep efficiency of 100% cannot

be achieved. However, it is possible to reach 70–80% areal sweep efficiency,
depending on the homogeneity of the formation.
The areal sweep efficiency is dependent on
• areal permeability distribution

• permeability anisotropy (north-south permeability versus east-west
permeability)
• deposition environment
• flood pattern
• fluid mobility.
Areal sweep efficiency is only a limited target for water control treatment. Many
problems relating to areal sweep efficiency cannot be solved with a low-volume
treatment.
4.1.2.1 Areal sweep efficiency animation
Multimedia 4-1: Producer and injector. Animation

NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.
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4.1.2.2 Examples of Factors Affecting Areal Sweep Efficiency

The position of the wells and the patterns between the producer and the injector
affect the areal sweep efficiency when a reservoir field is water-flooded.
Deposition of strata also plays a role in the areal sweep efficiency. For example,
continuous sand with very good areal sweep efficiency would be expected in
sands deposited uniformly in a shallow marine environment. However, good areal
sweep efficiency would not be expected in a delta where many sand channels
are deposited on top of each other and the channels are not well connected.
Last, fluid mobility plays a role in areal sweep efficiency. If a high-viscosity oil
is displaced with a low-viscosity water, the areal sweep efficiency is poor. As a
result, a greater number of wells might be required compared to situations with
a more favorable fluid-mobility ratio.
4.1.3 Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Figure 4-2: Diagram of vertical sweep
Vertical sweep efficiency is a measure of the fraction of the vertical section of

the reservoir that has been swept by water. The vertical sweep efficiency is the
amount of area swept by the water divided by the initial area of oil before the
sweep. In this diagram the blue area has been swept by water and represents
about 70% of the total area.
Vertical sweep efficiency is dependent on
• vertical permeability profile
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• permeability contrast
• deposition environment
• gravity segregation
• fluid mobility.
Uniform permeability generally allows for a good water sweep. Differing

permeability results in lower vertical sweep efficiencies. Depending on the
vertical sweep efficiency, significant amounts of unproduced oil may be left in
place.
Several problems relating to vertical sweep efficiency can be addressed with

low-volume treatments near the wellbore.
Recall that vertical sweep efficiency is only one of three ratings that comprise
total efficiency.
4.2 Good Water and Bad Water

Good water must be produced in order to produce oil. Whenever oil and water
are commingled within a reservoir and are flowing together, it is impossible to
produce the oil without producing the water. In such a case, there is no physical
method to shut off the water without shutting off the oil. If a well is producing
good water, no service Schlumberger can provide can shut it off without shutting
off the oil.
Bad water does not help to produce oil. Bad water is produced without any
oil in it. Producing bad water reduces the pressure in a reservoir. Typically, it
is the same water that is being recycled in the process of being pumped out,
separated, cleaned and reinjected.
Many customers assume that all water is bad.
Good or bad water must be identified when considering a well as a candidate for
water treatment.
4.2.1 Good Water and Bad Water

The hypothetical single-layer reservoir in the animation below initially produces
100% oil (see animation 4.2.1.1). At the left is either an injector or an active
aquifer.
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About halfway through the reservoir is a water front, the point at which the water
saturation ranges from 50–60%. Behind the water front (at left) is a mixture of
oil and water (see animation 4.2.1.1). Near the injector, the water saturation is
nearly 100%. The producer is still producing 100% oil.
As the water front arrives at the producer, the water saturation is 50–60%.
The producer is producing a mix of oil and good water. Since there is still oil
commingled with the water, no action is taken to shut off the water.
Months or years later, the reservoir layer contains mainly water in which little oil
remains. The water/oil ratio at the producer is very high. It is likely that from
20–100 bbl of water are produced for every single barrel of oil that is produced.
In this case, it is not cost-effective to produce the oil because of the cost of
handling the water. The water is considered bad water and should be shut off.
4.2.1.1 Single-layer reservoir– animation
Multimedia 4-2: Injector or active aquifer (left) and producer (right). Animation
4.3 Exercise
Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem Types Exercise (online)
Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem Types Exercise (offline)
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5-i Water Control / Problem Types 5-i
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5 Problem Types
5.1 Open Flow Path Problems ______________________________________ 5-1
5.1.1 Near Wellbore Flow __________________________________________ 5-1
5.1.1.1 Near-wellbore flow animation ______________________________ 5-1
5.1.1.2 Solution to Near-Wellbore Flow ____________________________ 5-2
Primary solution animation ____________________________ 5-2
5.1.2 Fissures to a Water Layer ____________________________________ 5-3
5.1.2.1 Solution to Fissures to A Water Layer ______________________ 5-3
5.1.3 Fissures to an Injector ________________________________________ 5-4

5.1.3.1 Solution to Fissures to an Injector _________________________ 5-5
5.2 Edge Water Problems __________________________________________ 5-5
5.2.1 Poor Areal Sweep ____________________________________________ 5-5
5.2.1.1 Solution to Poor Areal Sweep _____________________________ 5-6
5.2.2 High-Permeability Layer Without Crossflow ____________________ 5-6
5.2.2.1 High-Permeability Layer Without Crossflow animation _______ 5-7
5.2.2.2 Solution to High-Permeability Layer without Crossflow ______ 5-7
5.2.3 High-Permeability Layer with Crossflow _______________________ 5-7
5.2.3.1 High-Permeability Layer With Crossflow animation __________ 5-8
5.2.3.2 Solution to High-Permeability Layer With Crossflow _________ 5-8
5.2.3.3 Differences between High-Permeability Layers With and Without
Crossflow ________________________________________________ 5-8
5.2.4 Gravity-Segregated Layer ____________________________________ 5-9
5.2.4.1 Gravity-Segregated Layer animation _______________________ 5-9
5.2.4.2 Solution to Gravity-Segregated Layer ______________________ 5-9
5.3 Bottomwater Problems _________________________________________ 5-9
5.3.1 Bottomwater Problem animation _____________________________ 5-10
5.3.2 Solution to Water Coning ____________________________________ 5-10
5.3.2.1 Solution to Water Coning ________________________________ 5-10
5.4 Completion Problems _________________________________________ 5-11
5.5 Exercise _______________________________________________________ 5-11
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5-1 Water Control / Problem Types 5-1
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5 Problem Types Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
Here are the four main categories of water problems in the reservoir.
1. open flow path

2. edge water
3. bottomwater
4. completion problems.
5.1 Open Flow Path Problems

An open flow path problem occurs when water flows through some open path
other than the formation matrix. This path gives the water flow a different
behavior.
Types of open flow path problems are
1. near wellbore flow

2. fissures to a water layer
3. fissures to an injector.
Near-wellbore flow and fissures to an injector are two of the three prime targets
for Schlumberger water control treatment services.
5.1.1 Near Wellbore Flow

Near wellbore flow is a problem in or near the wellbore most commonly caused
by poor cement. Other causes of near wellbore flow are caving due to production
of sand by the formation (sanding) and channels in the formation.
The area typically affected by near-wellbore flow is immediately outside the

casing. This well was poorly cemented at the zone of interest. In spite of the
bridge plug put inside the casing, water is still being produced outside the
casings through the top set of perforations.
5.1.1.1 Near-wellbore flow animation
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Multimedia 5-1: Water produced through top set perforations. Animation

5.1.1.2 Solution to Near-Wellbore Flow

The primary solution to near-wellbore flow is to pump a fluid such as cement or
gel into the annulus of the well and squeeze it off near the wellbore.
The choice of fluids, volumes and placement technique are case-specific,

depending on the well configuration.
A cement or gel treatment is usually of small volume (100–200 bbl) and short
duration (1–2 hr).
Cement has limited penetration into a formation because of its solid particles and
may have to be squeezed several times to get a good seal.
A gel such as MARA-SEAL (mark of Marathon Oil) has no solid particles, can
penetrate the formation matrix 5 ft or more, and can shut off the water layer.
Resin is sometimes pumped, although this process is very expensive. The use of
resin is limited to extreme temperature conditions under which gel will not hold.
This type of problem is one of three that is a prime candidate for water control
treatment.
Primary solution animation
Multimedia 5-2: Primary solution to near-wellbore flow. Animation

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5.1.2 Fissures to a Water Layer

Figure 5-1: Fissures to water layer
Fissures to a water layer cause problems because the water flows to the
wellbore while oil is bypassed. The oil remains in the formation matrix and
is not produced.
The water could be connected to the well by
• natural fissures
• hydraulic fractures
• fault systems.
The challenge relating to fissures to a water layer is to shut off the fissures that
are producing water and not shut off the fissures producing oil.
5.1.2.1 Solution to Fissures to A Water Layer

The solution to fissures to a water layer is two-fold. First, a flowing gel is
pumped. A flowing gel, such as MARCIT fluid (mark of Marathon Oil), is a gel
that penetrates the fissures but not the matrix.
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The flowing gel fills all the fissures, including the ones producing oil, and is then
overdisplaced. The gel is pushed away from the wellbore in order to retain some
productivity around the wellbore. The gel should not be overdisplaced to such an
extent that it is pushed past the layer of water, or water will be produced again.
Difficulties with designing this treatment are
• estimating the volume of gel to use

• estimating the amount of overdisplacement
• tailoring the concentration to ensure that the gel is stiff enough so that it
is not produced
This type of problem is not a prime candidate for water control treatment because
of the inherent design uncertainties.
5.1.3 Fissures to an Injector
Figure 5-2: Fissures to an injector
Fissures to an injector are an areal sweep problem characterized by rapid

water breakthrough. The problem type can be confirmed by injecting a chemical
tracer and measuring its arrival time at a producer.
In this areal view of a formation in which the injector is connected to the producer
by a series of fissures, the fissures actually take much of the water pumped into
the injector, leaving the oil bypassed in the matrix.
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5.1.3.1 Solution to Fissures to an Injector

The solution to fissures to an injector is to pump a large volume of fluid, such as
MARCIT, which is a flowing gel.
If a tracer is used, it is easy to estimate the volume of gel required. The tracer
movement time represents the breakthrough time from the injector to the
producer and, therefore, the volume of the fissure.
The typical treatment volume is 1,000–5,000 bbl pumped over 2 to 3 days.
This type of problem is one of three that is a prime candidate for water control
treatment.
5.2 Edge Water Problems

Edge water problems are the most common type of water problems.
Edge water problems occur when water flows horizontally through the matrix to
the producer. The source of the flow could be an injector or an active aquifer.
Types of edge water problems are
• poor areal sweep

• high-permeability layer without crossflow
• high-permeability layer with crossflow
• gravity-segregated layer.
5.2.1 Poor Areal Sweep

Poor areal sweep is any problem in a reservoir that causes early breakthrough
from an injector (or aquifer) to the producer.
Among the poor areal sweep problems are
• heterogeneity, characterized by varying permeability across the formation

• anisotropy, a wide contrast in permeability between one direction of the
formation (such as northeast to southwest) and the perpendicular direction
(such as northwest to southeast)
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• sand channeling, high-permeability sand formations that connect two wells
together
• fingering due to poor mobility, a result of a poor mobility ratio and a
high-viscosity fluid.
5.2.1.1 Solution to Poor Areal Sweep

Figure 5-3: Diagram of poor areal sweep
The large volume swept by water could represent a wide sand channel, such
as channel A in the diagram above.
Poor areal sweep can be solved if there are low-volume channels between the
wells. A gel can be pumped to fill the channel and to force the injected water
to sweep the oil. A tracer survey can be run to determine the volume of the
low-volume channel.
If the channel volume is big (such as channel B in the diagram), a large volume
of gel would be required, that is, a polymer flood. This type of treatment is not
cost-effective if the channel volume is large because of the expense of the fluids.
As an alternative to expensive gel injection, the well configuration can be

changed by drilling lateral drain holes to sweep the bypassed oil.
5.2.2 High-Permeability Layer Without Crossflow

A high-permeability layer without crossflow is a vertical sweep
problem. It occurs in a formation with a high-permeability layer and one or
more low-permeability layers. Thin layers of shale above and below the
high-permeability layer prevent crossflow.
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In the animation, the edge water flows quickly through the high-permeability layer
(or "thief layer") to reach the producer and cause water production.
5.2.2.1 High-Permeability Layer Without Crossflow animation

Multimedia 5-3: Edge water flow through thief layer. Animation

5.2.2.2 Solution to High-Permeability Layer without Crossflow

The solution to a high-permeability layer without a crossflow problem is to shut
off either the injector or the producer in the high-permeability layer.
The shut-off can occur in the injector or producer by
• mechanical methods (that is, a casing patch, bypass packer, or bridge plug)
• fluid methods (that is, squeezing cement at the perforations or pumping gel
such as MARA-SEAL fluids).
Because of the shale layers and the absence of crossflow, this problem can
be treated near the wellbore.
A high-permeability layer without crossflow is the third of the three problem types
that are candidates for Schlumberger water control treatment services.
5.2.3 High-Permeability Layer with Crossflow

A high-permeability layer with crossflow is also a vertical sweep problem.
Although its characteristics are similar to the high-permeability layer without
crossflow, there are no layers of shale above and below the high-permeability
layer. This makes most treatments ineffective.
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In this case, shutting off the producer or injector with gel or cement is an
ineffective solution. The water injected into the low-permeability layers sweeps
the oil a short distance and crossflows into the high-permeability layer. The water
takes the path of least resistance to the producer and causes water production.
The near-wellbore treatment fails and leaves a lot of oil in place.
5.2.3.1 High-Permeability Layer With Crossflow animation

Multimedia 5-4: Water taking the high-permeability layer path to producer

5.2.3.2 Solution to High-Permeability Layer With Crossflow

The solution is a deep gel penetration that fills most of the high-permeability layer
with gel. This solution is difficult to place.
This treatment is effective only when there is a large contrast between the
permeability of the high-permeability layer and the low-permeability layers. In
addition, deep gel penetration only works if the high-permeability layer is very
thin, requiring a small volume of gel. If a large volume of gel is required, the
treatment is often not cost-effective.
A high-permeability layer with crossflow is not a prime target for water control
treatment.
5.2.3.3 Differences between High-Permeability Layers With and

Without Crossflow
An understanding of the differences between high-permeability layers with and
without crossflow is essential.
High-permeability layers with and without crossflow are multiple-layer reservoirs.

However, in high-permeability layers without crossflow the solution is simple and
in the other the solution is complex. To design a solution, it must be determined
if crossflow exists in the multiple-layer formations.
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One method to determine if crossflow exists between different layers is to
evaluate logs for the presence of continuous shale layers. Another method is
to measure the pressure of the layers using a wireline tool such as an MDT*
Modular Formation Tester tool. If the pressures of the layers differ, the layers
are not interconnected.
5.2.4 Gravity-Segregated Layer

A gravity-segregated layer is an edge water problem in a single-layer formation.

Gravity segregates the oil from the water with high vertical permeability. The
edge water flows from an injector or aquifer along the bottom of a thick layer
of high vertical permeability.
In the illustration, the water arrives at the producer and is produced from the
bottom of the layer. Some local coning does occur.
5.2.4.1 Gravity-Segregated Layer animation
Multimedia 5-5: Water being produced by the bottom of the layer. Animation
5.2.4.2 Solution to Gravity-Segregated Layer

In the case of a gravity-segregated layer, shutting off the producer with gel is
ineffective. Such a technique works for a few days until the water bypasses the
gel and gets produced from perforations higher in the producer.
The best solution is to modify the profile of the producer by shutting off all the
perforations and drilling a lateral drainhole at the top of the oil layer.
5.3 Bottomwater Problems

Bottomwater problems occur less frequently than edge water problems.
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Water coning, the main bottomwater problem, is caused by oil/water contact
near the perforations. Water coning is a function of the critical oil rate; that is,
the maximum rate at which oil can be produced without producing water.
If oil is produced slowly enough, there is not enough drawdown created to

produce the water. However, the critical oil rate is usually too low for customers
because it is not cost-effective to produce at such a slow rate.
The critical oil rate depends, among other things, on the vertical permeability
(kv) and the gel radius.
5.3.1 Bottomwater Problem animation
Multimedia 5-6: Water coning. Animation

5.3.2 Solution to Water Coning

A gel treatment near the bottom perforations of the producer is often proposed as
a solution to water coning. To be effective, the gel must extend from the wellbore
at a radius of at least 50 ft. When a 50-ft radius of gel is formed, the critical oil
rate can be doubled, allowing a greater production rate. However, if production
exceeds the critical oil rate, water will eventually be produced around the gel.
A 5- to 10-ft gel radius is ineffective.
5.3.2.1 Solution to Water Coning

Disadvantages of the gel treatment are
• large volumes required to create the 50-ft radius

• gel flow is not usually radial but will also flow vertically (creating a sphere)
• expense of the gel.
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A gel treatment is usually not cost-effective unless special conditions are present;
e.g., gel treatment is effective if the formation contains pieces of shale which
become connected by the gel.
In specific situations, large volumes of a low-viscosity gel with a long delay time
(such as DGS* gel) are appropriate.
A better solution to water coning may be to shut off all the perforations and drill a
lateral drainhole near the top of the layer.
5.4 Completion Problems

Completion problems are defined as inappropriate well completions or anything
wrong with the completions.
Examples of completion problems are corrosion holes in the casing or incorrectly

placed perforations. There are no fixed solutions for completion problems. Each
case must be considered as it arises.
5.5 Exercise
Problem Types Exercise (online)
Problem Types Exercise (offline)
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6-i Water Control / Diagnostic Plot 6-i
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6 Diagnostic Plot
6.1 Examples of the Diagnostic Plot ________________________________ 6-1
6.1.1 Edge Water Problem _________________________________________ 6-1
6.1.2 Water Coning Problem _______________________________________ 6-2
6.1.3 Variation on a Water Coning Problem _________________________ 6-3
6.2 Examples of Production History Plots __________________________ 6-4
6.2.1 Water Control Problem _______________________________________ 6-4
6.2.2 Single High-Conductivity Layers ______________________________ 6-5
6.2.3 Multiple High-Conductivity Layers _____________________________ 6-6

6.2.4 Near-Wellbore Flow __________________________________________ 6-7
6.3 Exercise ________________________________________________________ 6-8
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6-1 Water Control / Diagnostic Plot 6-1
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6 Diagnostic Plot Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
The diagnostic plot is a tool developed by Schlumberger. It is a log-log plot of

the water/oil ratio (WOR) against time. It also includes a derivation. This can be
created in the water support software.
The diagnostic plot is created with production history data from the beginning of
the well life. The plot uses production data available from the customer and is an
aid in assessing the type of water control problem.
The categories of water control problems identified by the diagnostic plot are
• open flow path

• edge water flow
• bottomwater coning.
Although the diagnostic plot gives a good indication of the problem category,
it cannot be used in isolation. The diagnostic plot should be used with other
diagnostic tools such as tracers or pressure transient tests to further identify
the problem.
It must be used with a knowledge of the workover history of the well and the field
situation. The map of the field, the cross sections and logs all provide important
information about the position of wells and the nature of the formation. The
diagnostic plot is most effective if you work with the customer to jointly identify
the problem type.
6.1 Examples of the Diagnostic Plot

The following three examples are diagnostic plots created using simulated data.
6.1.1 Edge Water Problem
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Figure 6-1: Diagnostic plot
The top curve of the diagnostic plot is the WOR (water/oil ratio) and the bottom
curve is the derivative (WOR1).
In this example, the WOR is approximately zero until the water breakthrough
occurs at 200 days. At the point of water breakthrough there is a rapid increase
in the WOR to approximately 0.1, and the WOR curve establishes a straight line.
The establishment of the straight line is the defining characteristic of an edge

water problem. There will be a straight line on the diagnostic plot with any of
the four edge water problems.
In the case of a single-layer formation, the rapid rise of the WOR reaches
approximately 1.0 before the straight line is formed. In a multiple-layer formation
where one layer has broken through, the WOR can be lower, depending on
the permeability distribution.
6.1.2 Water Coning Problem
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Figure 6-2: Diagnostic plot: Coning
In this example, the WOR increases early in the life of the field. This effect is
typical of coning. As the curve shows, the WOR gradually increases and begins
to level off at a value between 1.0 and 10.0. Water breakthrough is generally
quick.
Once the cone reaches the top of the perforation, it flattens and the WOR slowly
increases. This curving effect distinguishes the diagnostic plot of a water coning
problem from the straight line effect of an edge water problem.
6.1.3 Variation on a Water Coning Problem
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Figure 6-3: Diagnostic plot with various complications
In this example, the diagnostic plot shows the same early-time behavior as the
previous water coning problem graph.
Mature coning later in the life of the field causes the curve to rise and appear
similar to the edge water curve. At this point, the water cone has matured and
produces a linear flow of water through the cone.
This graph is an example of both the various complications that are depicted by
the diagnostic plot and the difficulty in distinguishing one water control problem
from another unless other techniques are used in conjunction with the plots.
6.2 Examples of Production History Plots

The following graphs were created using real field data.
6.2.1 Water Control Problem
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Figure 6-4: Production history of well plot
This plot shows the production history of a well. Qw is the production rate of
water. Qo is the production rate of oil.
In this example, the Qw and Qo are fairly constant until approximately 800
days. After 800 days, there is a consistent increase in the Qw and a consistent
decrease in the Qo. This production history plot shows that water is causing a
problem with the oil production rate.
If Qw and Qo were both decreasing, the plot would indicate depletion or damage
around the wellbore, which requires stimulation and not a water control treatment.
6.2.2 Single High-Conductivity Layers
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Figure 6-5: Diagnostic plot: edge water problem
This graph plots the same data as the previous screen on the diagnostic plot (the
WOR and its derivative). The top line is the WOR. In this case it establishes
a straight line beginning at 800 days.
The plot indicates no coning. It is a clear case of an edge water problem. The
edge water is coming from a single high-conductivity layer.
6.2.3 Multiple High-Conductivity Layers
Figure 6-6: Diagnostic plot: multiple formation layers
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This graph is similar to the previous one in that it forms a fairly straight line
between 1,000 and 3,000 days. The line is not as straight because of the
multiple formation layers.
This plotting is typical of multiple layers that have water breaking through at
different times.
From 3,000 to 4,000 days, there is a gradual decrease in the WOR. This effect
cannot be explained in terms of the plots shown. Another explanation must be
sought. In this case, the customer explained that a nearby injector well had
been shut down at 3,000 days. The result was an improvement in the WOR
until approximately 4,000 days, when the water began to arrive at the producer
from a distant injector.
6.2.4 Near-Wellbore Flow
Figure 6-7: Diagnostic plot: near-wellbore problem
Note the behavior of the plot toward the end of the life of the field. The WOR
suddenly increases from 10 to 80, and several data points move vertically up
the plot. Such a rapid change cannot occur if fluid is flowing through a formation
matrix.
When fluid flows through a matrix, there is a gradual transition from oil to water.
For a rapid change to occur, there must be an open flow path, which indicates
one of the previously studied three problem types, that is, near-wellbore flow,
fissures to a water layer, and fissures to an injector.
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In this case, it is unlikely that the open flow path is created by fissures to a water
layer or fissures to an injector. Flow through a fissure would not occur so late in
the life of the field. If fissures were a problem, the same effect would have been
seen much earlier, probably between 10 and 100 days.
It can be concluded that the open flow path is the result of a near-wellbore
problem. In this case the cement outside the casings has failed, allowing water
to flow outside the casings and into the perforations.
6.3 Exercise
Diagnostic Plot Exercise (online)
Diagnostic Plot Exercise (offline)
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7-i Water Control / Economic Analysis of Water Control 7-i
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7 Economic Analysis of Water Control
7.1 Economic Limit of The Water/Oil Ratio _________________________ 7-1
7.2 Costs of Water Production _____________________________________ 7-1
7.3 Economic Limit of WOR ________________________________________ 7-2
7.4 NODAL Analysis and Water Control Economics ________________ 7-3
7.4.1 Reading a NODAL Analysis Graph ____________________________ 7-3
7.4.2 Sample Case for NODAL Analysis ____________________________ 7-4
7.4.2.1 Example NODAL Analysis: Inflow Performance Relations (IPR)
Curves ___________________________________________________ 7-4

7.4.2.2 Example NODAL Analysis: Tubing Intake Curves ___________ 7-5
7.4.2.3 Example NODAL Analysis: Before-Treatment NODAL
Analysis _________________________________________________ 7-5
7.4.2.4 Example NODAL Analysis: After-Treatment NODAL Analysis 7-6
7.4.2.5 Example NODAL Analysis: NODAL Analysis Summary _____ 7-7
7.5 Exercise ________________________________________________________ 7-7
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7-1 Water Control / Economic Analysis of Water Control 7-1
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7 Economic Analysis of Water Control Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
The three benefits and economic results of water control treatments are:
1. reduction of the water production rate, which reduces the operating costs
of handling the water

2. increase in the oil production rate, which leads to a direct increase in revenue
3. increase in the oil reserves, which represents an increase in the total amount
of oil that can be produced economically.
7.1 Economic Limit of The Water/Oil Ratio

To understand the economics of a water control treatment, it is important to
understand the cost of water per barrel and the oil revenue per barrel. The cost
of water ranges from $0.10 to $1.00 per barrel, depending on location and cost
of disposal. Oil revenue ranges from $18.00 to $20.00 per barrel.
With these two variables known, the economic limit of the water/oil ratio
(WOR) can be calculated. If water is $1.00 per barrel and oil revenue is $20.00
per barrel, the economic limit of WOR is 20. If the cost per barrel of water is
lower, the economic limit of WOR is higher.
7.2 Costs of Water Production

The production of water reduces the production of oil because:
• The higher hydrostatic pressure reduces drawdown.

• The limited capacity of the tubing is used by the water flow.
• The near-wellbore water saturation reduces the relative permeability to oil.
The direct costs of water production include the costs of
• lifting and pumping water to the surface

• separating and treating the water
• re-injecting or disposing of the water.
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In addition, pumping (and reinjecting) water requires the maintenance of injection
wells.
The disposal of water is becoming increasingly costly and complex as

environmental laws become stricter. On land, environmental issues such as
salinity, oil residue and temperature are a factor. Offshore, there is a low
allowable hydrocarbon fraction.
7.3 Economic Limit of WOR
Figure 7-1: Benefit of water control graph
The graph shows the benefit of a water control treatment in terms of reducing the
WOR and increasing the cumulative oil production (or oil reserves).
The left curve shows the cumulative oil production, which is determined when
the economic limit of WOR is reached. The WOR gradually increases until it hits
the economic limit. At that point, the well must be shut in and no more oil is
produced economically.
After water control treatment is performed, the life of the well is extended.
The after-treatment curve shows that water control treatment decreases the
WOR. The after-treatment curve gradually increases to reach the economic limit
of WOR. The economic limit of WOR is reached much later than without the
treatment. The extra oil produced is the incremental oil due to the water control
treatment. In effect, treatment has delayed abandonment of the oil reservoir and
has increased the recoverable oil reserves.
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7.4 NODAL Analysis and Water Control

Economics
Figure 7-2: Inflow performance and tubing intake curves
The following example shows how the use of NODAL analysis can support
the use of a water control treatment. This NODAL analysis plots an Inflow
Performance Relations (IPR) curve and a tubing intake curve on a graph with
the bottomhole flowing pressure (in psi) on the Y-axis and the flow rate (in
bbl/day) on the X-axis.
The IPR curve represents the performance of the reservoir.
7.4.1 Reading a NODAL Analysis Graph

The IPR curve shows that the higher the flow rate, the lower the bottomhole
flowing pressure. That is because more drawdown must be applied to the
reservoir.
The tubing intake curve shows that the higher the flow rate, the higher the
bottomhole flowing pressure. This is because more pressure is required to
overcome the friction of the fluid flowing up the tubing.
The point at which the IPR and tubing intake curves intersect is an indication of
the production rate of the reservoir.
In the example, the bottomhole flowing pressure is approximately 2,000 psi and
the flow rate is approximately 1,700 bbl/day.
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7.4.2 Sample Case for NODAL Analysis

The reservoir is a two-layer system with the following assumptions:
• The top layer is producing oil.

• The bottom layer is producing bad water that has no oil associated with it.
• The water layer can be completely shut off.
These NODAL analysis graphs illustrate the
• inflow performance relations (IPR)

• tubing intake curve
• before-treatment analysis
• after-treatment analysis
• summary of the case.
7.4.2.1 Example NODAL Analysis: Inflow Performance Relations

(IPR) Curves
Figure 7-3: Oil-producing layer, water-producing layer and total production
The curves represent the oil-producing layer, the water-producing layer, and the
total reservoir production, which is the sum of the other two.
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7.4.2.2 Example NODAL Analysis: Tubing Intake Curves

Figure 7-4: Tubing intake curves
The top curve is the tubing intake curve for oil and water production before the
water control treatment.
The bottom curve is the tubing intake curve after the water control treatment.
After the treatment, the reservoir is producing 100% oil. The shift in the
after-treatment curve is a result of reduced friction and reduced hydrostatic head.
7.4.2.3 Example NODAL Analysis: Before-Treatment NODAL

Analysis
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Figure 7-5: Before treatment plot
A combination of the IPR and the before-treatment tubing intake curve show the
pressure at which the formation is producing (2,000 psi).
A line is charted from that intersection to the Y-axis. The point of the intersection
of that line with the oil IPR curve indicates the oil production rate. In this case the
well is producing both oil and water, and the oil production rate is 423 bbl/day.
7.4.2.4 Example NODAL Analysis: After-Treatment NODAL

Analysis
Figure 7-6: After water control treatment plot
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This graph reflects the assumption that the water control treatment has been
effective in shutting off the water layer. At this point, only the oil layer is producing.
Using the same methodology as with the previous graph, the IPR curves are
combined with the after-treatment tubing intake curve. With the water layer shut
off, the oil IPR curve and the total IPR curve are the same. The well is producing
100% oil. The bottomhole flowing pressure is 800 psi, which puts a much greater
drawdown on the oil layer. As a result, the after-treatment oil production rate is
788 bbl/day.
7.4.2.5 Example NODAL Analysis: NODAL Analysis Summary
Figure 7-7: Nodal analysis summary plot
A NODAL analysis summary shows the benefits of water control treatment.

Because the water layer has been shut off and there is less friction in the tubing,
there is greater drawdown and an increased production rate. The oil production
rate increased from 423 bbl/day before the treatment to 788 bbl/day after the
treatment.
Shutting off bad water not only reduces costs (of handling water) and increases
reserves, but also increases oil production.
7.5 Exercise
Economic Analysis of Water Control Exercise (online)
Economic Analysis of Water Control Exercise (offline)
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8-i Water Control / Solutions 8-i
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8 Solutions
8.1 Categories of Solutions ________________________________________ 8-1
8.1.1 Chemical Solutions __________________________________________ 8-2
8.1.2 Mechanical Solutions _________________________________________ 8-2
8.1.2.1 Lateral Drainholes ________________________________________ 8-3
8.1.2.2 Downhole Separation _____________________________________ 8-3
8.2 Exercise ________________________________________________________ 8-3
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8-1 Water Control / Solutions 8-1
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8 Solutions Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
The main criteria for selecting a solution to an identified water control problem
are the
• type of water control problem

• type of completion
• reservoir conditions
• formation characteristics
• well type (producer or injector)
• technique(s) available locally.
Identification of the type of water control problem is the first priority, because
each problem has a unique solution. Then, the other five criteria are considered.
For example:
• If a well has undergone dual-completion, there may be limited access to

some parts of the wellbore.
• Under reservoir conditions such as very high temperature, some gels cannot
be used.
• Formation characteristics such as permeability determine whether a
treatment is effective.
• Treatments vary depending on well type. In producers, treatments are
typically small volumes of MARA-SEAL gel. In injectors, large volumes of
MARCIT gel may be pumped to shut off fissures.
8.1 Categories of Solutions
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If a chemical solution is not the best solution to a water control problem, a

mechanical solution is recommended to the customer, even if this leads to no
revenue for Schlumberger.
Here are the two categories of solutions:
1. chemical solutions
2. mechanical solutions.
8.1.1 Chemical Solutions

There are six types of chemical solutions to water control problems:
Currently offered by Schlumberger:
1. polymer-based systems (including MARA-SEAL and MARCIT systems)

2. inorganic gel systems (including DGS and sodium silicate systems)
3. cement-based systems.
Not currently offered by Schlumberger:
4. resin-based systems (for use under high temperatures)

5. continuous polymer injection (that is, polymer flood)
6. selective fluids.
8.1.2 Mechanical Solutions

The five types of mechanical solutions to water control problems are:
1. sealing devices (including bridge plugs, casing patches and bypass packers)
2. lateral drainholes
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3. re-perforation
4. completion changes
5. downhole separation.
8.1.2.1 Lateral Drainholes

Lateral drainholes are short wellbores drilled out of the main wellbore. There
can be single or multiple drainholes. Typically, they are horizontal and 100–200
in. long. Drainholes are especially useful in cases where they can be placed at
the top of a formation layer.
Problem types for which drainholes are useful include
• water coning
• gravity segregated layers
• poor areal sweep.
Many problem types have solutions that include either fluid treatments or lateral
drainholes. If the water control problem cannot be solved with a fluid treatment,
there is a good chance that it can be fixed with lateral drainholes.
8.1.2.2 Downhole Separation

Downhole separation is an emerging technology that mechanically separates oil
from water downhole by using a hydrocyclone. The separated water is reinjected
farther downhole into a disposal zone and mostly oil is produced to surface.
Downhole separation is not a good solution for bad water. It is less expensive to
shut off the bad water once than to separate it continually.
Downhole separation is a good solution for good water. It is currently being

field tested by various other companies.
8.2 Exercise
Solutions Exercise (online)
Solutions Exercise (offline)
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9-i Water Control / Design Placement 9-i
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9 Design Placement
9.1 Bullhead Injection ______________________________________________ 9-1
9.1.1 Bullhead Injection animation __________________________________ 9-1
9.1.2 Bullhead Injection Recommendations _________________________ 9-2
9.2 Mechanical Isolation ___________________________________________ 9-2
9.2.1 Mechanical isolation animation ________________________________ 9-2
9.2.2 Mechanical Isolation Simulation _______________________________ 9-3
9.2.3 Mechanical Isolation Recommendations _______________________ 9-3
9.3 Dual Fluid Injection _____________________________________________ 9-4

9.3.1 Dual fluid injector animation __________________________________ 9-4
9.3.2 Dual Fluid Injection Simulation ________________________________ 9-4
9.3.3 Dual Fluid Injection Recommendations ________________________ 9-5
9.3.4 Dual Injection Process _______________________________________ 9-5
9.3.4.1 Dual Injection Process animation __________________________ 9-6
9.3.4.2 Dual Injection Job Execution ______________________________ 9-6
9.3.4.3 Dual Injection Tool String Layout __________________________ 9-6
9.4 Design Placement Summary ___________________________________ 9-8
9.5 Exercise ________________________________________________________ 9-8
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9-1 Water Control / Design Placement 9-1
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9 Design Placement Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
Here are the main types of gel injection techniques.
1. bullhead injection
2. mechanical isolation
3. dual fluid injection.
9.1 Bullhead Injection
Figure 9-1: Bullhead injection plot
Bullhead injection is the pumping of a fluid (such as a gel) downhole without

the use of a packer or other device. It is a low-cost technique. However, as
previously discussed, it is useful only with a selective fluid. Under certain
circumstances, MARCIT gel can be considered as a selective fluid because it
flows only into fissures and not into the formation matrix. MARCIT gel is usually
placed with bullhead injection.
9.1.1 Bullhead Injection animation
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Multimedia 9-1: Bullhead injection of a gel. Animation

This illustration simulates bullhead injection of a gel into a wellbore with a

watered-out, high-permeability layer in the middle. At the end of treatment, most
of the gel has penetrated the high-permeability layer as planned. However,
some gel penetration occurs in the oil-bearing, low-permeability layer near the
wellbore, that is, in the first 6 in. to 1 ft.
The problem with bullhead injection is that a small amount of gel penetration
completely shuts off the low-permeability layer which contains oil.
9.1.2 Bullhead Injection Recommendations

Bullhead injection is only recommended when
• a selective fluid is used

• there are extreme differences in the permeability of formation layers
• the operator is willing to remove damage to the oil layers chemically or by
perforating.
9.2 Mechanical Isolation

The goal of mechanical isolation is to treat the high-permeability layer while
using a bridge plug just below the layer and tubing with a packer above
it. Mechanical isolation is the most common technique used for pumping
MARA-SEAL fluids.
9.2.1 Mechanical isolation animation
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Multimedia 9-2: Isolation using a bridge plug. Animation

9.2.2 Mechanical Isolation Simulation
Figure 9-2: Gel penetration and critical rate graph
This graph shows that most of the gel has penetrated the high-permeability layer
without seeping into the low-permeability layers. The required gel placement
has been achieved.
However, presence of a gravel pack, or channel behind casing, or a formation

structure with high vertical permeability can make this treatment ineffective.
9.2.3 Mechanical Isolation Recommendations

Mechanical isolation is a useful technique when applied under the following
conditions:
• no vertical flow path

• low vertical permeability
• no gravel pack
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• high contrast in permeability between water and oil layers
• thick, low-permeability layers adjacent to the high-permeability layer
• impermeable laminations (such as shale) separate the layers.
A water control problem is not a candidate for mechanical isolation if there are
fractures or near-wellbore flow. In such cases, the gel will bypass the packer
and invade the oil layer.
9.3 Dual Fluid Injection

Dual fluid injection has the same mechanical setup as mechanical isolation.
The dual fluid injection differs because while the gel is pumped down the tubing,
a protective fluid is pumped down the annulus. The protective fluid (generally
water or oil) flows into the upper low-permeability layer which contains oil.
9.3.1 Dual fluid injector animation
Multimedia 9-3: Gel and a protective fluid are being pumped simultaneously. Animation
9.3.2 Dual Fluid Injection Simulation
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Figure 9-3: Results of dual fluid injection graph
This graph shows the results of a dual fluid injection. The gel is contained entirely
in the high-permeability layer despite a vertical flow path outside the casing. The
protective fluid has prevented the gel from penetrating the low-permeability layer
by creating the same treatment pressure above the packer as below the packer.
9.3.3 Dual Fluid Injection Recommendations

Dual fluid injection is the placement method of choice when any of the following
conditions exist:
• high vertical permeability

• gravel pack completions
• communication behind the pipe
• no horizontal barriers
• thin adjacent oil-bearing layers.
9.3.4 Dual Injection Process

Dual fluid injection has been used for some time. It is a difficult technique to
conduct effectively because exact pumping rates for the two fluids are not
known. If the protective fluid is pumped too fast, the pressure may increase and
cause the fluid to flow through an annular gap or to migrate through vertical
permeability to dilute the gel.
Schlumberger developed an improved dual injection process to overcome these

difficulties.
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9.3.4.1 Dual Injection Process animation

Multimedia 9-4: Dual fluid injection. Animation

9.3.4.2 Dual Injection Job Execution
Figure 9-4: Dual injection job illustration
This illustration shows two pumps set up at the same time. Gauges above and
below the packer measure the pressures of the protective fluid and treating
fluid. Coiled tubing with wireline cable is used to provide surface readout of
the two pressures.
During water control treatment, flow rates can be adjusted so pressures of the
two fluids downhole are equal. When the fluid pressures are equal, there is
no bypass of the fluid around the packer. Another advantage is real-time data
about the pressures.
9.3.4.3 Dual Injection Tool String Layout
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Figure 9-5: Elements of a dual injection job
In order of connection, the primary elements of the tool string for a dual injection
job are
1. coiled tubing with a wireline to surface

2. check valve and weak point (part of a normal coiled tubing setup)
3. telemetry system
4. gamma ray tool and casing collar locator to provide depth correlation
5. two pressure gauges
6. setting tool
7. inflatable packer.
There are advantages to using coiled tubing for the dual injection job:
• The conventional tubing does not have to be pulled out of the hole in order to
place the coiled tubing.
• The process can be completed without the use of a rig.
A major advantage of the dual injection process is correct fluid placement.
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9.4 Design Placement Summary

Bullhead injection is used only for selective fluids (such as MARCIT fluid) or as
a last resort for gel placement. In the latter case, it is used only when there
is a high contrast in formation layer permeability. Other strategies such as
overflushing the gel can be helpful in a fractured reservoir.
Mechanical isolation is effective with low vertical flow. If a permanent plugging

fluid such as MARA-SEAL, PERMABLOK* fluid, or cement is used, the treatment

design must ensure its proper placement. Typically, a mechanical isolation
system is required.
In the most difficult cases, a dual fluid injection is used. Dual fluid injection is
used when vertical flow around the packer could be a problem.
9.5 Exercise
Design Placement Exercise (online)
Design Placement Exercise (offline)
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10-i Water Control / Fluids 10-i
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10 Fluids
10.1 Water Control Fluid Systems __________________________________ 10-1
10.2 Water Control Fluid Costs _____________________________________ 10-2
10.3 Water Control Fluid Temperature Applications _________________ 10-2
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10-1 Water Control / Fluids 10-1
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10 Fluids Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
The discussion of fluids is last in order to de-emphasize fluids in favor of a

strategy that considers all engineering aspects of water control first. However,
knowledge of the availability and selection of suitable fluids is essential.
The major brands of fluids used in water control are shown in the following table.
Table 10-1: Fluids used in water control
Product Composition Application

MARA-SEAL fluid Rigid, crosslinked polymer Near-wellbore use
MARCIT fluid Flowing, crosslinked polymer Use in fissures
Inorganic gel with a controlled set time
DGS gel (up to several days) and a viscosity Deep penetration
close to water during injection
Inorganic silicate gels with controlled
PERMABLOK and
set time (up to several hours) and a Low-permeability formations
ZONELOCK* gels
viscosity close to water during injection
Microfine cement Perforation shutoff
Very high-temperature
FURAN* resin
applications
MARA-SEAL and MARCIT are licensed to Schlumberger by Marathon Oil

Company.
10.1 Water Control Fluid Systems

Two major types of water control fluid systems are
1. Polymer systems, which include polyacrylamides and co- or terpolymers

of acrylamide. The acrylamides are sometimes crosslinked with metal or
organic systems for purposes such as providing stability in high temperatures.
Polyacrylamides are the most common of the polymer systems. Polymer gels
such as MARA-SEAL and MARCIT are crosslinked with metals.
2. Inorganic gels, which are nonpolymer systems that include silicates such
as PERMABLOK and ZONELOCK, and DGS, a delayed gelation system.
There is increasing interest in inorganic gels that have a higher temperature
stability. These systems typically have a low injection viscosity, which is
useful in treating low-permeability zones.
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10.2 Water Control Fluid Costs

Figure 10-1: Relative cost per barrel chart
The chart shows the relative costs per barrel of the various water control fluids.
MARCIT gel has a low cost per barrel because of its low gel concentration.
Microfine cement is much more expensive than conventional cement, but it is
more useful in penetrating small annular spaces.
10.3 Water Control Fluid Temperature Applications
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Figure 10-2: Relative temperature applications of various water control fluids
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11-i Water Control / MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels 11-i
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11 MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels
11.1 MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels ________________________________ 11-1
11.2 Exercise _______________________________________________________ 11-1
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11-1 Water Control / MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels 11-1
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11 MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
The polymer gels widely used and well proven in field applications are
• MARA-SEAL gel, which is excellent for use with near-wellbore problems and
with high-permeability layers without crossflow, two of the three problem

types that are prime candidates for water control treatment.
• MARCIT gel, which is excellent for use in shutting off fissures to an injector,
one of the three problem types that is a prime candidate for water control
treatment.
11.1 MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels

The table compares the specifications of MARA-SEAL and MARCIT gels.
Table 11-1: Comparison of MARA-SEAL and MARCIT gels
Specification MARA-SEAL MARCIT

Polyacrylamide crosslink Chromium-III (chrome) Chromium-III (chrome)
Polymer loading by weight High (4–8%) Low to medium (0.3–1.5%)
Molecular weight Low (200– 500 M) High (5 –15 M)
Elastic, high-strength, Flowing, pumped long after
Gel
non-rehealing crosslinking
Matrix penetration For total shutoff of near wellbore Very little
Reservoir type Fractured or fissured
Ambient temperature use To 255 degF (121 degC) To 200 degF (93 degC)
Treatment size 50 to 500 bbl (at 1 to 2 bbl/ft) 1,000 to 15,000 bbl
Treatment rate 1 bbl/min through coiled tubing 1 to 3 bbl/min
11.2 Exercise
MARASEL and MARCIT Gels Exercise (online)
MARASEL and MARCIT Gels Exercise (offline)
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12-i Water Control / Summary 12-i
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12 Summary
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12-1 Water Control / Summary 12-1
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12 Summary Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
In the past, water control was treated as a fluids problem. Today, the strategy
behind water control treatment is weighted toward the engineering aspects
of candidate identification and design. Schlumberger’s goal is to provide a
complete engineering service for water control.
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13-i Water Control / Take the module test 13-i
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13 Take the module test
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13-1 Water Control / Take the module test 13-1
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13 Take the module test Basic, offshore,

Modules, Interface,
water,
WCS,
control,
WPC,SWBT,
CTS, TBT
WBT, IT
To receive credit for completing this module, you must take and pass the module
test. A score of 90% or higher is required to pass the test. You must take the test
for this module from the Schlumberger iLearn System online.
To take the test
If you do not know how to take an IT Module test from iLearn, go to:
http://intouchsupport.com/intouch/MethodInvokerpage.cfm?caseid=4253433 for
instructions.
If you already know how to use iLearn, in iLearn click on the “Enroll & Launch”
button for the IT Module you are working on.
For more information on how iLearn works, please go to: iLearn OFS Hub.
There are specific guidelines on every procedure under the User Documentation
section.
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Copyright © 2009 Schlumberger, Unpublished Work. All rights reserved.

permission of the copyright owner.

Trademarks & Service marks

Schlumberger, the Schlumberger logotype, and other words or symbols used

A complete list of Schlumberger marks may be viewed at the Schlumberger

Author: Bernadette Gomez

Reviewer: Bernadette Gomez

Approver: Torsten Braun, Alice Lee

5.1 18-Jul-2008 Updated exercises link-url to the Author: Beena Hemkar

1 Objectives _____________________________________________________ 1-1

2 Introduction ____________________________________________________ 2-1

3 Water Control Strategy _________________________________________ 3-1

4 Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem Types _____________________ 4-1

5 Problem Types _________________________________________________ 5-1

6 Diagnostic Plot _________________________________________________ 6-1

7 Economic Analysis of Water Control ___________________________ 7-1

8 Solutions _______________________________________________________ 8-1

9 Design Placement ______________________________________________ 9-1

10 Fluids _________________________________________________________ 10-1

11 MARA-SEAL and MARCIT Gels ________________________________ 11-1

12 Summary ______________________________________________________ 12-1

13 Take the module test __________________________________________ 13-1

3-1 Schlumberger policy _______________________________________________ 3-1

6-1 Diagnostic plot ____________________________________________________ 6-2

10-1 Fluids used in water control _______________________________________ 10-1

1 Objectives Basic, offshore,

In this training module, you will learn to do the following:

• Demonstrate a knowledge of the Schlumberger water control strategy.

• Demonstrate an understanding of the mechanisms of water flow in a reservoir.

2 Introduction Basic, offshore,

3 Water Control Strategy Basic, offshore,

Figure 3-1: Schlumberger policy

Schlumberger policy is to propose only treatments that are exactly what is

This strategy emphasizes the importance of finding successful solutions for

When there is no low-risk, economic solution to a problem, it is Schlumberger

Our slogan: Just what you need – Water Control.

3.1 Strategies for the Phases of Water Control

Here are the four phases of a water control treatment.

3.1.1 Candidate Identification

The most important aspect of candidate identification is to identify the existing

• proposing the appropriate solution

Appropriate solutions may include

If there is no cost-effective solution to a water control problem, the customer may

• an emphasis on the quality-testing of fluids

Schlumberger does not offer selective fluids except MARCIT fluids, as

Water Control Strategy (offline)

4.2.1 Good Water and Bad Water __________________________________ 4-5

4 Reservoir Mechanisms and Problem

Before a water control problem can be identified, it is important to understand

water and bad water.

4.1 Water Flow Mechanisms of A Reservoir

Here are the three ratings.

4.1.1 Displacement Efficiency

Figure 4-1: Displacement efficiency: pore volumes

Displacement efficiency is a measure of the fraction of oil displaced from a

The amount of oil that can be produced, is calculated as

Displacement efficiency is the result of this equation divided by the amount of

(1 - SOR - SWI) / (1 - SWI).

Displacement efficiency improvement is not a candidate for water control

The SOR can be changed by surfactant flooding. However, surfactant flooding is

4.1.2 Areal Sweep Efficiency

A 40% areal sweep efficiency is unacceptable. Sweep efficiency of 100% cannot