Exobiology 3

The Sun as a star ................................................................................................................. 2

Position in our galaxy ..................................................................................................... 2
The Sun as a star ............................................................................................................. 4
Time scale for development of planets ........................................................................... 7
The solar system................................................................................................................ 12
Major bodies ................................................................................................................. 12
Minor bodies ................................................................................................................. 15
Asteroids ................................................................................................................... 15
Kuiper belt objects .................................................................................................... 19
Oort Cloud ................................................................................................................. 21
Inter planetary dust.................................................................................................... 23
Celestial mechanics........................................................................................................... 27
Kepler’s laws................................................................................................................. 28
Force and velocities ...................................................................................................... 30
3-body problems ........................................................................................................... 31
Perturbations + resonances ....................................................................................... 31
Lagrangian points...................................................................................................... 32
Horseshoe orbits........................................................................................................ 33
Tidal effects................................................................................................................... 34
Roche limit ................................................................................................................ 35
Radiation pressure......................................................................................................... 37
Solar wind + interplanetary gas motion........................................................................ 38
Poynting- Robertson effect ............................................................................................ 39
Yarkovsky effect........................................................................................................... 40
Turbulence .................................................................................................................... 40

1
The Sun as a star

Position in our galaxy

Stars form within huge structures made of gas and dust = Galaxies

No stars out of galaxies ⇒ roles of galaxies = deep gravitational potential wells to

attract gas + mechanisms to form stars (gravitational collapse + perturbation or
turbulence = spiral arm or merger + interaction) over long period of time (continuous or
by bursts) + retain metals = increase amount of metals in Universe ⇒ necessary for the
creation of planets forming life

Our galaxy = late type spiral (SBb or SBc) = grand design spiral galaxy

Huge ~ 100000 lyrs ~ nearly 31 kpc in diameter – the Sun located roughly 8 kpc from the
center

Spiral disk – possibly formed after the bulge - bulge formed more rapidly by mergers of
smaller mass gas rich galaxies – disk formed from continuous accretion of
intergalactic gas ⇒ gradient in metallicity = metallicity of ISM + stars increases
inward – the disk possibly build from inside out

2
Location of the Sun in Galaxy not a coincidence – the metallicity is high enough to
allow formation of planets and we are far enough from the center where density of
stars (radiation) is higher

Observed spiral structure of the Milky Way

galaxy following Taylor, J.H. & Cordes,
J.M 1993, ApJ, 411, 674

The arrow points the direction of the solar

system's motion relative to the spiral arms

Rotating roughly at 220 km/s around the

center of the Galaxy

Takes : 2.3 ×108 yrs to make one rotation –

assuming age ~ 4.5Ga for the Sun ⇒
rotated only 20 times since its formation

Rotation nearly circular ⇒ mostly stable orbit

The sun is located in an inter-arm region ⇒ possibly far from influence of star
formation + evolution (High UV radiation from young stars + SN explosion +
disturbance created by Molecular clouds)

Distribution of stars in Sun neighborhood ⇒ no bright stars - dominated by low mass

MS stars + evolved WD ⇒ relatively quiet region

Curiously, we do not know well enough the neighborhood of the Sun to draw a
complete history of its formation + evolution in the Galaxy

3
The Sun as a star

The Sun is a “typical” G type star

Typical in terms of Mass – in a

molecular cloud many more low mass
stars form than massive ones

Graphic shows the density of stars in the

vicinity of the Sun – each mass interval
is twice the size of the preceding one

In principle, the sun did not formed

alone – many stars in its neighborhood
should have formed at the same time
and under same conditions

These would be the prime candidates

for the search of exoplanets similar to
the SUN

The question is where are the twins of

the Sun? (or why is the Sun alone?)

4
The life-time of a Sun like star is extremely long – this gives enough time for complex
life forms to develop – assuming planets form rapidly and life appears ~1 Ga or less
after their formation

Based on Theory, slight increases by 30% in luminosity over ½ life time of the Sun

Activity of sun (magnetic + flares +

eruptions) is relatively constant –
cycle of 11 yrs as judged by sunspot
numbers

Sunspot activity (10 year average)

for the last 11400 years, based on
C14 data (blue curve) and historical
data since 1610 (red curve) - S. K.
Solanki, I. G. Usoskin, B. Kromer,
M. Schüssler & J. Beer 2004,
Nature, 28

Present increase in activity – not

sure how could be related to change
of temperature on Earth

5
 Having just the right amount of
light over a very long period of
time (3Ga), have allowed life
to transform through
photosynthesis the
atmosphere, making Earth
suitable for development of
systems using respiration =
animals

Photosynthetic organisms on
planet orbiting M stars would
experience stellar radiation
with maximum photon fluxes
at wavelengths in the infrared
= average photons have lower
energy + much greater
absorption by water than for
solar radiation on Earth

⇒ Photosynthesis problematic = not enough energy to reduce carbon dioxide with

electrons from water, with production of oxygen. On Earth two photochemical reactions
in series - on planets orbiting an M star more than two reactions in series would be
required (J. Raven 2007, Nature, 448, 418)

The graph shows the altitude at

which the spectra flux density
due to the Sun is reduced to
50% of its value at the top of
the atmosphere (Nicholson
1982)

6
Time scale for development of planets

Time scale for development of planets directly related to chemical evolution⇒ depends
on production of metals + dust by stars

Time scale for the formation of stars – Hayashi tracks

• Slightly larger than 107 yrs for solar type stars
• Order of 100 times faster for Massive ( M = 5M e ) stars

Next time scale is burning of H on MS ⇒ massive stars burn 1000 times faster than
Solar type stars

7
Massive stars evolve 10-100 times faster than solar type stars

Massive stars have more metal rich cores than solar type stars

Helium-burning supergiant

Highly evolved supergiant

8
A direct consequence of the difference in time scales for stellar formation + MS life time
+ evolution = massive stars produce metal rich matter much more rapidly (107 times
faster) than solar type stars

Massive stars exp lode in SN and most of their metals go into the ISM – less massive stars
live much longer and only part of their metals goes to ISM through PN phase

In particular O + iron peak metals + more massive elements (neutron capture) are
produced on time scale of a few Ma

On the other hand, C + N are produced by less massive stars during AGB phase and
expelled in ISM by Planetary Nebulae (PN) over scales of a few Ga

Dust is produced in the atmosphere of giants and pushed into the ISM by stellar wind

9
10
CONCLUSIONS

It takes more than one generation of stars to produce enough metals + dust to form
planets ⇒ star formation must be constant (or successive bursts) over few Ga period ⇒
only disks of grand design spirals show these conditions

These galaxies possibly formed late in the evolution of galaxies ⇒ formation of planets
is a recent phenomena ⇒ time scale of ~ 1/2 or 2/3 the age of Universe

11
The solar system

Major bodies

Formed of 8 planets circulating around the Sun on elliptical orbits in a plane = ecliptic

Earth at distance of 1.5 ×1011 m = 1AU = 1 Astronomical Unit

Except for Mercury, orbits = almost perfect circle

12
Two types of planets:
1. Inner planets = Earth like planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
2. Outer planets = Giant planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus

Giant planets have rings and much more satellites (or moons) than Earth like planets

Composition of satellites = Earth like

13
Radius vs density: 4 groups
1. Large radius + small density = Giant planets
2. Medium radius + high density = Earth like planets
3. Medium small radius + low density = Icy moons
4. Small radius + low density = Asteroids

14
Minor bodies

Asteroids

Between Mars and Jupiter – 2

to 4 AU – Asteroids belt

Most abundant named objects

in the Solar System ~105
detected and 3 ×10 4 well
determined orbits

Total mass = 0.001 ME

Although at the origin there

could have been a few Earth
masses of bodies in this region

Origin ≠ planet that

disintegrated catastrophically –
rather many small planetary
bodies that did not managed to
accrete into a large object

Strong influence of Jupiter ⇒

collisions are very common in
the Asteroid belt

Important for evolution of life

on Earth – Ex. extinction of
Dinosaurs 65 Ma ago

15
Main influence of Jupiter = Kirkwood Gaps

Orbital resonances
• Orbital period of asteroid is a fraction of Jupiter period (ex. half = 2:1)
• Orbital evolution - tidal forces push in or out the asteroid from actual position
cleaning the regions of the gaps

NEAs – Near Earth asteroids –

(or Near Earth Objects – NEO)
• Come very near the Earth
orbits
• 2000 known
• Potentially could hit the
Earth
• Continually replenished

PHAs – Potentially Hazardous

Asteroids

The graphics show the orbits of the

known PHAs and Earth orbit

There are currently (2007) 894

known PHAs

http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/neo/pha.html

16
Locality map of the Chicxulub impact –
200 km in diameter – asteroid 10 km
diameter

Impact flux of km-sized bodies increased

by factor 2 during the past 100Ma – due
to catastrophic disruption of asteroid
Baptistina (170km diameter -
carbonaceous-chondrite) ~ 160Ma
ago in the inner main asteroid belt - most
likely source of Chicxulub impactor that
produced the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T)
mass extinction event 65Myr ago (W. F.
Bottke, D. Vokrouhlicky & D. Nesvorny
2007, Nature, 449, 48)

Many more small Asteroids than larger ones - Most mass concentrated in few large
asteroids

Distribution flatten out at small sizes = observational bias?

Impact crater size distribution on planetary bodies must follow same distribution

On the left = cumulative size distribution of asteroids in the belt – compared to the right
with the crater size- frequency as observed on the Moon – comparison with Mars suggests
it suffered 1.6 higher impact flux possibly due to proximity of Asteroid belt

17
Different kind of asteroids:

Taxonomic class Albedo Composition + reflectance

E Enstatite (MgSiO 3 ) - Highly

0.25 to0.60
(fragments of large body - differentiation) reflective
S Strong metallic - more
0.10 to 0.22
(fragments of large body - differentiation) reflective + red
C Carbonaceous – dark +
0.03 to 0.07
(primitive = least processed) neutral reflectance
M
0.10 to 0.18 Major metallic compounds
(fragment of large body - differentiation)
P
0.02 to 0.06 Major metallic compounds
(pseudo M)
D Iron + Nickel - Extremely
0.02 to 0.05
(primitive = least processed) dark + red

Composition varies with position in the belt ⇒ region of formation of the asteroids
affected their composition

BGF are sub-classes of C-types

Visited Asteroids so far

18
Mostly irregular like objects peppered of craters

19
Kuiper belt objects

Located beyond Neptune – Kuiper

belt
• First discovered in 1992 –
(1992QB1) - Solar System
cannot stop at Neptune -
but Pluto not enough mass
⇒ must have other similar
type of bodies
• Very difficult to identify –
faint and move slowly
• Several hundreds objects
found since 1992 – many
with quite well determined
orbits
• Total mass ~ 0.1ME
• Clear now Pluto not a planet
but one of the many bodies
in the Kuiper belt (Soter, S.
2006, AJ, 132, 2513)

Distinct classes:
Plutinos = 3:2 resonance with Neptune – 39.4AU – Kuiper belt object locked to this orbit
Cubewanos = Classical Objects ~ 42 AU + small eccentricities (1992QB1)
Scattered disks = large eccentricities

20
Oort Cloud

Oort cloud = huge ~ 10 000 AU - spherical halo of comets material

Dusty snow ball model = ice made of H2 O, NH3 (ammonia), CO2 and CO mixed with
dust (rocky particles – silicates) – nucleus = porous + low density – active regions
produce 90% or more of gas + dust output forming of comet

21
Comets are icy because of formation process – comets = planetesimal bodies formed by
accretion from material in solar nebula – leftovers from planetary formation process

Interaction with giant planets ⇒ rapid orbital evolution = some thrown inside solar
system (falling into the Sun) others thrown out at great distance forming huge cloud =
Oort Cloud – some of these objects (less influenced by giant planets) form scattered
objects in Kuiper belt

22
Inter planetary dust

Dust cloud filling the whole solar system – visible as Zodiacal light

Particles less than 1mm in diameter (larger = meteoroids ) – produced by:

1. Comets – ejected particles – important source of dust
2. Impacts of minor bodies in asteroid belt (rocky material) or Kuiper belt (Icy
material)
3. Volcanoes hash – ex. Io

Poynting -Robertson effect + solar radiation ⇒ redistribution around the Sun,

destroyed by Sun or thrown away into ISM

23
Composition depends on origin:

1. Solid chunks = impact fragments of

rocky material

2. Agglomeration of tiny silicate =

comets – very porous

The agglomerate of smaller grains can be

clearly seen

Dust ejected from comets follow their own orbits – with little or no interaction with each
other – form meteoroid stream - tube of particles orbiting with the comet

Active comets produce important meteoroid stream – difficult to observe except when
Earth pass into the stream = meteor showers

A few = twice a year with 6 months interval

24
About 50 meteor showers over 1 year

Rate is variable – depends where in the stream Earth is passing

Ex. Leonids – from 1997 to 2002 – several 1000s

25
Sporadic meteors – not associated with any known shower – on ave rage 1 meteor/ 15
minutes – rate increase after midnight, because more impacts on leading side

Collision with Earth at 10 to 70 km/s ⇒ huge impact

26
Celestial mechanics

• Motions of main bodies in solar system described by Kepler’s three laws

• Basis = Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation

• Two -body problem = relatively easy to treat

• Three-body problem much more difficult – many interesting phenomena like

perturbations of orbits + resonance + Lagrangian points

• Many other effects cause major or minor alterations of Keplerian orbits:

o Tidal effects – change orbits and planetary spins by massive bulges raised
in two-body (or n-body) systems by gravity
o Tidal effects also create Roche’s limit – explaining, in part, formation of
planetary rings
o Interaction with solar radiation + solar wind – tend to eliminate small
particles from the solar system – blowing them out or pulling them into
the sun

27
Kepler’s laws

1. Law of orbit - Each planet moves in an ellipse with the Sun at one focus

Ellipse – 2 foci; one is occupied by the primary body

o Periapse (perihelion) – point closest to primary
o Apoapse (aphelion) – point furthest to primary

Five elements define size + shape + orientation of ellipse

o Three more important:

a : Semimajor axis – greatest distance from the center of ellipse to its periphery
e : Eccentricity – departure from circularity
i : Inclination – angle between orbital plane and reference plane = ecliptic = Earth
orbital plane

28
A sixth element defines the orbiting position in the ellipse:

a (1 − e 2 )
r=
1 + e cos θ
Where θ is the angular position in orbit measured from focus

2. Law of area - The line between the Sun and planet sweeps out equal area in equal
amounts of time

dA
= constant , where A = area
dt

This law is a consequence of the conservation of the angular momentum:

 dθ 
mrv = m  r  r = constant
 dt 
1 dA
Since dA = r 2dθ ⇒ 2 m = constant
2 dt

3. Harmonic law - The ratio of the cube of semimajor axis to the square of period is
the same for each planet

a3 G G
= 2 ( M + m) ≈ M e , where P = period
4π 4π 2
2
P

29
Force and velocities

Principal force acting on planets = gravity

A body anywhere in the solar system is under the gravitational influence of the Sun

GMm
Newton’s law of gravitation: F = 2
r
F = forces between two bodies
M = mass of the larger body (Sun)
m = mass of smaller body (planets)
r = distance between the two bodies
G = gravitational constant

Circular velocity: speed of satellite in a circular orbit about a primary body

2
GMm mvcirc GM
When gravity match centrifugal force: 2
= ⇒ vcirc =
r r r

Escape velocity: speed required to project a body completely free of a primary body

Gravitational energy = kinetic energy

GMm 1 2 2GM
= mvesc ⇒ vesc = or vesc = 2vcirc
r 2 r

Velocity equation: gives the speed of body at a particular point of its orbit around larger
one

2 1
v = GM  − 
r a

30
3-body problems

Describe motion of 3 bodies with comparable masses

No single general analytical solution ⇒ needs numerical integration

Perturbations + resonances

Effects of other planets + planetary + satellites = perturbations of orbits – not perfect

ellipses = minor sinuosities
Effect of perturbations varied – may be periodic (resonance) or secular (tendency to
change in certain direction)

Perturbations of satellite orbits inclined to planet’s equator cause the plane of the orbit
and the line from periapsis to apoapsis (line through two foci) to swing around the planet
on time scale much less than solar system age – lunar case line from perigee to apogee
swings around the Earth in 9 yrs

Perturbations = minor random fluctuations in orbital elements

Ex. case of asteroids – bodies with 1/2 (2:1) , 1/3 (3:1) or 2/3 (3:2) period of neighboring
larger body ⇒ commensurable periods

Every second turn brings asteroid next to Jupiter ⇒ resonance

o Similar to swinging effect – pumping effect change eccentricity
o (J. Williams 1969) - Explains in part the Kirkwood gaps in asteroid belt
o Other kinds of resonances – through asteroids out of the belts in orbits
approaching Mars and Earth – explain meteorites
o Stabilizing effect (Pearl 1976)
o Affect rotation (ex. Mercury)

31
Lagrangian points

Specific analytical solution for 3-body system – 1:1 resonance – 2 major bodies co-
rotating in circular orbits (ex Earth + Moon) with a third smaller body (satellite) having
same revolution period as the other two

5 Lagrangian points – gravitational forces + centrifugal forces just balance

L4 and L5 are stable while L1, L2 and L3 are quasi stable

The whole system rotates together because the periods of all objects around the center of
mass are equal – It is as if the points marked on graph are on solid rotating disk – bigger
mass in the center and others on border – objects at Lagrangian points seem stationary
relative to rotating observer

Trojan asteroids located at L4 and L5 (M. Wolf 1906)

Same for Saturn’s satellites Thetys and Dionne – Voyager discovered small moonlets
near Lagrangian points

32
Horseshoe orbits

Two small moons almost in same circular orbits

o B slightly closer to planet ⇒ B lagging behind A catch up with it
o Acceleration forward ⇒ B passes further from planet ⇒ B begin to drop behind
A again
o Smaller moon view from A describe a horseshoe path (Dermot & Murray 1981)

Actual case: 200km scale inner moons of Saturn – 1980S1 and 1980S3 (Harrington &
Seidelman 1981)

33
Tidal effects

Tides – Net differential forces acting along the Earth-Moon

Tidal bulges = body tides – produce ocean tides on Earth

Tidal evolution of orbit – Earth rotation drags tidal bulges

o Moon slowly spiraling outward from Earth
o Earth rotation is slowing down – during formation = closest approach ~ 4-5 hours
o Angular momentum gained by the Moon lost by Earth rotation
o Similarly – Earth has tidally grabbed on to axis of Moon slowing its rotation
o Moon keeps longest axis pointed along Earth Moon line = synchronous
orbit
o Rotation period = revolution period = same face of the Moon face the
Earth all time
o Present month of lunar phase (Synodic month) 29.5 days
o 45Ma only 29.1 days (Kanda & Harris 1975)
o 2.8 Ga ago possibly only 17 days

GM E m M
Tidal force: F = 2
r
1
Tidal force produced by the Moon on Earth: dFE ∝ 3
dr
r
1
Mass of tidal bulge on Earth: m ∝ dFE ∝ 3
dr
r
Tidal force of 2 bulges on Moon: dFM ∝ mr −3 dr ∝ r −6

Bodies must be very near each other relative to mass

34
Roche limit

Tidal bulges get very large at short distances

Roche (1850) calculated critical distance between bodies to tear apart material from each
other

Roche limit: critical distance at which a body with no tensile strength (strength against
rupture by stretching) would be torn apart by tidal forces

Gmm
Mutual gravitational attraction for 2 equalized touching particles: F =
( dr )
2

GMm
Disruptive tidal force: dF = 3
2 dr
r

1/3
Gmm GMm  2M 
Roche limit ⇒ F = dF ⇒ = 2dr ⇒ rR =   dr
( dr )  m 
2 3
rR

1/3
4 ρ 
Since M = π R3 ρM ⇒ rR = 2.5  M  R
3  ρm 

1/3
ρ 
More complex derivation: rR = 2.44  M  R
 ρm 

A solid-rock satellite would need to pass well inside Roche limit to fragment

Aggarwal & Oberbeck (1974) – breakup of orbiting spheroidal bodies held together by
the strength of rocky- icy material

1/3
ρ 
For bodies larger than 40km: rAO = 1.38  M  R
 ρm 

1/3
ρ 
Incoming body impacting planet: ri = 1.19  M  R
 ρm 

Depends on size + strength of the bodies – 30 to 60 km penetrate deeper before breaking

apart

Must also take into account areodynamical stresses (Melosh 1981)

35
Rings = small bodies moving in circular orbits in planet equatorial plane
• Outer edge – near Roche limit ⇒ ring = fragment of fragmented larger body or
that never coalesced into moon

Ex. Saturn
• Relatively closed particles - more than 100m thick ~ circular orbits - dispersion
0.2 cm/s random velocity
• Within ring – sharp edge + well defined gaps ⇒ resonance effect
o Inner edge of Saturn B ring – 3:1 resonance
o Inner edge of Cassini division – 2:1 resonance
o Outer edge of Saturn A ring - 3:2 resonance (Cuzzi 1978)
o However, particles orbits in ring seems much more complex

High resolution photographs from Voyager

- the rings are composed of hundreds of
thousands of "ringlets", and that regions
like the largest "gap" called the Cassini
division, also contain fainter rings

Changing structures in the radial direction

= "spokes” - gravitational forces cannot
account for structure- electrostatic
repulsion between ring particles may play a
role

Rings appeared to be braided - outer ring

kept in place by the gravitational interaction
of two small "shepherd moons " lying just
inside and outside it

36
Radiation pressure

Photons transmit impulse = radiation pressure

Pressure push grows with cross-sectional area + decreasing mass

Solar sailing – spacecraft driven by solar radiation pressure – long solar system voyages
with low power and fuel consumption

Effect on inner planetary dust

• Depends on ratio of cross-section area to mass r 2 : r 3
• ⇒ effect increases as radius gets smaller
• ⇒ only smaller particles affected
• Up to limit when r = λ : 0.5µ m

Dark particles absorb more ⇒ feel stronger effects

Graphite + metal could be blow out of solar system – other only decrease attraction
toward Sun

37
Pressure = rate of transfer of momentum to unit surface

hυ
For photons, momentum:
c

Rate of momentum transfer per unit surface : momentum/photon multiplied by rates of

photons/surface

hν dn F  W 
P =∑ =
ν c dt c  m 2 

F
Force caused by radiation pressure on small particles with radius a : F = π a 2Q
c

Q = cross-section correction (differing from geometry) = effective absorption cross-

section/ geometric cross-section ~ 0.1 to 1.0 – depends on size + composition +
wavelength

Solar wind + interplanetary gas motion

Observation of comets (Bierman 1951) – submicrometer material expelled from surface

accelerated away from comet faster than can be accounted for by radiation pressure ⇒
carried by moving gas blown by the Sun

e−
Solar wind – expanding low density plasma - ne ≈ 2 and T : 200000K
cm 3
Expansion velocities: from 600 km/s to 1000 km/s

Understood as an extension of the solar corona ⇒ reach far end of solar system

Beyond the Kuiper belt – must have a region where solar wind interact with ISM

38
Poynting-Robertson effect (Poyting 1903 – Robertson 1950) – Interaction of
light with cm-scale particles – cause the particles to spiral inward toward the Sun

The photons strike particles on leading side

– same effect than for car running into rain

Produce displacement of apparent source of

light = aberration effect – apparent
position of stars seen from Earth displaced
up to 20.5 arcseconds

Reradiation of absorbed photons causes net

loss of energy and particles slowly settle
into smaller orbits ⇒ spiral towards the
Sun

Burns, Lamy & Soter (1979) – particles orbit eccentricity circularized – then decays into
6 aρr
2
the Sun over time scale: t PR ( yr ) = 7.0 ×10 where a = radius of particle (m),
Q
r = orbit radius (AU), ρ = particle density (kg/m3 ) and Q = correction factor (0.1 to 1.0)

Based on calculation by Wyatt & Whipple (1950) - Effect on particles debris

39
Yarkovsky effect

Orbital change of m-scale particles due to radiation emitted by particle after being
warmed by the Sun – most important effect in changing orbits of bodies with size range
1m to 10m (Burns, Lamy & Soter 1978)

Most photon momentum on afternoon side ⇒ act like a rocket exhaust pushing particle
forward into ever expanding orbit – if rotation is retrograde ⇒ spiral inward

Peterson 1976 – asteroid fragments move until their orbits reach a resonance
configuration that throw them onto Mars and Earth crossing orbits

Turbulence

Swirling motions of moving gas or liquid – opposite to stream like flow

Turbulence is very important in planetary science

• Formation of stars (planets) – gas + dust are turbulent
• Planetary atmospheres are turbulent

Reynolds Number – tells whether turbulence will occur on a certain scale in gaseous
medium – ratio of turbulent forces over damping viscous forces ⇒ Reynolds number > 1
implies turbulence effects

40