CHAPTER 14

Biodeterioration of Wood
Carol A. Clausen, Supervisory Research Microbiologist

Under proper conditions, wood will give centuries of ser-

vice. However, under conditions that permit the develop-
ment of wood-degrading organisms, protection must be
Contents provided during processing, merchandising, and use.
Fungus Damage and Control 14–1 The organisms that can degrade wood are principally fungi,
Molds and Fungal Stains 14–1 insects, bacteria, and marine borers.
Chemical Stains 14–2 Molds, most sapwood stains, and decay are caused by
Decay 14–3 fungi, which are microscopic, thread-like microorganisms
that must have organic material to live. For some of them,
Prevention of Mold, Stain, and Decay 14–6
wood offers the required food supply. The growth of fungi
Bacteria 14–9 depends on suitably mild temperatures, moisture, and air
Insect Damage and Control 14–9 (oxygen). Chemical stains, although they are not caused by
organisms, are mentioned in this chapter because they re-
Beetles 14–9
semble stains caused by fungi.
Termites 14–11
Insects also may damage wood and in many situations must
Carpenter Ants 14–13 be considered in protective measures. Termites are the major
Carpenter Bees 14–13 insect enemy of wood, but on a national scale, they are a
Marine Borer Damage and Control 14–13 less serious threat than fungi.

Shipworms 14–13 Bacteria in wood ordinarily are of little consequence, but

some may make the wood excessively absorptive. In addi-
Pholads 14–14
tion, some may cause strength losses over long periods of
Limnoria and Sphaeroma 14–14 exposure, particularly in forest soils.
Protection from Marine Borers 14–14 Marine borers can attack susceptible wood rapidly in salt
References 14–15 water harbors, where they are the principal cause of damage
to piles and other wood marine structures.
Wood degradation by organisms has been studied exten-
sively, and many preventive measures are well known and
widely practiced. By taking ordinary precautions with the
finished product, the user can contribute substantially to en-
suring a long service life.

Fungus Damage and Control

Fungus damage to wood may be traced to three general
causes: (a) lack of suitable protective measures when storing
logs or bolts; (b) improper seasoning, storing, or handling
of the raw material produced from the log; and (c) failure to
take ordinary simple precautions in using the final product.
The incidence and development of molds, decay, and stains
caused by fungi depend heavily on temperature and mois-
ture conditions (Fig. 14–1).
Molds and Fungal Stains
Molds and fungal stains are confined to a great extent to
sapwood and are of various colors. The principal fungal

14–1

Figure 14–1. Climate index for decay hazard. Higher num-
bers indicate greater decay hazard.
Figure 14–2.
Typical radial pen-
etration of log by
stain. The pattern
is a result of more
rapid penetration
by the fungus
radially (through
the ray) than
tangentially.
stains are usually referred to as sap stain or blue stain. The
distinction between molding and staining is made primarily
on the basis of the depth of discoloration. With some molds
and the lesser fungal stains, there is no clear-cut differentia-
tion. Typical sap stain or blue stain penetrates into the sap-
wood and cannot be removed by surfacing. Also, the discol-
oration as seen on a cross section of the wood often appears
as pie-shaped wedges oriented radially, corresponding to the
direction of the wood rays (Fig. 14–2). The discoloration
may completely cover the sapwood or may occur as specks,
spots, streaks, or patches of various intensities of color. The
so-called blue stains, which vary from bluish to bluish black
and gray to brown, are the most common, although various
shades of yellow, orange, purple, and red are sometimes
encountered. The exact color of the stain depends on the
infecting organisms and the species and moisture condition
of the wood. The fungal brown stain mentioned here should
not be confused with chemical brown stain.
Mold discolorations usually become noticeable as fuzzy or
powdery surface growths, with colors ranging from light
shades to black. Among the brighter colors, green and yel-
lowish hues are common. On softwoods, though the fungus
may penetrate deeply, the discoloring surface growth often
can easily be brushed or surfaced off. However, on large-
14–2
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
pored hardwoods (for example, oaks), the wood beneath
the surface growth is commonly stained too deeply to be
surfaced off. The staining tends to occur in spots of various
concentration and size, depending on the kind and pattern of
the superficial growth.
Under favorable moisture and temperature conditions, stain-
ing and molding fungi may become established and develop
rapidly in the sapwood of logs shortly after they are cut.
In addition, lumber and such products as veneer, furniture
stock, and millwork may become infected at any stage of
manufacture or use if they become sufficiently moist.
Freshly cut or unseasoned stock that is piled during warm,
humid weather may be noticeably discolored within 5 or
6 days. Recommended moisture control measures are given
in Chapter 13.
Ordinarily, stain and mold fungi affect the strength of the
wood only slightly; their greatest effect is usually confined
to strength properties that determine shock resistance or
toughness (Chap. 5). They increase the absorbency of wood,
and this can cause over-absorption of glue, paint, or wood
preservative during subsequent processing. Increased poros-
ity also makes wood more wettable, which can lead to sub-
sequent colonization by typical wood-decay fungi.
Stain- and mold-infected stock is practically unimpaired
for many uses in which appearance is not a limiting factor,
and a small amount of stain may be permitted by standard
grading rules. Stock with stain and mold may not be entirely
satisfactory for siding, trim, and other exterior millwork be-
cause of its greater water absorbency. Also, incipient decay
may be present, though inconspicuous, in the discolored
areas. Both of these factors increase the possibility of decay
in wood that is rain-wetted unless the wood has been treated
with a suitable preservative.
Chemical Stains
Nonmicrobial or chemical stains are difficult to control and
represent substantial loss in wood quality. These stains,
which should not be confused with fungal brown stain,
include a variety of discolorations in wood that are of-
ten promoted by slow drying of lumber and warm to hot
temperatures. Such conditions allow naturally occurring
chemicals in wood to react with air (enzymatic oxidation)
to form a new chemical that is typically dark in color. Com-
mon chemical stains include (a) interior sapwood graying,
prevalent in oak, hackberry, ash, and maple, (b) brown stain
in softwoods, and (c) pinking and browning in the interior
of light-colored woods such as maple. Another common
discoloration, iron stain, is caused by the interaction of iron
with tannins in wood. Iron stain is more prevalent in hard-
woods (for example, oak and many tropical hardwoods) and
in some softwoods such as Douglas-fir. Control is achieved
by eliminating the source of iron.
Chapter 14  Biodeterioration of Wood
Figure 14–3. The decay cycle (top to bottom).
Thousands of spores produced in a fungal fruit-
ing body are distributed by wind or insects. On
contacting moist, susceptible wood, spores ger-
minate and fungal hypha create new infections in
the wood cells. In time, serious decay develops
that may be accompanied by formation of new
fruiting bodies.
Decay
Decay-producing fungi may, under conditions that favor
their growth, attack either heartwood or sapwood in most
wood species (Fig. 14–3). The result is a condition
designated as decay, rot, dote, or doze. Fresh surface
growths of decay fungus may appear as fan-shaped patches
(Fig. 14–4), strands, or root-like structures that are usually
white or brown in color. Sometimes fruiting bodies are pro-
duced that take the form of mushrooms, brackets, or crusts.
The fungus, in the form of microscopic, threadlike strands
called hyphae, permeates the wood and uses parts of it as
food. Some fungi live largely on cellulose, whereas others
use lignin and cellulose.
Certain decay fungi colonize the heartwood (causing heart
rot) and rarely the sapwood of living trees, whereas others
confine their activities to logs or manufactured products,
Figure 14–4. Mycelial fans on a wood door.
such as sawn lumber, structural timbers, poles, and ties.
Most fungi that attack trees cease their activities after the
trees have been cut, as do the fungi causing brown pocket
(peck) in baldcypress or white pocket in Douglas-fir and
other conifers. Relatively few fungi continue their destruc-
tion after the trees have been cut and worked into prod-
ucts and then only if conditions remain favorable for their
growth. Although heartwood is more susceptible to decay
than is sapwood in living trees, for many species, the sap-
wood of wood products is more susceptible to decay than is
the heartwood.
Most decay can progress rapidly at temperatures that favor
growth of plant life in general. For the most part, decay is
relatively slow at temperatures below 10 °C (50 °F) and
above 35 °C (95 °F). Decay essentially ceases when the
temperature drops as low as 2 °C (35 °F) or rises as high
as 38 °C (100 °F).
Serious decay occurs only when the moisture content of
the wood is above the fiber saturation point (average 30%).
Only when previously dried wood is contacted by water in
the form of rain or condensation or is in contact with wet
ground will the fiber saturation point be reached. By itself,
the water vapor in humid air will not wet wood sufficiently
to support significant decay, but it will permit development
of some mold fungi. Fully air-dried wood usually will have
a moisture content not exceeding 20% and should provide
a reasonable margin of safety against fungal damage. Thus,
wood will not decay if it is kept air dry, and decay already
present from prior infection will not progress.
Wood can be too wet for decay as well as too dry. If the
wood is water-soaked, the supply of air to the interior of a
piece may not be adequate to support development of typi-
cal decay fungi. For this reason, foundation piles buried
beneath the water table and logs stored in a pond or under a
suitable system of water sprays are not subject to decay by
typical wood-decay fungi.
14–3

Figure 14–5. Representative samples of four com-
mon types of fungal growth on wood: (a) mold
discoloration; (b) brown rotted pine (note the dark
color and cubical checking in the wood); (c) white rot
in maple (note the bleached appearance); (d) soft-
rotted preservative-treated pine utility pole (note the
shallow depth of decay).
The early or incipient stages of decay are often accompanied
by a discoloration of the wood, which can be difficult to
recognize but is more evident on freshly exposed surfaces
of unseasoned wood than on dry wood. Abnormal mottling
of the wood color, with either unnatural brown or bleached
areas, is often evidence of decay infection. Many fungi that
cause heart rot in the standing tree produce incipient decay
that differs only slightly from the normal color of the wood
or gives a somewhat water-soaked appearance to the wood.
Typical or late stages of decay are easily recognized, be-
cause the wood has undergone definite changes in color and
properties, the character of the changes depending on the
organism and the substances it removes.
Two kinds of major decay fungi are recognized: brown rot
and white rot. With brown-rot fungi, only the cellulose is
extensively removed, the wood takes on a browner color,
and it can crack across the grain, shrink, collapse, and be
crushed into powder (Fig. 14–5). With white-rot fungi, both
lignin and cellulose usually are removed, the wood may lose
color and appear “whiter” than normal, it does not crack
across the grain, and until severely degraded, it retains its
14–4
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
outward dimensions, does not shrink or collapse, and often
feels spongy (Fig. 14–5). Brown-rot fungi commonly colo-
nize softwoods, and white-rot fungi commonly occur on
hardwoods, but both brown- and white-rot fungi occasion-
ally colonize both types of wood.
Brown, crumbly rot, in the dry condition, is sometimes
called dry rot, but the term is incorrect because wood must
be damp to decay, although it may become dry later. A few
fungi, however, have water-conducting strands; such fungi
are capable of carrying water (usually from the soil) into
buildings or lumber piles, where they moisten and rot wood
that would otherwise be dry. They are sometimes referred to
technically as dry-rot fungi or water-conducting fungi. The
latter term better describes the true situation because these
fungi, like the others, must have water.
A third and generally less important kind of decay is known
as soft rot. Soft rot is caused by fungi related to the molds
rather than those responsible for brown and white rot. Soft
rot typically is relatively shallow, primarily affecting the
outer surface of wood; the affected wood is greatly degraded
and often soft when wet, but immediately beneath the zone
of rot, the wood may be firm (Fig. 14–5). Because soft rot
usually is rather shallow, it is most damaging to relatively
thin pieces of wood such as slats in cooling towers. It is fa-
vored by wet situations but is also prevalent on surfaces that
have been alternately wet and dry over a substantial period.
Heavily fissured surfaces, familiar to many as weathered
wood, generally have been quite degraded by soft-rot fungi.
Decay Resistance of Wood
The heartwood of common native species of wood has vari-
ous degrees of natural decay resistance. Untreated sapwood
of essentially all species has low resistance to decay and
usually has a short service life under conditions favoring
decay. The natural decay resistance of heartwood is greatly
affected by differences in preservative qualities of the wood
extractives, the attacking fungus, and the conditions of ex-
posure. Considerable differences in service life can be ob-
tained from pieces of wood cut from the same species, even
the same tree, and used under apparently similar conditions.
There are further complications because, in a few species,
such as the spruces and the true firs (not Douglas-fir), heart-
wood and sapwood are so similar in color that they cannot
be easily distinguished.
Precise ratings of decay resistance of heartwood of differ-
ent species are not possible because of differences within
species and the variety of service conditions to which wood
is exposed. However, broad groupings of many native spe-
cies, based on service records, laboratory tests, and general
expertise, are helpful in choosing heartwood for use under
conditions favorable to decay. Groupings by natural resis-
tance of some domestic and imported wood species to decay
fungi are shown in Table 14–1, which ranks the heartwood
of a grouping of species according to decay resistance. The
Chapter 14  Biodeterioration of Wood

Table 14–1. Grouping of some domestic and imported woods according to average
heartwood decay resistancea
Very Moderately Slightly
resistant Resistant resistant or nonresistant
Domestic
Black locust Baldcypress, old growth Baldcypress, young growth Alder, red
Mulberry, red Catalpa Cherry, black Ashes
Osage-orange Cedar Douglas-fir Aspens
Yew, Pacific Atlantic white Honey locust Beech
Eastern redcedar Larch, western Birches
Incense Pine, eastern white, old growth Buckeye
Northern white Pine, longleaf, old growth Butternut
Port-Orford Pine, slash, old growth Cottonwood
Western redcedar Redwood, young growth Elms
Yellow Tamarack Basswood
Chestnut Firs, true
Cypress, Arizona Hackberry
Junipers Hemlocks
Mesquite Hickories
Oaks, whiteb Magnolia
Redwood, old growth Maples
Sassafras Pines (other than those listed)b
Walnut, black Spruces
Sweetgum
Sycamore
Tanoak
Willows
Yellow-poplar
Imported
Angelique Aftotmosia (Kokrodua) Andiroba Balsa
Azobe Apamate (Roble) Avodire Banak
Balata Balaub Benge Cativo
Goncalo alves Courbaril Bubinga Ceiba
Greenheart Determa Ehie Hura
Ipe (lapacho) Iroko Ekop Jelutong
Jarrah Kapur Keruingb Limba
Lignumvitae Karri Mahogany, African Meranti, light redb
Purpleheart Kempas Meranti, dark redb Meranti, yellowb
Teak, old growth Mahogany, American Mersawab Meranti, whiteb
Manni Sapele Obeche
Spanish-cedar Teak, young growth Okoume
Sucupira Tornillo Parana pine
Wallaba Ramin
Sande
Sepitir
Seraya, white
a
Decay resistance may be less for members placed in contact with the ground and/or used in warm, humid climates.
Substantial variability in decay resistance is encountered with most species, and limited durability data were available for
some species listed. Use caution when using naturally durable woods in structurally critical or ground-contact applications.
b
More than one species included, some of which may vary in resistance from that indicated.

extent of variations in decay resistance of individual trees
or wood samples of a particular species is much greater for
most of the more resistant species than for the slightly or
nonresistant species.
Natural resistance of wood to fungi is important only where
conditions conducive to decay exist or may develop. Where
decay hazard exists, heartwood of a species in the resistant
category generally gives satisfactory service for wood used
above-ground, while those in the very resistant category
generally give satisfactory performance in contact with the
ground. Heartwood of species in the other two categories
will usually require some form of preservative treatment.
For mild decay conditions, a simple preservative treat-
ment—such as a short soak in preservative after all cutting
and boring operations are complete—may be adequate for
wood low in decay resistance. For more severe decay haz-
ards, pressure treatment is often required. Even the very de-
cay-resistant species may require preservative treatment for
important structural uses or other uses where failure would

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 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190

endanger life or require expensive repairs. When select-

ing naturally decay-resistant wood species for applications
where conditions are conducive to decay, it is important
to utilize heartwood. Marketable sizes of some species are
primarily second growth and contain a high percentage of
sapwood. Consequently, substantial quantities of heartwood
lumber of these species are not available. If wood is subject-
ed to severe decay conditions, pressure-treated wood, rather
than resistant heartwood, is generally recommended. Preser-
vative treatments and methods are discussed in Chapter 15.
Effect of Decay on Strength of Wood
Decay initially affects toughness, or the ability of wood to
withstand impacts. This is generally followed by reductions
in strength values related to static bending. Eventually, all Figure 14–6. Spraying logs with water protects them
strength properties are seriously reduced. against fungal stain and decay.
Strength losses during early stages of decay can be consider-
able, depending to a great extent upon the fungi involved
and, to a lesser extent, upon the type of wood undergoing
decay. In laboratory tests, losses in toughness ranged from
6% to >50% by the time 1% weight loss had occurred in the
wood as a result of fungal attack. By the time weight losses
resulting from decay have reached 10%, most strength loss-
es may be expected to exceed 50%. At such weight losses
(10% or less), decay is detectable only microscopically. It
may be assumed that wood with visually discernible decay
has been greatly reduced in all strength values.
Prevention of Mold, Stain, and Decay Figure 14–7. A sanitary, well-drained air-drying yard.
Logs, Poles, Piles, and Ties
The wood species, geographic region, and time of year drying practices will usually dry the wood fast enough to
determine what precautions must be taken to avoid serious protect it, particularly if the protection afforded by drying
damage from fungi in logs, poles, piles, ties, and similar is supplemented by dip or spray treatment of the stock with
thick products during seasoning or storage. In dry climates, an EPA-approved fungicidal solution. Successful control by
rapid surface seasoning of poles and piles will retard devel- this method depends not only upon immediate and adequate
opment of mold, stain, and decay. The bark is peeled from treatment but also upon proper handling of the lumber after
the pole and the peeled product is decked on high skids or treatment. However, kiln drying is the most reliable method
piled on high, well-drained ground in the open to air-dry. In of rapidly reducing moisture content.
humid regions, such as the Gulf States, these products often
Air-drying yards should be kept as sanitary and as open
do not air-dry fast enough to avoid losses from fungi. Pre-
as possible to air circulation (Fig. 14–7). Recommended
seasoning treatments with approved preservative solutions
practices include locating yards and sheds on well-drained
can be helpful in these circumstances.
ground; removing debris (which serves as a source of infec-
For logs, rapid conversion into lumber or storage in water tion) and weeds (which reduce air circulation); and employ-
or under a water spray (Fig. 14–6) is the surest way to avoid ing piling methods that permit rapid drying of the lumber
fungal damage. Preservative sprays promptly applied to the and protect against wetting. Storage sheds should be con-
wood will protect most timber species during storage for structed and maintained to prevent significant wetting of the
2 to 3 months, except in severe decay hazard climates, such stock. Ample roof overhang on open sheds is desirable. In
as in Mississippi (Fig. 14–1). For longer storage, an end areas where termites or water-conducting fungi may be trou-
coating is needed to prevent seasoning checks, through blesome, stock to be held for long periods should be set on
which infection can enter the log. foundations high enough so that the wood can be inspected
from beneath.
Lumber
Growth of decay fungi can be prevented in lumber and The user’s best assurance of receiving lumber free from
other wood products by rapidly drying them to a moisture decay other than light stain is to buy stock marked by a
content of 20% or less and keeping them dry. Standard air- lumber association in a grade that eliminates or limits such

14–6
Chapter 14  Biodeterioration of Wood
quality-reducing features. Surface treatment for protection
at the drying yard is only temporarily effective. Except for
temporary structures, lumber to be used under conditions
conducive to decay should be all heartwood of a naturally
durable wood species or should be adequately treated with
a wood preservative (Chap. 15).
Buildings
The lasting qualities of properly constructed wood buildings
are apparent in all parts of the country. Serious decay prob-
lems are almost always a sign of faulty design or construc-
tion, lack of reasonable care in the handling the wood, or
improper maintenance of the structure.
Construction principles that ensure long service and avoid
decay in buildings include (a) building with dry lumber, free
of incipient decay and not exceeding the amounts of mold
and blue stain permitted by standard grading rules; (b) us-
ing construction details and building designs that will keep
exterior wood and wood-based building components dry and
that will promote their drying if they become wet; (c) using
wood treated with a preservative or heartwood of a decay-
resistant species for parts exposed to aboveground decay
hazards; and (d) using pressure-treated wood for the high
hazard situation associated with ground contact.
A building site that is dry or for which drainage is provided
will reduce the possibility of decay. Grading around the
building is an important consideration, as is adequate plan-
ning for management of roof runoff (Chap. 17). Stumps,
wood debris, stakes, or wood concrete forms are frequently
subject to decay if left under or near a building and may be-
come a source for decay infestation for the building.
Wet or infected wood should not be enclosed until it is thor-
oughly dried. Wet wood includes green (unseasoned) lum-
ber, lumber that has been inadequately dried, or dried lum-
ber that has been rewetted as a result of careless storage and
handling. Wood can become infected because of improper
handling at the sawmill or retail yard or after delivery to the
job site.
Untreated wood parts of substructures should not be permit-
ted to contact the soil. Minimums of 200 mm (8 in.) clear-
ance between soil and framing and 150 mm (6 in.) between
soil and siding are recommended. Where frequent hard rains
occur, a foundation height above grade of 300 to 460 mm
(12 to 18 in.) is advocated. An exception may be made for
certain temporary constructions. If contact with soil is un-
avoidable, the wood should be pressure treated (Chap. 15).
Sill plates and other wood resting on a concrete slab founda-
tion generally should be pressure treated and protected by
installing a moisture-resistant membrane, such as polyethyl-
ene, beneath the slab. Girder and joist openings in masonry
walls should be big enough to ensure an air space around
the ends of these wood members. If the members are below
the outside soil level, moisture proofing the outer face of the
wall is essential.
In buildings without basements but with crawl spaces, wet-
ting of the floor framing and sheathing by condensation
may result in serious decay damage. The primary source of
condensation is soil moisture. Isolating the crawl space from
soil moisture can be achieved by laying a barrier such as
polyethylene on the soil. To facilitate inspection of the crawl
space, a minimum 460-mm (18-in.) clearance should be left
under wood joists.
Wood and wood-based building components should also be
protected from rain during construction. Continuous protec-
tion from rainwater or condensation in walls and roofs will
prevent the development of decay. Thus, design, work qual-
ity, and maintenance of wall and roofing systems are critical,
particularly at roof edges and points where roofs interface
with walls. A fairly wide roof overhang (0.6 m (2 ft))
with gutters and downspouts that are kept free of debris
is desirable.
The use of sound, dry lumber is equally important for the
interior of buildings. Primary sources for interior moisture
are humidity and plumbing leaks. Interior humidity control
is discussed in Chapter 17. Plumbing leaks can result in seri-
ous decay problems within buildings, particularly if they are
undetected for long periods.
Where service conditions in a building are such that the
wood cannot be kept dry, the use of preservative-treated
wood (Chap. 15) or heartwood of a durable species is ad-
vised. Examples include porches, exterior steps, and decking
platforms and such places as textile mills, pulp and paper
mills, and cold storage plants.
In making repairs necessitated by decay, every effort should
be made to correct the moisture condition that led to the
damage. If the condition cannot be corrected, all infected
parts should be replaced with preservative-treated wood or
with all-heartwood lumber of a naturally decay-resistant
wood species. If the sources of moisture that caused the
decay are entirely eliminated, it is necessary only to replace
the weakened wood with dry lumber.
Other Structures and Products
In general, the principles underlying the prevention of mold,
stain, or decay damage to veneer, plywood containers,
boats, and other wood products and structures are similar
to those described for buildings—dry the wood rapidly and
keep it dry, or treat it with approved protective and preser-
vative solutions. Interior grades of plywood should not be
used where the plywood will be exposed to moisture; the
adhesives, as well as the wood, may be damaged by fungi
and bacteria and degraded by moisture. With exterior-type
panels, joint construction should be carefully designed to
prevent the entrance and entrapment of rainwater.
In treated bridge or wharf timbers, checking may occur and
may expose untreated wood to fungal attack. Annual in-
place treatment of these checks will provide protection from
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 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
Table 14–2. Types of damage caused by wood-attacking insects
Type of Damage
damage Description Causal agent Begins Ends
Pin holes 0.25 to 6.4 mm (1/100 to 1/4 in.) in diameter,
usually circular
Tunnels open:
Holes 0.5 to 3 mm (1/50 to 1/8 in.) in diameter, Ambrosia beetles In living trees and During seasoning
usually centered in dark streak or ring in unseasoned logs and
surrounding wood lumber
Holes variable sizes; surrounding wood rarely Timber worms In living trees and Before seasoning
dark stained; tunnels lined with wood-colored unseasoned logs and
substance lumber
Tunnels usually packed with fine sawdust:
Exit holes 0.8 to 1.6 mm (1/32 to 1/16 in.) in Lyctid powder-post During or after Reinfestation continues
diameter; in sapwood of large-pored hardwoods; beetles seasoning until sapwood destroyed
loose floury sawdust in tunnels
Exit holes 1.6 to 3 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.) in Anobiid powder-post Usually after wood in Reinfestation continues;
diameter; primarily in sapwood, rarely in beetles use (in buildings) progress of damage very
heartwood; tunnels loosely packed with fine slow
sawdust and elongate pellets
Exit holes 2.5 to 7 mm (3/32 to 9/32 in.) in Bostrichid powder- Before seasoning or if During seasoning or
diameter; primarily sapwood of hardwoods, post beetles wood is rewetted redrying
minor in softwoods; sawdust in tunnels fine to
coarse and tightly packed
Exit holes 1.6 to 2 mm (1/16 to 1/12 in.) in Wood-boring weevils In slightly damp wood Reinfestation continues
diameter; in slightly damp or decayed wood; in use while wood is damp
very fine sawdust or pellets tightly packed in
tunnels
Grub holes 3 to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter, circular or
oval
Exit holes 3 to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter; Roundheaded borers In living trees and When adults emerge
circular; mostly in sapwood; tunnels with coarse to (beetles) unseasoned logs and from seasoned wood or
fibrous sawdust or it may be absent lumber when wood is dried
Exit holes 3 to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter; Flatheaded borers In living trees and When adults emerge
mostly oval; in sapwood and heartwood; sawdust (beetles) unseasoned logs and from seasoned wood or
tightly packed in tunnels lumber when wood is dried
Exit holes ~6 mm (~1/4 in.) in diameter; circular; Old house borers During or after Reinfestation continues
in sapwood of softwoods, primarily pine; tunnels (a roundheaded seasoning in seasoned wood in use
packed with very fine sawdust borer)
Exit holes perfectly circular, 4 to 6 mm (1/6 to 1/4 Woodwasps In dying trees or fresh When adults emerge
in.) in diameter; primarily in softwoods; tunnels logs from seasoned wood,
tightly packed with coarse sawdust, often in decay usually in use, or when
softened wood kiln-dried
Nest entry hole and tunnel perfectly circular ~13 Carpenter bees In structural timbers, Nesting reoccurs
mm (~1/2 in.) in diameter; in soft softwoods in siding annually in spring at
structures same and nearby
locations
Network of Systems of interconnected tunnels and chambers Social insects with
galleries colonies
Walls look polished; spaces completely clean of Carpenter ants Usually in damp partly Colony persists unless
debris decayed, or soft- prolonged drying of
textured wood in use wood occurs
Walls usually speckled with mud spots; some Subterranean termites In wood structures Colony persists
chambers may be filled with “clay”
Chambers contain pellets; areas may be walled off Dry-wood termites In wood structures Colony persists
by dark membrane (occasionally damp
wood termites)
Pitch pocket Openings between growth rings containing pitch Various insects In living trees In tree
Black check Small packets in outer layer of wood Grubs of various In living trees In tree
insects
Pith fleck Narrow, brownish streaks Fly maggots or adult In living trees In tree
weevils
Gum spot Small patches or streaks of gum-like substances Grubs of various In living trees In tree
insects
Ring Double growth rings or incomplete annual layers Larvae of defoliating In living trees In tree
distortion of growth insects or flatheaded
cambium borers
Stained area more than 25.4 mm (1 in.) long Staining fungi With insect wounds With seasoning
introduced by insects in trees or recently felled
logs

14–8
Chapter 14  Biodeterioration of Wood

decay. Similarly, pile tops may be protected by treatment

with a wood preservative followed by application of a suit-
able capping compound or shield.
Wood boats present certain problems that are not encoun-
tered in other uses of wood. The parts especially subject to
decay are the stem, knighthead, transom, and frameheads,
which can be reached by rainwater from above or condensa-
tion from below. Frayed surfaces are more likely to decay
than are exposed surfaces, and in salt water service, hull
members just below the weather deck are more vulner-
able than those below the waterline. Recommendations for
avoiding decay include (a) using only heartwood of durable
species, free of infection, and preferably below 20% mois-
ture content; (b) providing and maintaining ventilation in
the hull and all compartments; (c) keeping water out as
much as is practicable, especially fresh water; and (d) where
it is necessary to use sapwood or nondurable heartwood,
impregnating the wood with an approved preservative and
treating the fully cut, shaped, and bored wood before instal-
lation by soaking it for a short time in preservative solution.
Where such mild soaking treatment is used, the wood most
subject to decay should also be flooded with an approved
preservative at intervals of 2 or 3 years. During subsequent
treatment, the wood should be dry so that joints are rela-
tively loose.
Figure 14–8. Types of insect damage most likely
Bacteria to occur in a building. Upper left—Termite attack;
feeding galleries (often parallel to the grain) con-
Most wood that has been wet for a considerable length of tain excrement and soil. Upper right—Powder-post
time probably will contain bacteria. The sour smell of logs beetle attack; exit holes usually filled with wood
flour and not associated with discolored wood.
that have been held under water for several months, or of Lower left—Carpenter ant attack; nesting galleries
lumber cut from them, manifests bacterial action. Usually, usually cut across grain and are free of residue.
bacteria have little effect on wood properties, except over Lower right—Beetle attack; feeding galleries
long periods, but some may make the wood excessively ab- (made in the wood while green) free of residue
sorptive. This can result in excessive absorption of moisture, and surrounding wood darkly stained.
adhesive, paint, or preservative during treatment or use. This vary in length from approximately 1.5 to 6.5 mm (1/16 to
effect has been a problem in the sapwood of millwork cut 1/4 in.) They bore through the outer bark to the soft inner
from pine logs that have been stored in ponds. There also is part, where they make tunnels in which they lay their
evidence that bacteria developing in pine veneer bolts held eggs. In making tunnels, bark beetles push out fine
under water or sprayed with water may cause noticeable brownish-white sawdust-like particles. If many beetles are
changes in the physical character of the veneer, including present, their extensive tunneling will loosen the bark and
some strength loss. Additionally, a mixture of different bac- permit it to fall off in large patches, making the structure
teria and fungi was found capable of accelerating decay of unsightly.
treated cooling tower slats and mine timbers.
To avoid bark beetle damage, logs may be debarked rapidly,
Insect Damage and Control sprayed with an approved insecticidal solution, stored in
water or under a water spray, or cut during the dormant sea-
The more common types of damage caused by wood-
son (October or November, for instance). If cut during this
attacking insects are shown in Table 14–2 and Figure 14–8.
period, logs should immediately be piled off the ground and
Methods of controlling and preventing insect attack of wood
arranged for good air movement to promote rapid drying of
are described in the following paragraphs.
the inner bark. This should occur before the beetles begin to
Beetles fly in the spring. Drying the bark will almost always prevent
Bark beetles may damage the surface of the components of damage by insects that prefer freshly cut wood.
logs and other rustic structures from which the bark has not Ambrosia beetles, roundheaded and flatheaded borers, and
been removed. These beetles are reddish brown to black and some powder-post beetles that get into freshly cut timber

14–9

can cause considerable damage to wood in rustic structures
and some manufactured products. Certain beetles may com-
plete development and emerge several years after the wood
is dry, often raising a question as to the origin of the
infestation.
Proper cutting practices, rapid debarking, storing under
water, and spraying with an approved chemical solution, as
recommended for bark beetles, will control these insects.
Damage by ambrosia beetles can be prevented in freshly
sawn lumber by dipping the product in a chemical solution.
The addition of one of the sap-stain preventives approved
for controlling molds, stains, and decay will keep the lum-
ber bright. Powder-post beetles attack both hardwoods and
softwoods and both freshly cut and seasoned lumber and
timber. Powder-post damage is indicated by holes made in
the surface of the wood by the winged adults as they emerge
and by the fine powder that may fall from the wood. The
powder-post beetles that cause most of the damage to dry
hardwood lumber belong to the genus Lyctus. They attack
the sapwood of ash, hickory, oak, and other large-pored
hardwoods as it begins to season. Eggs are laid in pores of
the wood, and the larvae burrow through the wood, mak-
ing tunnels from 1.5 to 2 mm (1/16 to 1/12 in.) in diameter,
which they leave packed with a fine powder. Species of ano-
biid beetles colonize coniferous materials.
Susceptible hardwood lumber used for manufacturing
purposes should be protected from powder-post beetle at-
tack as soon as it is sawn and when it arrives at the plant.
An approved insecticide applied in water emulsion to the
green lumber will provide protection. Such treatment may
be effective even after the lumber is kiln dried, until it is
surfaced. Heat sterilization is another way to kill insects in
green lumber. To effectively kill insects in lumber or tim-
bers, heat sterilization requires that the center of the wood
be held at 56 °C (133 °F) for 30 min. The time required to
reach that temperature is highly variable and depends on
thickness of boards, dimension of timbers, and moisture
content of the wood (Chap. 20). For example, heating time
increases with increasing board thickness or increasing
cross-sectional dimension.
Good plant sanitation is extremely important in alleviating
the problem of infestation. Proper sanitation measures can
often eliminate the necessity for other preventative steps.
Damage to manufactured items frequently is traceable to
infestation that occurred before the products were placed on
the market, particularly if a finish is not applied to the sur-
face of the items until they are sold. Once wood is infested,
the larvae will continue to develop, even though the surface
is subsequently painted, oiled, waxed, or varnished.
When selecting hardwood lumber for building or manufac-
turing purposes, any evidence of powder-post infestation
should not be overlooked, because the beetles may continue
to be active long after the wood is put to use. Heat steriliza-
14–10
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
tion under conditions that ensure the center of the wood
will be held at 56 °C (133 °F) for 30 min will effectively
kill insects in infested lumber. Those conditions vary with
moisture content, size, and dimension of wood—see Chap-
ter 20 for further information on heat sterilization. A 3-min
soaking in a petroleum oil solution containing an insecticide
is also effective for checking infestation or preventing at-
tack on lumber up to standard 19 mm (nominal 1 in.) thick.
Small dimension stock also can be protected by brushing or
spraying with approved chemicals. For infested furniture or
finished woodwork in a building, the same insecticides may
be used, but they should be dissolved in refined petroleum
oil, such as mineral spirits. Because Lyctus beetles lay their
eggs in the open pores of wood, infestation can be prevented
by covering the entire surface of each piece of wood with a
suitable finish.
Powder-post beetles in the family Anobiidae, depending
on the species, infest hardwoods and softwoods. Their life
cycle takes 2 to 3 years, and they require wood moisture
content around 15% or greater for viable infestation. There-
fore, in most modern buildings, the wood moisture content
is generally too low for anobiids. When ventilation is inad-
equate or in more humid regions of the United States, wood
components of a building can reach the favorable moisture
conditions for anobiids. This is especially a problem in air-
conditioned buildings where water condenses on cooled
exterior surfaces. Susceptibility to anobiid infestation can be
alleviated by lowering the moisture content of wood through
improved ventilation and the judicious use of insulation and
vapor barriers. Insecticides registered for use against these
beetles are generally restricted for exterior applications to
avoid potential safety hazards indoors. Wood being reused
or recycled from older structures often has lyctid or anobiid
larvae in it. Such wood should be fumigated or kiln dried
before use in another structure.
Beetles in the family Bostrichidae and weevils in the family
Curculionidae are associated with wood moisture contents
favorable for wood-infesting fungi because they may benefit
nutritionally from the fungi. Thus, protection against these
insects consists of the same procedures as for protection
against wood-decay fungi.
A roundheaded beetle, commonly known as the old house
borer, causes damage to seasoned, coniferous building mate-
rials. The larvae reduce the sapwood to a powdery or granu-
lar consistency and make a ticking sound while at work.
When mature, the beetles make an oval hole approximately
6.5 mm (1/4 in.) in diameter in the surface of the wood and
emerge. Anobiid powder-post beetles, which make holes
1.6 to 3.2 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.) in diameter, also cause dam-
age to pine joists. Infested wood should be drenched with a
solution of one of the currently recommended insecticides in
a highly penetrating solvent. Beetles nesting in wood behind
plastered or paneled walls can be eliminated through fumi-
gation of the building by a licensed operator.
Chapter 14  Biodeterioration of Wood
Figure 14–9. A, the northern limit of recorded damage
done by subterranean termites in the United States; B,
the northern limit of damage done by dry-wood termites.
Termites
Termites superficially resemble ants in size, general appear-
ance, and habit of living in colonies. About 56 species are
known in the United States. From the standpoint of their
methods of attack on wood, termites can be grouped into
two main classes: (a) ground-inhabiting or subterranean
termites and (b) wood-inhabiting or nonsubterranean
termites.
Subterranean Termites
Subterranean termites are responsible for most of the termite
damage to wood structures in the United States. This dam-
age can be prevented. Subterranean termites are more preva-
lent in the southern than in the northern states, where low
temperatures do not favor their development (Fig. 14–9).
The hazard of infestation is greatest (a) beneath buildings
without basements that were erected on a concrete slab
foundation or were built over a crawl space that is poorly
drained and lacks a moisture barrier (see Chap. 17) and (b)
in any substructure wood component close to the ground or
an earth fill (for example, an earth-filled porch).
Subterranean termites develop their colonies and maintain
their headquarters in the ground. They build their tunnels
through earth and around obstructions to reach the wood
they need for food. They also must have a constant source
of moisture, whether from the wood on which they are feed-
ing or the soil where they nest. The worker members of the
colony cause destruction of wood. At certain seasons of the
year, usually spring, male and female winged forms swarm
from the colony, fly a short time, lose their wings, mate, and
if successful in locating a suitable home, start new colonies.
The appearance of “flying ants” or their shed wings is an
indication that a termite colony may be near and causing
serious damage. Not all “flying ants” are termites; therefore,
suspicious insects should be identified before investing in
eradication (Fig. 14–10).
Subterranean termites normally do not establish themselves
in buildings by being carried there in lumber; they primarily
Figure 14–10. A, winged termite; B, winged
ant (both greatly enlarged). The wasp waist
of the ant and the long wings of the termite
are distinguishing characteristics.
enter from ground nests after the building has been con-
structed. An introduced species, the Formosan termite, is
adept at initiating aboveground infestations and nests
in structures where wood remains wet for prolonged
periods, such as from roof leaks. Telltale signs of subterra-
nean termite presence are the earthen tubes or runways built
by these insects over the surfaces of the foundation or other
exposed areas to reach the wood above. Another sign is the
swarming of winged adults early in the spring or fall. In the
wood itself, the termites make galleries that generally fol-
low the grain, leaving a shell of sound wood to conceal their
activities. Because the galleries seldom show on the wood
surfaces, probing with a pick or knife is advisable if the
presence of termites is suspected.
The best protection for wood in areas where subterranean
termites are prevalent is to prevent the termites from gaining
hidden access to a building. The foundations should be of
concrete, pressure-treated wood, or other material through
which the termites cannot penetrate. With brick, stone, or
concrete block, cement mortar should be used because ter-
mites can work through some other kinds of mortar. Also,
14–11

it is a good precaution to cap the foundation with 100 mm
(4 in.) of reinforced concrete. Posts supporting floor girders
should, if they bear directly on the ground, be of concrete.
If there is a basement, it should be floored with concrete.
Untreated posts in such a basement should rest on concrete
piers extending a few inches above the basement floor.
However, pressure-treated posts can rest directly on the
basement floor. With the crawl-space type of foundation,
wood floor joists should be kept at least 460 mm (18 in.) and
girders 300 mm (12 in.) from the earth with a polyethylene
vapor barrier covering exposed soil and extending partially
up the foundation wall. Moisture condensation on the floor
joists and subflooring, which may cause conditions favor-
able to decay and contribute to infestation by termites, can
be avoided by covering the soil below with a moisture barri-
er and assuming proper drainage of rainwater away from all
sides of a structure by managing rain and roof runoff with
gutters, downspouts, and proper grading around the founda-
tion. All concrete forms, stakes, stumps, and wastewood
should be removed from the building site because they are
possible sources of infestation. Generally, the precautions
effective against subterranean termites are also helpful
against decay.
The principal method of protecting buildings in high ter-
mite areas is to thoroughly treat the soil adjacent to the
foundation walls and piers beneath the building with a soil
insecticide. When concrete slab floors are laid directly on
the ground, all soil under the slab should be treated with an
approved insecticide before the concrete is poured. Further-
more, insulation containing cellulose that is used as a filler
in expansion joints should be impregnated with an approved
chemical toxic to termites. Sealing the top 13 mm (1/2 in.)
of the expansion joint with roofing-grade coal-tar pitch also
provides effective protection from ground-nesting termites.
Several soil treatments and insecticidal bait control meth-
ods are currently available. Information on current control
methods is available from national pest control operator as-
sociations. These organizations should be consulted to take
advantage of the latest technology in termite control.
To control termites already in a building, contact between
the termite colony in the soil and the woodwork must be
broken. This can be done by blocking the runways from soil
to wood, treating the soil, repairing leaks that keep wood
within the structure wet (for example, plumbing leaks), or
some combination of these techniques. Possible reinfesta-
tion can be guarded against by frequent inspections for
signs of termites.
Nonsubterranean Termites
In the United States, nonsubterranean termites have been
found only in a narrow strip of territory extending from cen-
tral California around the southern edge of the continental
United States to Virginia (Fig. 14–9) and in the West Indies
and Hawaii. Their principal damage is confined to an area
in southern California, to parts of southern Florida, notably
14–12
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
Key West, and to the islands of Hawaii. They also are a lo-
calized problem in Arizona and New Mexico.
The nonsubterranean termites, especially the dry-wood type,
do not multiply as rapidly as the subterranean termites and
have a somewhat different colony life and habits. The total
amount of destruction they cause in the United States is
much less than that caused by the subterranean termites. The
ability of dry-wood termites to live in dry wood without out-
side moisture or contact with the ground, however, makes
them a definite menace in the regions where they occur.
Their destruction is not rapid, but they can thoroughly riddle
timbers with their tunneling if allowed to work undisturbed
for many years. Nonsubterranean termites are often moved
from structure to structure in infested items such as
furniture.
In constructing a building in localities where the dry-wood
type of nonsubterranean termite is prevalent, it is good
practice to inspect the lumber carefully to see that it was not
infested before arrival at the building site. If the building is
constructed during the swarming season, the lumber should
be watched during the course of construction, because in-
festation by colonizing pairs can easily take place. Because
paint is a good protection against the entrance of dry-wood
termites, exposed wood (except that which is preserva-
tive treated) should be kept covered with a paint film. Fine
screen should be placed over any openings to the interior
unpainted parts of the building. As in the case of ground-
nesting termites, dead trees, old stumps, posts, or wood
debris of any kind that could serve as sources of infestation
should be removed from the premises.
If a building is infested with dry-wood termites, badly dam-
aged wood should be replaced. If the wood is only slightly
damaged or is difficult to replace, further termite activity
can be arrested by injecting a small amount of an approved
pesticidal dust or liquid formulation into each nest. Current
recommendations for such formulations can be found from
state pest control associations. Buildings heavily infested
with nonsubterranean termites can be successfully fumigat-
ed. This method is quicker than the use of poisonous liquids
and dusts and does not require finding all of the colonies.
However, it does not prevent the termites from returning
because no poisonous residue is left in the tunnels. Fumiga-
tion is very dangerous and should be conducted only by li-
censed professional fumigators. Infested pieces of furniture,
picture frames, and other small pieces can be individually
fumigated, heated, or placed in a freezer for a short time.
In localities where dry-wood termites do serious damage
to posts and poles, the best protection for these and similar
forms of outdoor timbers is full-length pressure treatment
with a preservative.
Naturally Termite-Resistant Woods
Only a limited number of woods grown in the United States
offer any marked degree of natural resistance to termite
Chapter 14  Biodeterioration of Wood
attack. The close-grained heartwood of California redwood
has some resistance, especially when used above ground.
Very resinous heartwood of Southern Pine is practically im-
mune to attack, but it is not available in large quantities and
is seldom used.
Carpenter Ants
Carpenter ants are black or brown. They usually occur in
stumps, trees, or logs but sometimes damage poles, struc-
tural timbers, or buildings. One form is easily recognized by
its giant size relative to other ants. Carpenter ants use wood
for shelter rather than for food, usually preferring wood that
is naturally soft or has been made soft by decay. They may
enter a building directly by crawling or may be carried there
in firewood. If left undisturbed, they can, in a few years,
enlarge their tunnels to the point where replacement or ex-
tensive repairs are necessary. The parts of dwellings they
frequent most often are porch columns, porch roofs, window
sills, and sometimes the wood plates in foundation walls.
They often nest in hollow-core doors. The logs of rustic cab-
ins are also attacked.
Precautions that prevent attack by decay and termites are
usually effective against carpenter ants. Decaying or in-
fested wood, such as logs, stumps, or retaining walls, should
be removed from the premises, and crevices present in the
foundation or woodwork of the building should be sealed.
Particularly, leaks in porch roofs should be repaired because
the decay that may result makes the wood more desirable to
the ants.
When carpenter ants are found in a structure, any badly
damaged timbers should be replaced. Because the carpenter
ant needs high humidity in its immature stages, alterations in
the construction may also be required to eliminate moisture
from rain or condensation. In wood not sufficiently damaged
to require replacement, the ants can be killed by injection of
approved insecticide into the nest galleries. Carpenter ant
nests are relatively easy to find because they keep their in-
ternal nest sites very clean and free of debris. As particles of
wood are removed to create galleries or as pieces of insects
that have been fed upon accumulate, the debris is removed
from the nest and then accumulates below the nest opening.
Carpenter Bees
Carpenter bees resemble large bumblebees, but the top of
their abdomen is hairless, causing their abdomens to shine,
unlike bumblebees. The females make large (13-mm- (1/2-
in.-) diameter) tunnels into unfinished soft wood for nests.
They partition the hole into cells; each cell is provided with
pollen and nectar for a single egg. Because carpenter bees
reuse nesting sites for many years, a nesting tunnel into a
structural timber may be extended several feet and have
multiple branches. In thin wood, such as siding, the holes
may extend the full thickness of the wood. They nest in
wood that has been finished with a stain or thin paint film,
or light preservative salt treatments, as well as in bare wood.
A favorite nesting site is in unfinished exterior wood not
directly exposed to sunlight (for example, the undersides of
porch roofs, and grape arbors).
Control is aimed at discouraging the use of nesting sites
in and near buildings. The tunnel may be injected with an
insecticide labeled for bee control and plugged with caulk.
Treating the surface around the entry hole will discourage
reuse of the tunnel during the spring nesting period. A good
paint film or pressure preservative treatment protects exte-
rior wood surfaces from nesting damage. Bare interior wood
surfaces, such as in garages, can be protected by screens and
tight-fitting doors.
Marine Borer Damage and Control
Damage by marine-boring organisms to wood structures in
salt or brackish waters is practically a worldwide problem.
Evidence of attack is sometimes found in rivers even above
the region of brackishness. The rapidity of attack depends
upon local conditions and the kinds of borers present. Along
the Pacific, Gulf, and South Atlantic Coasts of the United
States, attack is rapid, and untreated pilings may be com-
pletely destroyed in a year or less. Along the coast of the
New England States, the rate of attack is slower because
of cold water temperatures but is still sufficiently rapid to
require protection of wood where long life is desired. The
principal marine borers from the standpoint of wood dam-
age in the United States are described in this section. Con-
trol measures discussed in this section are those in use at
the time this handbook was revised. Regulations should be
reviewed at the time control treatments are being considered
so that approved practices will be followed.
Shipworms
Shipworms are the most destructive of the marine borers.
They are mollusks of various species that superficially are
worm-like in form. The group includes several species of
Teredo and several species of Bankia, which are especially
damaging. These mollusks are readily distinguishable on
close observation but are all very similar in several respects.
In the early stages of their life, they are minute, free-swim-
ming organisms. Upon finding suitable lodgment on wood,
they quickly develop into a new form and bury themselves
in the wood. A pair of boring shells on the head grows rap-
idly in size as the boring progresses, while the tail part or
siphon remains at the original entrance. Thus, the animal
grows in length and diameter within the wood but remains
a prisoner in its burrow, which it lines with a shell-like
deposit. It lives on the wood borings and the organic mat-
ter extracted from the sea water that is continuously being
pumped through its system. The entrance holes never grow
large, and the interior of wood may be completely hon-
eycombed and ruined while the surface shows only slight
perforations. When present in great numbers, shipworms
grow only a few centimeters before the wood is so com-
pletely occupied that growth is stopped. However, when not
14–13

Figure 14–11. Lim-
noria damage to
piling.
crowded, they can grow to lengths of 0.3 to 1.2 m (1 to 4 ft)
depending on the species.
Pholads
Another group of wood-boring mollusks is the pholads,
which clearly resemble clams and therefore are not included
with the shipworms. They are entirely encased in their
double shells. The Martesia are the best-known species,
but another well-known group is the Xylophaga. Like the
shipworms, the Martesia enter the wood when they are very
small, leaving a small entrance hole, and grow larger as they
burrow into the wood. They generally do not exceed 64 mm
(2-1/2 in.) long and 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter but are ca-
pable of doing considerable damage. Their activities in the
United States appear to be confined to the Gulf Coast, San
Diego, and Hawaii.
Limnoria and Sphaeroma
Another distinct group of marine borers are crustaceans,
which are related to lobsters and shrimp. The principal bor-
ers in this group are species of Limnoria and Sphaeroma.
Their attack differs from that of the shipworms and the
Martesia in that the bore hole is quite shallow; the result is
that the wood gradually is thinned from the surface inward
through erosion by the combined action of the borers and
water erosion. Also, the Limnoria and Sphaeroma do not
become imprisoned in the wood but may move freely from
place to place.
Limnoria are small, 3 to 4 mm (1/8 to 1/6 in.) long, and
bore small burrows in the surface of wood. Although they
can change their location, they usually continue to bore in
one place. When great numbers of Limnoria are present,
their burrows are separated by very thin walls of wood that
are easily eroded by the motion of the water or damaged by
objects floating upon it. This erosion causes the Limnoria to
burrow continually deeper; otherwise, the burrows would
probably not become greater than 51 mm (2 in.) long or 13
mm (1/2 in.) deep. Because erosion is greatest between tide
14–14
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
levels, piles heavily attacked by Limnoria characteristically
wear within this zone to an hourglass shape (Fig. 14–11). In
heavily infested harbors, untreated piling can be destroyed
by Limnoria within a year.
Sphaeroma are somewhat larger, sometimes reaching a
length of 13 mm (1/2 in.) and a width of 6 mm (1/4 in.). In
general appearance and size, they resemble the common
sow bug or pill bug that inhabits damp places. Sphaeroma
are widely distributed but are not as plentiful as Limnoria
and cause much less damage, although damage caused by
Sphaeroma action resembles that of Limnoria. Nevertheless,
piles in some structures have been ruined by them. It has
been reported that Sphaeroma attack salt-treated wood in
Florida. Occasionally, they have been found in fresh water.
The average life of well-creosoted structures in areas sus-
ceptible to marine borer attack is many times the average
life obtained from untreated structures. However, even
thorough creosote treatment will not always stop Martesia,
Sphaeroma, and especially Limnoria; shallow or erratic
creosote penetration affords only slight protection. The spots
with poor protection are attacked first, and from there, the
borers spread inward and destroy the untreated interior of
the pile.
When wood is to be used in salt water, avoidance of cutting
or injuring the surface after treatment is even more impor-
tant than when wood is to be used on land. No cutting or
injury of any kind for any purpose should be permitted in
the underwater part of the pile. Where piles are cut to grade
above the waterline, the exposed surfaces should be pro-
tected from decay. This may be accomplished by in-place
application of a wood preservative followed by a suitable
capping compound.
Protection from Marine Borers
No wood is immune to marine-borer attack, and no com-
mercially important wood of the United States has sufficient
marine-borer resistance to justify its use untreated in any
important structure in areas where borers are active. The
heartwood of several foreign species, such as greenheart,
jarrah, azobe, and manbarklak, has shown resistance to
marine-borer attack. Service records on these woods, how-
ever, do not always show uniform results and are affected by
local conditions. Borer damage to wooden marine structures
can be prevented, but knowing the type of borer present in
the geographic location is important for selection of proper
preservative and treatment retention to protect the structure
from surface erosion.
Protection of Permanent Structures
The best practical protection for piles in sea water with ship-
worms and moderate Limnoria hazard is heavy treatment
with coal-tar creosote or creosote coal-tar solution. Where
severe Limnoria hazard exists, dual treatment (copper-
arsenate-containing waterborne preservatives followed by
coal-tar creosote) is recommended. The treatment must be
Chapter 14  Biodeterioration of Wood
thorough, the penetration as deep as possible, and the re-
tention high to give satisfactory results in heavily infested
waters. It is best to treat such piles by the full-cell process to
refusal; that is, to force in all the preservative the piles can
hold without using treatments that cause serious damage to
the wood. For highest retentions, it is necessary to air- or
kiln-dry the piling before treatment. Details of treatments
are discussed in Chapter 15.
The life of treated piles is influenced by the thoroughness of
the treatment, the care and diligence used in avoiding dam-
age to the treated shell during handling and installation, and
the severity of borer attack. Differences in exposure condi-
tions, such as water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen,
water depth, and currents, tend to cause wide variations in
the severity of borer attack even within limited areas. Ser-
vice records show average-life figures of 22 to 48 years on
well-treated Douglas-fir piles in San Francisco Bay waters.
In South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters, creosoted
piles are estimated to last 10 to 12 years and frequently
much longer. On the North Atlantic Coast, where exposure
conditions are less severe, piles can last even longer than the
22- to 48-year life recorded in the San Francisco Bay.
Metal armor and concrete or plastic jacketing have been
used with various degrees of success for the protection of
marine piles. The metal armor may be in the form of sheets,
wire, or nails. Sheathing of piles with copper or muntz metal
has been only partially successful, owing to difficulty in
maintaining a continuous armor. Theft, mechanical damage
from driving, damage by storm or driftwood, and corrosion
of sheathing have sooner or later let in the borers, and in
only a few cases has long pile life been reported. Attempts
during World War II to electroplate wood piles with copper
were not successful. Concrete casings are now in greater use
than is metal armor, and they appear to provide better pro-
tection when high-quality materials are used and carefully
applied. Unfortunately, they are readily damaged by ship
impact. For this reason, concrete casings are less practical
for fender piles than for foundation piles that are protected
from mechanical damage.
Jacketing piles by wrapping them with heavy polyvinyl
plastic is one form of supplementary protection. If properly
applied, the jacketing will kill any borers that may have
already become established by creating stagnant water,
thereby decreasing oxygen levels in the water that is in con-
tact with the piles. Like other materials, the plastic jacket is
subject to mechanical damage.
Protection of Boats
Wood barges have been constructed with planking or
sheathing pressure-treated with creosote to protect the hull
from marine borers, and the results have been favorable.
Although coal-tar creosote is an effective preservative for
protecting wood against marine borers in areas of moderate
borer hazard, it has disadvantages in many types of boats.
Creosote adds considerably to the weight of the boat hull,
and its odor is objectionable to boat crews. In addition, anti-
fouling paints are difficult to apply over creosoted wood.
Antifouling paints that contain copper protect boat hulls
against marine-borer attack, but the protection continues
only while the coating remains unbroken. Because it is dif-
ficult to maintain an unbroken coating of antifouling paint,
the U.S. Navy has found it desirable to impregnate the hull
planking of some wood boats with certain copper-containing
preservatives. Such preservatives, when applied with high
retentions (40 kg m–3 (2.5 lb ft–3)), have some effectiveness
against marine borers and should help to protect the hull of
a boat during intervals between renewals of the antifouling
coating. These copper preservatives do not provide protec-
tion equivalent to that furnished by coal-tar creosote; their
effectiveness in protecting boats is therefore best assured if
the boats are dry docked at regular and frequent intervals
and the antifouling coating maintained. The leach-resistant
wood preservatives containing copper arsenates have
shown superior performance (at a retention of 40 kg m–3
(2.5 lb ft–3)) to creosote in tests conducted in areas of severe
borer hazard.
Plywood as well as plank hulls can be protected against
marine borers by preservative treatment. The plywood hull
presents a surface that can be covered successfully with a
protective membrane of reinforced plastic laminate. Such
coverings should not be attempted on wood that has been
treated with a preservative carried in oil, because the bond
will be unsatisfactory.
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