Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

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Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Full Length Article

Effects of low-level water addition on spray, combustion and emission T

characteristics of a medium speed diesel engine fueled with biodiesel fuel
⁎ ⁎
Zhiqing Zhanga,b,c, Jiaqiang Ea,c, , Jingwei Chena,c, , Hao Zhua,c, Xiaohuan Zhaoa,c,
⁎
Dandan Hana,c, Wei Zuoa,c, Qingguo Penga,c, Jinke Gonga,c, Zibin Yind,
a
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
b
Maritime College, Qinzhou University, Qinzhou 535000, China
c
Institute of New Energy and Energy-saving & Emission-reduction Technology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
d
College of Marine Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China

G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

Fuel combustion
measurement meter
Valve 4

Fuel tank
Water
Biodiesel Sensors
Eddy current
dynamometer Flowmeter 1
Diesel engine
Sensors
Valve 1

Combustion Pressure gauge Valve 3 AVL smoke

analyzer Horiba emission analyzer
analyzer Valve 2

Spray Micro-explosion Spray flame DEWE-2010CA

measurement system
Data acquisition
PC display 2 card
PC display 1
Addition on the combustion quality of emulsified fuel

Schematic diagram in the bench scale test

120 900
W0 0.8 a
(c) 25% load W0 W2 W4 W6
W0 850 W2
100 0.6
(c)25% load W2
Cylinder temperature(K)

W4
CO(vol%)

W4 800 W6
80 0.4
W6
750
HRR(J/deg)

0.2
60 700
0.0
650 b
40 8.0

600 7.5
CO 2 (vol% )

20 7.0
550
6.5
0 500
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 6.0
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA) 100% Load 50% Load 25% Load
HHR results Cylinder temperature results BFSC, brake power and BTE

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this work, the low water-level water-biodiesel emulsion (WBE) fuels (2, 4 and 6 wt%) and pure biodiesel fuel
Water-biodiesel emulsion were used to investigate the effects of water addition on spray, combustion and emission characteristics of a
Diesel engine medium speed diesel engine in terms of cylinder pressure, cylinder temperature, heat release rate, brake power,
NOx emission brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, NOx, soot, CO and CO2 emissions. The corresponding
Micro-explosion
three-dimensional CFD model was performed by AVL-Fire coupled CHEMKIN II code, and an improved chemical
kinetics mechanism containing 475 reactions and 134 species was developed to simulate the fuel spray process
and combustion process since it contained methyl linolenate, methyl linoleate, methyl oleate, methyl stearate,
methyl palmitate, a majority component in most biodiesel, thus improved the accuracy of simulation. The result
obtained showed that the water addition in fuel played an important role in fuel spray process and fuel com-
bustion process. The fuel-air mixing was improved due to the micro-explosion. More specifically, the findings
revealed that low-level water addition in biodiesel fuel could reduce NOx, CO and CO2 emissions. The optimal
water addition level in terms of diesel engine emission and performance parameters was found at 4 wt% among
WBE fuels. In particular, the NOx, CO and CO2 emissions were reduced respectively, at maximum speed of
1000 rpm. Thus, the relationship between water addition rate and combustion and emission characteristics is not
straightforward, the balance between water addition and fuel is very important.

⁎
Corresponding authors at: State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China (J. E and J.
Chen). College of Marine Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, China (Z. Yin).
E-mail addresses: ejiaqiang@126.com (J. E), chenjingwei@hnu.edu.cn (J. Chen), onlyyinzb@163.com (Z. Yin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.11.019
Received 14 May 2018; Received in revised form 29 October 2018; Accepted 4 November 2018
0016-2361/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Zhang et al.
1. Introduction
Diesel engine is widely used as the power propulsion device in the
transportation sector [1,2]. Similarly, the CO, PM and NOx emissions
from diesel engine have posed a threat to the public health and eco-
systems [3–5]. In order to face this challenge and meet the require-
ments of resource and environment problems, many manufacturers and
researchers have no choice but to improve engine technologies and look
for alternatives to replace fossil fuels [6,7]. Biodiesel is a renewable
energy source and can effectively reduce PM, HC, CO and soot emis-
sions [8–10]. Thus, more and more researchers have played attention to
biodiesel fuels over recent years [11,12].
In order to effectively reduce the environmental pollution, the re-
newable biodiesel may gradually replace fossil fuels due to the unique
advantages over fossil fuel such as higher lubricity, being non-toxic in
nature, biodegradability and improved emission characteristics
[13–15]. The renewable biodiesel fuels produced from varied vegetable
oils (especially rapeseed oil) are throughout China and overseas market
[16,17]. It is worth mentioning that the output accounts for more than
30% of the total oil output, and the planting area accounts for more
than 40% of the total area of crops in China, ranking first in the word
[18,19]. Therefore, the rapeseed biodiesel has a great prospect for
further development in the 21st century [20].
As described, the renewable biodiesel should be defined as clean
energy [21]. Compared with fossil fuel, the renewable biodiesel can
achieve the lower PM, CO and HC emissions [22]. However, the higher
NOx emission is reportedly deteriorated [23,24]. To overcome the dif-
ficulty, many efforts have been put into the improvements of optimi-
zation and design [25,26]. For instance, the technologies such as ex-
haust gas recirculation (EGR) and variable intake valve timing have
been widely applied [27]. However, the pollutant emissions for diesel
engine are not enough to satisfy the increasingly stringent emission
regulation [28]. Thus, various additives have been applied to improve
the engine efficiency and reduce the exhaust emissions [29]. Many
researchers had investigated the various typical additives such as water,
ethanol and hexadecane [30]. However, the water additive was found
that it was very effective to reduce emissions such as PM, HC and NOx
[31]. Further, the water-diesel emulsion (WDE) method can not only
reduce the harmful emissions, but also lead to the higher energy effi-
ciency without changing the internal structure of diesel engine [32].
Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the effect of water addition
on the combustion quality of WDE fuel [33]. Due to the occurrence of
micro-explosion, the surface area of droplets will increase. Actually, the
atomization characteristic is improved due to the fact that the droplets
will be break down into smaller sizes further in the micro-explosion
process. Similarly, the micro-explosion can be regarded as the sec-
ondary atomization of fuel and the fuel-air mixing in combustion
chamber can be improved [34]. In the combustion process, the water
Water
Biodiesel
Spray Micro-explosion Spray flame
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the addition on the combustion quality of emul-
sified fuel.
246
Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262
additive plays an important role [35]. Thus, it is very necessary to in-
vestigate the water-fuel emulsion and the influencing parameters such
as the emulsion type, base fuel and water addition rate [36,37]. To be
more specific, lots of studies have shown that the WDE fuel as a pro-
mising substitute fuel can reduce PM and NOx emissions simultaneously
[38]. For example, reference [39] had investigated the effects of dif-
ferent WDEs on emission and combustion characteristics of a DI tur-
bocharged diesel engine. The results obtained showed that the harmful
emissions could be significantly reduced at different engine loads and
engine speeds in comparison with pure diesel. Reference [40] had in-
vestigated the effects of water addition (5, 10, 15 and 20 wt%) in WDE
fuel on emission and combustion characteristics. The results obtained
showed that the typical WDE fuels could effectively reduce the PM and
NOx emissions, while CO2 and CO emissions increased using all the
different water addition rates studied [16,40]. In other studies, re-
ference [37] had found that the CO emission and brake thermal effi-
ciency were increased, as well as the NOx emission was reduced by the
addition of water into the biodiesel-diesel fuels. Besides, references
[37,41] had argued that the brake specific fuel consumption would
increase when the water addition rate was higher than 10%.
Numerical simulation of diesel engine has obvious advantages and is
regarded as a very effective tool for saving experimental costs through
detailed mathematical framework. More specifically, the spatial and
temporal variations in cylinder such as the pressure, flow field, tem-
perature, composition and turbulence can be considered simultaneously
in the 3D-CFD simulation process and the simulation is much closer to
the in-cylinder combustion process compared with the thermodynamic
models [42]. But the accuracy of numerical model depends largely on
the sub-models employed in the computational code. In the field of
numerical simulation, many scholars have also made a great effort to
develop the computational code. For example, reference [43] had de-
veloped a skeletal mechanism of a tri-component biodiesel surrogate
with 460 reactions and 115 species, which consisted of n-heptane,
methyl 9-decanoate and methyl decanoate. The skeletal mechanism
could accurately predict ignition delay, equivalence ratio and flame lift-
off length at different engine loads and engine speeds [43]. Refs.
[44,45] had also developed a skeletal mechanism of a four-component
biodiesel surrogate with 475 reactions and 134 species, which consisted
of methyl linolenate, methyl oleate, methyl stearate and methyl pal-
mitate. The skeletal mechanism could accurately predict ignition delay,
soot emission and NOx emission. Ref. [46] had developed a numerical
model for droplet breakup process and the varied processes in cylinder
such as bubble formation, bubble expansion and bubble explosion were
explained base on the homogeneous nucleation theory. The results
obtained showed that the high ambient pressure and fuel composition
were the main influence factors. Ref. [47] had developed a numerical
model to analyze the bubble formation, bubble growth and bubble
breakage in the breakup and atomization processes of emulsified fuel
droplets. The result obtained showed that the breakup characteristic
had a great effect on the relationship with the breakup time and su-
perheat temperature. A numerical model of micro-explosion had been
developed and employed to analyze the effects of different parameters
on micro-explosion in Ref. [48]. The result obtained showed that the
droplet lifetime was shortened due to the micro-explosion and the effect
would be stronger, in particular for larger droplets [47,48]. As men-
tioned above, it is very necessary to study the effect of water additive on
the characteristics of diesel engine. Great efforts have put into studying
the effect of different water addition rates in biodiesel blend fuel.
However, as we know, there is little study on the impact of low-level
water in biodiesel fuel on fuel concentration as discussed herein
[34,49].
As it is mentioned, the behaviors of WBE fuel and biodiesel are
different due to the different thermos-physical properties. In this paper,
the AVL-Fire combined with CHEMKIN code was used to simulate the
combustion process. Firstly, the grid was developed according to a
medium speed diesel engine, then validated by experimental results
Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

under the 100%, 50%, 25% load conditions at speed of 1000 rpm. the thermal boundary layer and subsequent integration. It can be pre-
Finally, the combustion processes of low-level WBE fuels (2, 4 and 6 wt dicted by the following equation [54]:
%) and pure biodiesel fuel were simulated and compared. The skeletal N
kg
mechanism of a five-component biodiesel surrogate with 475 reactions ṁ = ∑ πc Dd Nu∗ ln(1 + BT )
and 134 species, which consists of methyl linolenate, methyl linoleate, i=1 p, F (3)
methyl oleate, methyl stearate and methyl palmitate is employed to *
where BT is the heat transfer number; the Nu is the modified Nusselt
study the effects of low-level WBE fuels (2, 4 and 6 wt%) and pure
number; kg is the gas reaction rate; cp,F is the specific heat of liquid
biodiesel fuel on combustion and emission characteristics of a medium-
droplet.
speed compression-ignition diesel engine fueled with biodiesel fuel. The
The values with the over-bar are evaluated at reference temperature
findings are interest due to both prevention of performance losses and
and reference fuel concentrations [55].
emission reduction using WBE strategy.
T¯ = TS + Ar (T∞ − TS ) (4)
2. Numerical approaches
Y¯S = YV , S + Ar (YV , ∞ − YV , S ) (5)
2.1. 3D-CFD calculations where TS is the particle surface temperature [K]; YV,S is the vapor mass
fraction of droplet surface; YV,∞ is the vapor mass fraction of droplet
2.1.1. Fluid flow simulation far-field conditions; T∞ is the temperature of the particle far-field
The fluid flow simulation was carried out in AVL-Fire environment, conditions [K].
and the improved turbulence and spray/wall interaction models is used The BT is the Sh* and Nu* are calculate by the Nuo and Sho numbers
in the process of simulation. The three-dimensional CFD model con- of the non-evaporating droplet and the corresponding correction factors
siders the effect of turbulent fluid flow on fluid. The AVL-Fire solves the for the film thickness FT and FM. The modified Sh* and Nu* can be
momentum, energy, three-dimensional transient conservation equa- predicted by the following equation:
tions of mass, turbulent fluid flow and species using the temporal-dif-
(Sho − 2) (0.552Re1/2Sc1/3)
ferencing scheme and a finite volume. In addition, the Arbitrary Sh∗ = 2 + =2+
FM FM (6)
Lagrangian-Eulerian method is employed to calculate the diffusion and
convection terms from chemical source terms [50]. Nevertheless, the (Nuo − 2) (0.552Re1/2Pr1/3)
default codes are not suitable for the simulation due to the two reasons. Nu∗ = 2 + =2+
FT FT (7)
The default codes in AVL- Fire environment do not contain the accurate
thermos-physical properties of different fuels. Secondly, the combustion where Re is the Reynolds number; Sc is the Schmidt number; FM and FT
in cylinder should require breaking CeH bonds and lots of intermediate are also the corresponding correction factors; Pr is the Prandt number.
chemical species are dissociation/formation [51]. The phenomenon of The drag force Fidr is calculated by the following equation [56]:
biodiesel fuel is more obvious due to the variety of hydrocarbons with Fidr = Dp ·uirel (8)
different thermochemical properties and molecular structure [52].
where Dp is the drag function, and the drag function Dp can be ex-
2.1.2. Fuel spray model pressed by Eq. (9).
In the study, the previous work of our group was done. The KHRT 1
Dp = ρ Ad CD |urel|
breakup model was described in Ref. [50] and employed to simulate the 2 g (9)
fuel injection, droplet interaction and droplet evaporation processes. In
where CD is the drag coefficient; urel is the relative velocity vector [m/
addition, the Rayleigh-Taylor model was employed to simulate the
s]; ρg is the fuel density [kg/m3]; Ad is the cross-sectional area of the
secondary breakup of droplet. Thus, the new model was used to the
particle [m3].
AVL-Fire code instead of default breakup model. More information was
The drag coefficient is calculated by the following equation:
given in Refs. [45,51].
The modified multi-component evaporation model was employed in 24
⎧ Re·Cp (1 + 0.15Re0.687)Re < 1000
AVL-Fire environment. In addition, the mass transfer of water and CD =
⎨ 0.44/ CpRe≥1000
biodiesel fuel was taken into account separately, whereas heat transfer ⎩ (10)
remained a global mechanism in the multi-component evaporation
where Cp is the Cunningham correction factor based on Knudsen
model. The distribution of the components of blend fuel inside the
number.
droplet was assumed to be homogeneous. From integration over the
The particle Reynolds Number is shown in the following equation
concentration boundary layer surrounding the droplet, one gets equa-
[57]:
tions for the i-th component evaporation mass transfer rate. The mass
transfer rate can be expressed by the Sherwood. It can be predicted by ρg |urel | Dd
Re =
the following equation [53,54]: ug (11)
N
where ug is the domain fluid viscosity.
ṁ = ∑ πρg βgi Dd Sh∗ ln(1 + BYi) The correction function is the same for FT and FM.
i=1 (1)
ln(1 + B )
where spalding number BYi for component i is F (B ) = (1 + B )0.7
B (12)
Y − Yi∞
BYi = is Generally speaking, according to the above theoretical basis, the
1 − Yis (2)
final algorithm to calculate the heat transfer and mass transfer follows
where N is the number of components; m is the particle mass; ρg is the as:
gas density [g/cm3], βgi is the gas binary diffusion coefficient; Dd is the Step 1: Evaluate mass fraction Yvs at the droplet surface;
droplet diffusion coefficient; Sh* is the modified Sherwood number; BY Step 2: Get the average physical properties such as density, the
is the mass transfer number; Yis is the mass fraction of particle surface; specific heat of liquid droplet, the specific heat of particle, the reaction
Yi∞ is the mass fraction of particle far-field conditions. rate, the domain fluid viscosity and binary diffusion coefficient;
The mass transfer rate can be calculated from an energy balance in Step 3: The Nuo, Sho, should be calculated according to the above

247
Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

equations; properties have critical effects on ignition and combustion in engine

Step 4: Get BY, FM, Sh∗ and the mass rate of change from Eq. (1);
Step 5: Guess the value of BT by using the value from the previous
iteration or time step;
Step 6: Calculate the modified Nusselt number Nu∗ and correct the
heat transfer number BT by comparing the two mass transfer rates from
Eq. (13).
BT = (1 + BY )ϕ − 1 (13)
where ϕ is
cp¯, F Sh∗ 1
ϕ=
c¯g Nu∗ Le (14)
where Le is the Lewis number.
If the correction of BT is too large go back to step 5.
Step 7: Calculate the heat transfer. The mass transfer rates are cal-
culated using the iteration procedure as in the component case.
The convective heat flux of particle surface can be predicted by the
following equation [55]:
cp¯, F (T∞ − Ts )
Qṡ = ṁ ⎡ − L (T )⎤
⎢
⎣ BT ⎥
⎦ (15)
where Qs is the convective heat flux of particle surface[W]; L is the
latent heat of evaporation [J/mol].
2.2. Combustion, emission and heat transfer models
As discussed above, the varied hydrocarbons with different ther-
mochemical properties, molecular structure and water addition also
have the effects on emission and combustion characteristics. In order to
improve the predictability of AVL-Fire code in combustion process, the
CHEMKIN II code combined with AVL-Fire 2013 was used to simulate
the combustion process in the engine cylinder. A skeletal chemical
mechanism (SCM) was established by the previous work and was used
to simulate the in-cylinder combustion process [44,45]. The SCM con-
tains 475 reactions and 134 species. The present model was modified to
employ the heat transfer formulation of Han and Reitz that accounted
for turbulent Prandtl number and variable gas density in the boundary
layer [58]. The final wall heat flux equation can be predicted by the
following equation:
cylinder. In the paper, lots of predictive methods were employed to
calculate mentioned properties such as normal boiling point, critical
pressure, critical temperature, vapor pressure, latent heat of vaporiza-
tion, liquid viscosity, liquid thermal conductivity, liquid density, gas
diffusion coefficient and surface tension.
2.3.1. Normal boiling point
Rochaya and An et al. had reported the normal boiling temperature
of methyl linolenate, methyl linoleate, methyl oleate, methyl stearate
and methyl palmitate and their normal boiling temperature values were
642 K, 639 K, 622 K, 625 K, and 623 K, respectively [51,59]. Thus, the
normal boiling temperature values were set in AVL-Fire environment.
2.3.2. Critical properties
The critical pressure and critical temperature in Ambrose method
can be predicted by the following equation:
pc = M (0.339 + ∑ Δ−p 2) (20)
Tc = Tb [1 + (1.242 + ∑ ΔT )
−1
] (21)
where pc is the critical pressure [bar]; Δp value and ΔT value are cal-
culated by summing the contributions of atoms or various atoms groups
which are listed in Ref. [50]; M is the molecular weight of property [g/
mol]; Tb is the normal boiling temperature [K]; Tc is the critical tem-
perature [K].
In order to improve the accuracy of calculation, the Jobac method is
employed to calculate critical volume of fuel properties [51]. The Jobac
formulation is:
Vc = 17.5 + ∑ ΔV (22)
where ΔV is calculated by summing the contributions of atoms or var-
ious atoms groups which are listed in Ref. [51].
2.3.3. Vapor pressure
The vapor pressure is also predicted by the Lee-Kesler method, and
the formulation can be expressed by the following equation:
(0)
pvpr = pc e[f (T ) + wf (1) (T )]
(23)

qw =
ρcp, F u∗T ln ( )−
T
TW
(2.1y+ + 33.4) Gv / u∗
f (0) (T ) = 5.92714 − 6.09648
Tc T T
− 1.28862 ln( ) + 0.169347( )6
2.1 ln(y+ ) + 2.5 (16) T Tc Tc (24)

u∗ × y Tc T T
y+ = f (1) (T ) = 15.2518 − 15.6875 − 13.4721 ln( ) + 0.43577( )6
v (17) T Tc Tc (25)

τw where pvpr is the reduced vapor pressure [bar]; w is the acentric factor.
u∗ =
ρ (18)
2.3.4. Latent heat of vaporization
where ρ is the density of liquid [g/cm3]; cp is the specific heat of liquid
Latent heat of vaporization can be predicted by the following
droplet; y+ is dimensionless wall distance, u* is friction velocity, τw is
equation:
the wall sheer stress, G(G = Qc) is the source term in energy equation
and the heat release can be calculated from chemical reactions in Tc 0.354 T
ΔL = RTc [7.08(1 − ) + 10.95w (1 − c )0.456]
computational cells. If the contribution of near-wall cold computational T T (26)
cells to the heat release is very little compared to those of the core, the
where R is the ideal gas constant [J/(mol·K)].
Eq. (16) can be simplified to Eq. (19) as following:

qw =
ρcp, F u∗T ln ( )
T
TW
2.3.5. Liquid density
The liquid density can be predicted by the following equation [52]:
2.1 ln(y+ ) + 2.5 (19)
ϕ = (1 − T / Tc )2/7 − (1 − Tr − R)2/7 (27)
2.3. Thermophysical properties prediction ϕ
Vs = VS − R ZRA (28)

In order to improve the accuracy, it is very necessary to get the where Tr-R and VS-R are the reduced temperature and liquid density
accurate component properties of blend fuel such as critical properties, respectively at reference temperature TR; ZRA can be found in Ref. [51].
normal boiling point, latent heat of vaporization and so on. The The liquid density equation can be transformed into:

248
Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

ρR Table 1
ρ= ϕ
ZRA (29) Engine specifications and boundary condition.

where ρR is the experimental density value at reference temperature [g/ Type Value Type Value
cm3].
Bore × stroke (mm) 190 × 210 Initial cylinder turbulent 18.375
kinetic energy (m2/s2)
2.3.6. Liquid viscosity Number of cylinder 4 Cylinder turbulence scale 3
Liquid viscosity can be predicted by the following equation: length (mm)
Engine speed (rpm) 1000 Compression ratio 14
ηL B Effective power (kW) 220 Initial pressure in the inlet 0.157
ln =A+
ρ20 M T (30) (MPa)
Torque (N∙m) 2100 Initial temperature in the 313.15
−1 −1
where ηL is the liquid viscosity [g·cm ·s ]; ρ20 is the liquid density at inlet (K)
20 °C [g/cm3]; A and B are the constant and can be calculated using the Connecting rod (mm) 410 Exhaust valve opening 58°BBDC
Nozzle radius (mm) 0.26 Exhaust valve closing 56°ATDC
method in Ref. [51].
Fuel injection holes 8 Intake valve opening 66°BTDC
Cylinder diameter (mm) 190 Intake valve closing 54°ABDC
2.3.7. Liquid thermal conductivity
Liquid thermal conductivity can be predicted by the following
equation: TKE = (3/2) × uo2 = (3/2) × (0.5Cm)2 (36)
A∗ T α
Ax = β bγ where Cm is
M Tc (31)

Tc 0.38
Cm = 2 × h × (n/60) (37)
λL =
Ax 1 −( ) T
1/6 where n is diesel engine speed [m/s], Cm is the mean piston velocity
( )
Tc
T (32) [m/s], h is the stroke of diesel engine [m], uo is the turbulent fluctua-
where Tb is the normal boiling point temperature [K]; the parameters tion velocity [m/s].
A*, α, β and γ are found in Ref. [60]; λL is the liquid thermal con-
ductivity [W/(m·K)]. (2) The initial cylinder turbulence scale length (TSL) can be calculated
by the following equation:
2.3.8. Gas diffusion coefficients
TLS = h v /2 (38)
Gas diffusion coefficients can be predicted by the following equa-
tion:
where hv is the max. lift of the valve.
DA = A + B + CT 2 (33)
(3) The fuel injection mass per cycle (g/cyl) can be calculated by the
where DA is the gas diffusion coefficients [cm2·s]; T is the ambient
following equation:
temperature [K]; the parameters A, B and C are found in Ref. [61].
BFSC × Pe × h
2.3.9. Surface tension mf = × 103
120nm × j (39)
Surface tension can be predicted by the following equation:
σ where BFSC is the brake specific fuel consumption [g/(kW∙h)], mf is the
= (0.132α c − 0.279)(1 − Tc / T )11/9
pc2/3 Tc1/3 (34) fuel injection mass per cycle [g/cyl], Pe is the power [kW], nm is the
diesel engine speed [r/min], j is the cylinder number of the diesel en-
Tbr ln(pc /1.01325) ⎤ gine.
α c = 0.9076 ⎡1 +
⎢
⎣ 1 − Tbr ⎥
⎦ (35)
−2
where σ is the surface tension [dynes·cm ]; αc is the Riedel parameter.
2.5. Computational mesh
2.4. Boundary condition
The dynamic grids are produced based on the bowl geometry of a
four-cylinder four-stroke marine diesel engine by taking advantage of
The diesel engine specifications and boundary conditions were also
the symmetric distribution of eight nozzle holes. The 45° sector dy-
shown in Table 1. One-dimensional model of diesel engine was also
namic meshes have been considered for one injector nozzle hole and are
developed by AVL-BOOST software. The standard system boundary
shown in Fig. 2. The problem of coarse grids size at wall boundaries
conditions were employed and the loss of the friction work of diesel
should be overcome. All of the meshes have very fine meshes near the
engine was calculated by the empirical formula. Some boundary con-
fuel spray path, injector nozzle and piston crevice regions. The fine
ditions of 3D-CFD diesel engine model which were not measured by
meshes can make sure that the model accurately predicts the droplet
experiment were obtained by the validated AVL-BOOST model. For
breakup and droplet evaporation. Mesh independent, time step (0.01 in
example, when the inlet valve was closing, the initial cylinder tem-
CAD) and numerical convergence results are obtained prior to case
perature, initial cylinder pressure, piston head temperature, cylinder
validation. More information is also given in Refs. [50,51]. Fig. 3
head temperature and inner wall temperature of cylinder were
showed the cylinder pressures generated by 3 grids at full load for pure
335.15 K, 1.93 MPa, 625.15 K, 553.15 K and 403.15 K, respectively. The
biodiesel only. There is no obvious difference of cylinder pressure be-
instantaneous flow rate (IFR) of oil pump was measured by the
tween the fine grid and medium grid. The optimal medium grid is found
EFS8472 measurement units of French EFS Company. In addition, some
due to the fact that the medium grid can make ensure the precision and
boundary conditions can be calculated as following:
save the computational time. The medium grid is considered to be the
best solution in the study. When the piston is at the TDC, the medium
(1) The initial cylinder turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) can be calcu-
grid consists of 90,225 meshes.
lated by the following equation:

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

(b) medium grid (c) fine grid Fig. 2. The 45° sector grid shown at top dead
(a) coarse grid center.

10 3.2. Fuel samples preparation

Fine Mesh
Medium Mesh
Coarse Mesh The mixing process of insoluble phases is defined as the emulsifi-
8 cation, and the mixture should decrease the stress between these
Cylinder pressure (MPa)

6 phase within a continuous biodiesel fuel phase resulting in the forma-
4 important due to the fact that the surfactant can reduce the interfacial
2 within the biodiesel fuel. In the paper, three different water-levels of
0 RME fuel by volume, W4 was the 4% water addition blends with 96%
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40
Crank Angle (oATDC)
Fig. 3. Cylinder pressure comparison for grid independence test.
3. Experimental cases and engine setup
3.1. Fuel properties
The typical biodiesels are mainly composed by five components,
methyl linolenate (C18:3), methyl linoleate (C18:2), methyl oleate
(C18:1), methyl stearate (C18:0) and methyl palmitate (C16:0). Cm:n is
the shorthand of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), n is the number of
double bond, m is the number of carbon atoms. It is generally believed
that the major components of typical biodiesels are also the above five
components, and other components such as C12:0, C14:0 and C20:0 can
be ignored. The rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) was obtained by
transesterification of rapeseed oil with methanol. The transesterifica-
tion of rapeseed oil was conduct out by alkali catalysis in a reactor
about 1 h. The transesterification was carried out with 6:1 methanol to
oil molar ratio and 1% wt/wt KOH as an alkaline catalyst. Based on the
fatty acid profile, the RME properties were analyzed by “Biodiesel
Analyzer”. In the paper, an Agilent 7890 N GC-MS analyzer was used
for measuring the composition of fatty acid of biodiesel. Table 2 shows
the fatty acid profile of biodiesel. In addition, the kinematic viscosity of
biodiesel is measured according to ASTM D445. Similarly, the lower
calorific value of biodiesel is measured according to ASTM D240.
The physical properties of typical biodiesel are affected by the
proportion of the above five components. Thus, the multi-component
SCM is made up of five parts. The weighted average higher calorific
values, saturation levels and the volume fractions can be calculated by
Table 2. The detailed information can be obtained in Refs. [39,44,45].
phases. The WBE can be formed by the water additive as the dispersed
tion of WBE with the addition of surfactants. Thus, the different phases
are combines by the surfactant additive. The formation of WBE is very
tension between the two phases and stabilize the water droplet phase
WBEs (2%, 4% and 6% water) and pure RME were studied, where W0
was the pure RME fuel, W2 was the 2% water addition blends with 98%
60 80 100
RME fuel by volume, and W6 was the 6% water addition blends with
94% RME fuel by volume. The three different levels of water addition
were emulsified in 1L of pure biodiesel (W2, W4 and W6, respectively).
Specifically, the emulsification was conducted by including 50 ml of 1:1
blend of Sorbitan monooleate and Polysorbate 80 prior to the addition
of water. Similarly, while the RME was being stirred, 2% (v/v) sur-
factant was added gradually to the RME in the magnetic stirrer. 2%, 4%
and 6% (v/v) of water by volume was added to the mixture present in
the magnetic stirrer, respectively. The formed WBE was stirred con-
tinuously about 1 h and then placed in a sonicator. In the mixing pro-
cess, the ultrasonic frequencies were employed to stabilize the prepared
emulsions at room temperature for 10 min. The cetane number, lower
calorific value and oxygen content were shown in Table 3. The detailed
information can be obtained in Refs. [44,45].
3.3. Fuel injection rate
Fuel injection rate plays an important role in diesel engine. In ad-
dition, these diesel engine parameters such as cylinder pressure, tem-
perature and heat release rate have great direct influences on engine
emission and economy. In order to improve the accuracy, the experi-
ments were carried out on the oil pump testing device (6PSDW 300).
The instantaneous flow rate (IFR) of the oil pump was measured by the
EFS8472 measurement units of French EFS Company. The IFR and in-
jection mass were detected by the sensor of electric control part and the
IFR was employed to simulate the in-cylinder fuel spray process.
3.4. Engine specifications
The experiments were carried out on a marine medium speed diesel
engine. The diesel engine is a four-cylinder, four-stroke, direct injection
engine with an electronic unit pump injection system. The rated power

Table 2
Physical properties of FAMEs present.
Type Kinetic viscosity (mm2/s) (at 40 °C) Density (g/cm3) (at 20 °C) Molecular weight (g/mol) Higher calorific value (MJ/kg) RME composition % volume

C18: 3 3.11 0.899 292 39.43 8.11

C18: 2 3.79 0.887 294 39.68 22.27
C18: 1 4.60 0.875 296 39.93 65.18
C18: 0 5.59 0.863 298 40.18 0.87
C16: 0 4.37 0.864 270 39.56 3.57

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

Table 3 dynamometer. The Kistler pressure sensor was employed to measure the
The properties of WBE fuel. cylinder pressure.
Properties Cetane Lower calorific value Oxygen content (%m/
number (MJ/kg) m)
3.5. Uncertainty analysis
W0 53.88 39.53 10.7
W2 51.21 37.55 12.1 In general, the experimental measurements obtained have some
W4 50.11 36.77 13.8 uncertainties and errors. The uncertainty in the experimental results is
W6 48.51 35.58 15.4
caused by many reasons such as sensor selection, observation and ca-
libration [11]. The measurements are used to calculate the desired
experimental results. The percentage of uncertainty of various para-
of diesel engine is 220 kW at 1000 rpm and the main specifications are
meters such as NOx, BSFC and BTE can be obtained by the Eq. (40). The
listed in Table 1. The schematic of the experimental system was shown
R in the Eq. (41) is a function of independent variable Y1, Y2, …, Yn. Let
in Fig. 4. The engine was loaded with a Xiangyi eddy current
e1, e2, …, and en be the uncertainties in the independent variables and

Fuel combustion
measurement meter
Valve 4

Fuel tank

Sensors
Eddy current
dynamometer Flowmeter 1
Diesel engine
Sensors
Valve 1

Horiba emission
Combustion Pressure gauge Valve 3 analyzer
analyzer

DEWE-2010CA
measurement system
Data acquisition
PC display 2 card
PC display 1

(a) Schematic diagram in the bench scale test

(b) Main equipments in the bench scale test

Fig. 4. Schematics of experimental device.

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

Table 4 4. Result and discussions

List of measurements, measuring accuracy and measuring range.
Measurements Measuring range Accuracy % Uncertainty 4.1. Spray

Pressure sensor 0–25 MPa ± 10 kPa ± 0.5 The fuel spray process is very important for the emission and per-
Engine speed 1–2000 rpm ± 0.2% ± 0.24
formance characteristics of diesel engine. The spray processes of WBE
Fuel flow measurement 0.5-100L/h ± 0.04L/h ± 0.5
NOx emission 0–5000 ppm ± 10 ppm ± 0.53
fuels with different water addition rates (2, 4 and 6 wt%) and pure
CO emission 0–10%vol ± 0.03% ± 0.32 RME, were simulated by using the previous SCM in diesel engine at
CO2 emission 0–16%vol ± 0.5% ±1 different loads. In addition, Fig. 7 showed the in-cylinder fuel dis-
BSFC – ± 5g/kW∙h ± 1.5 tribution fields of WBE blends and pure RME at 100%, 50% and 25%
BTE – ± 0.5% ± 1.7
loads, respectively. According to the in-cylinder fuel distribution field,
Brake power – ± 0.03 kW ± 0.3
Crank angle encoder 0–720°CA ± 0.125° ± 0.3 the injection of oil beam and water additive have great impacts on the
atomization. There are two different phenomena: (1) The fuel con-
centration of W0 is the biggest than others at different loads. (2) The
ER be the uncertainty in the results. fuel concentration of W4 is relatively well-distributed at different loads.
The first one is mainly due to the effect of water addition. When the
ER = {[(∂R/ ∂Y1 ) e1 ]2 +(∂R/ ∂Y2 ) e2 ]2 +⋯+(∂R/ ∂Yn ) en ]2 }1/2 (40) WBE blends are sprayed into a high pressure and temperature cylinder
and lots of heat is convected rapidly on the surface of droplets [38]. The
R = {Y1, Y2, Y3, ⋯, Yn} (41) boiling temperature of water is lower than the boiling temperature of
biodiesel. Due to the faster evaporation rate of water, the water mole-
The measuring range and accuracy of the measurement equipment cule will reach faster superheated stage and create vapor expansion,
used in the paper are shown in Table 4. The overall experimental un- then the droplets have a quickly breakdown [40]. Thus, the micro-ex-
certainly has been calculated by the following equation. plosion is defined as the secondary atomization and the sizes of droplets
Overall experimental uncertainty = Square root of [(uncertainty of become much smaller and the mixing of air and fuel is improved.
Pressure sensor)2 Let us focus on the second one. As you can see in Fig. 7, the fuel/air
ratio is very low at low load due to less injected fuel. The different
+ (uncertainty of NOx emission)2 water addition rates will result in fluctuation of fuel concentration. It
+ (uncertainty of CO emission)2 might be due to viscosity and the micro-explosion phenomenon caused
+ (uncertainty of CO2 emission)2 by water addition in WBE blends. More specifically, due to the occur-
rence of micro-explosion, the water addition in WBE is beneficial to
+ (uncertainty of BSFC)2
improving the mixing of fuel and air, while the micro-explosion be-
+ (uncertainty of BTE)2
comes more intense in W4. Nevertheless, by further increasing water
+ (uncertainty of Crank angle encoder)2 addition rate to 6%, the improving effect of micro-explosion would be
+ (uncertainty of Brake power)2] dominated by the impact of increased viscosity leading to increase the
= Square root of[(0.5)2 + (1.53)2 + (0.32)2 + (1)2 + (1.5)2 + (1.7)2 uniform fuel distribution field [40]. In previous studies, Ref. [61] found
+ (0.03)2 + (0.3)2] = 2.987% that the important factors of micro explosion were the type of emulsion,
water addition rate, viscosity and volatility of the base fuel. Similarly,
Ref. [62] found that the temperature and waiting time increased with
the increase of emulsifier content.
3.6. Feasibility test
4.2. Combustion
The SCM was validated with the experimental results in previous
studies [39,40]. The fatty acid profile of RME was shown in Table 2. 4.2.1. Heat release
Whether the model can be applied in simulation with WBE fuels, the The combustion processes of diesel engine fuelled with WBE blends
model should be validated. Thus, the experimental diesel engine fueled and pure RME, were simulated by using the previous SCM at different
by WBE and pure biodiesel was employed to carry out the experiment loads. As seen in Fig. 8, the HRRs of WBE blends with three different
in the work. The viscosity is due to the fact that the static electricity water additive rates and pure RME with respect to crank angle were
attraction and friction between the fuel/water particles in the emulsion different under different load conditions. It can be seen that the ignition
fuel. A series of parameters of performance and combustion were listed delay of WBE blends will increase compared with pure RME.
as follows. Actually, the water content of WBE blend fuel played a very im-
The HRR and in-cylinder pressure of W2 were shown in Fig. 5 at portant role and the point of view might be further validated by the
100%, 50% and 25% loads. The predicted in-cylinder pressure and ig- HRRs. The HRR trends of WBE fuels were shown in Fig. 8. The W0 fuel
nition process were satisfactory with the experimental data at 100%, showed the earliest ignition delay in all cases, followed by W2, W4 and
50% and 25% loads. The predicted in-cylinder pressure and ignition W6. Compared with W0, the HRRs using WBE blends were much faster
process were reproduced very well, but the experimental data was to reach the peak after ignition. The ignition delay of diesel engine in
about 0.11 MPa, 0.20 MPa and 0.25 MPa lower than the predicted peak general consists of two parts: physical ignition delay and chemical ig-
pressure at 100%, 50% and 25% loads, respectively. After passing the nition delay.
peak pressure region, the predicted in-cylinder expansion pressure The physical ignition delay has the greatest impact on the engine
curves were a little higher than the experiment curves. It was due to the ignition delay. Moreover, in spite of the lower calorific values of W2
fact that the HRR was calculated from the chemical reactions and the and W4 than that of W0, the water-biodiesel emulsion at low water
sub-grid was considered as perfect stirred reactor in CHEMKIN code addition rates of 2% and 4% did not significantly adversely impact the
environment. In addition, Fig. 6 showed the NOx emission trends of ignition delay in comparison with the W0. The longer ignition delay of
simulation and experiment at 100%, 50% and 25% loads, respectively. fuel is beneficial to the physical evaporation and mixing process of air-
It can be found that the trend of SCM is similar to the experiment. In fuel in cylinder. It is due to the fact that the micro-explosion phe-
general, the SCM and computational modeling can be employed to well nomenon takes place as a result of water addition into the fuel. The
predict the WBE fuel combustion process. micro-explosion phenomenon caused a better exposure of the injected

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

1200
10 Experiment Experiment
Simulation 1000 Simulation

Cylinder pressure (MPa)

8
(a) 100% load (b) 100% load
800

HRR (J/deg)
6
600

4 400

2 200

0
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)

7 350
Experiment Experiment
Simulation 300 Simulation
6
Cylinder pressure (MPa)

5 (c) 50% load 250 (d)50% load

HRR (J/deg)
4 200

150
3
100
2
50
1
0
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)
6 120
Experiment Experiment
Simulation Simulation
5 100
Cylinder pressure (MPa)

(e) 25% load (f)25% load

4 80
HRR (J/deg)

3 60

40
2

20
1

0
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle (OCA) Crank angle (oCA)

Fig. 5. Engine validation results for cylinder pressure and HRR.

840 fuel to oxygen and consequently resulted in better combustion of the

Experiment
800 fuel. However, by increasing water content to 6%, the ignition delay
Simulation
760 increased remarkable possible due to the latent heat of vaporization of
water and higher viscosity. Subsequently, the difference in ignition
720
delay affects the peak HRRs. Subsequently, the difference in ignition
680
NOx(ppm)

delay affects the peak HRRs. As seen in Fig. 8, the peak HRR sequences
640 are different between 25% and 50%, 100% load conditions. At 25%
load condition, the very low fuel-air ratio together with the low tem-
220
perature and low pressure will significantly deteriorate the fuel eva-
poration and subsequent combustion process especially for those bio-
200 diesel with higher water addition rates like W6, as a result, the ignition
delay is longer and the peak HRR is lower. However, with the increase
of engine load, both the fuel-air ratio and the temperature and pressure
180 are increased significantly which are favorable for fuel evaporation and
0 25 50 75 100
combustion, although the ignition delay is still longer for biodiesel with
Engine load (%)
higher water addition rates, the peak HRR is higher due to more
Fig. 6. Engine validation results for NOx emission. combustible mixture is prepared during the ignition time.

253
Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

- W0 W2 W4 W6

100% TDC=0°CA

load

TDC=10°CA

50%
TDC=0°CA

load

TDC=10°CA

25% TDC=0°CA

load

TDC=10°CA
Fig. 7. In-cylinder fuel distribution field.

4.2.2. Cylinder pressure
The in-cylinder pressure curve for WBE blends with three different
low-level WBE fuels (2, 4 and 6 wt%) and pure RME were shown in
Fig. 9. It can be seen that the W0 shows the highest in-cylinder pressure
irrespective of all load conditions, followed by W2, W4 and W6 after
the start of combustion. The small reduction of in-cylinder pressure of
diesel engine could be attributed to the water addition and lower
heating value of WBE. More specifically, the higher presence of water
addition in the WBE fuels, the longer it takes the in-cylinder pressure
trend to drop due to the higher latent heat of water during the
evaporation process. Thus, the combustion temperature is reduced. In
addition, it is also shown that the in-cylinder peak pressure is close to
that of pure RME, especially at high load. It is due to the fact that the
evaporation, air-fuel mixing and combustion processes are improved
due to the micro-explosion. In general, it is concluded that the cylinder
pressure curves of WBE fuel and RME are similar.
4.2.3. Cylinder temperature
The in-cylinder temperature curves for WBE with three water ad-
dition rates and pure RME were shown in Fig. 10. It can be seen that

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

1100
180
1000
W0 160
900 (a) 100% load W2
800 W4 140
700 W6 120
HRR(J/deg)

HRR(J/deg)
600 100
500 80
400
60
300
40
200
20
100
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -9.5 -9.0 -8.5 -8.0 -7.5
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)

100
W0
300
W2
(b)50% load W4 80
250 W6
HRR(J/deg)

200 60

HRR(J/deg)
150
40
100
20
50

0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)

120

W0
100
(c)25% load W2
W4
80 W6
HRR(J/deg)

60

40

20

0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle (oCA)
Fig. 8. HHR results for different WBE fuels and pure biodiesel under different load conditions.

with the increase of water addition rate, the in-cylinder temperature cylinder temperature due to its cooling effect. However, as the water
significantly is reduced due to the latent heat of water and the heating addition rate in WBE fuel reaches 6%, the increased kinetic viscosity is
value. Similarly, the water addition is more favorable for the distribu- not beneficial to the atomization and more localized higher tempera-
tion of in-cylinder temperature field. Thus, the water addition rate ture zones were produced. In addition, in-cylinder temperature is also
significantly impacts on the cylinder temperature curves. The higher reduced due to the lower heating value of WBE fuel.
the presence of water addition in the WBE fuels, the longer it takes the
in-cylinder temperature curves to drop due to the higher latent heat of
4.2.4. Brake specific fuel consumption
water during the evaporation process. More heat is transferred to the
BSFC is an important parameter in the evaluation of diesel engine
cylinder wall, especially at low load.
and shows the real value of biodiesel fuel to produce power dur-
The in-cylinder temperature distribution field was shown in Fig. 11.
ing a given period. The combustion processes of low-level water-bio-
It can be seen that more localized higher temperature zones were
diesel emulsion fuels (2, 4 and 6 wt%) and pure biodiesel fuel under the
produced by the combustion of pure RME compared with the WBE
100%, 50%, 25% load conditions at speed of 1000 rpm were simulated
fuels. More specifically, the addition of 2% and 4% water decreased the
and compared as shown in Fig. 12. Fig. 12(a) showed that the BSFC for
localized higher temperature zones, while higher water addition rates
three typical WBE fuels and pure RME at different loads. The result
led to increasing the localized higher temperature zones. It might be
obtained showed that the BSFC of W4 was the lowest than others. The
due to the effects of the micro-explosion phenomenon and kinetic
different content of water additive resulted in the fluctuation of BSFC.
viscosity caused by water addition. The water additive decreases the in-
More specifically, the addition of 2% and 4% water in the WBEs

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

10
10.4 W0 3.3
W2

Cylinder pressure (MPa)

(a) 100% load
W4
Cylinder pressure (MPa)

8 3.2

Cylinder pressure (MPa)

10.2 W6
3.1
6
10.0 3.0
4
2.9
9.8

2 2.8
9.6 2.7
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 0 20 40 60 80 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (0CA)

7.2 2.4
7 W0
(b) 50% load W2
Cylinder pressure(MPa)

7.1 Cylinder pressure(MPa) 6 W4 2.3

Cylinder pressure (MPa)

W6
5
7.0 2.2
4
6.9
3 2.1

6.8 2
2.0
1
6.7
-20 0 20 40 60 80 1.9
2 4 6 8 10 12 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)
Crank angle (oCA)

5.8 6 1.6
W0
(c) 25% load W2
5
Cylinder pressure(MPa)

W4
Cylinder pressure(MPa)

Cylinder pressure (MPa)

W6
5.7 4 1.5

5.6 2 1.4

5.5 -20 0 20 40 60 80 1.3

-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Crank angle (oCA)
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)

Fig. 9. Cylinder pressure results for different WBE fuels and pure biodiesel under different load conditions.

decreased the BSFC values, while higher water addition rates led to in WBE fuel decreased the energy content of the fuel while that also
increasing the BSFC values. It is also due to the effects of the micro- lowered the effect of micro-explosion phenomenon as well. For in-
explosion phenomenon and kinetic viscosity caused by water addition. stance, Ref. [66] had also reported that the decrease in power outputs
The micro-explosion becomes more intense in W4. Nevertheless, by in response to water addition was cause by water addition as the cause
further increasing water addition rate to 6%, the effect of micro-ex- of the highlighting lower heating values.
plosion would be dominated by the impact of increased viscosity
leading to the increase of BSFC values. In addition, the lower heating
value of W6 also resulted in the increase of BSFC. Similarly, the eva- 4.2.6. Brake thermal efficiency
poration of water addition would also absorb more heat. The BSFC The amount of fuel converted into the useful BP is defined as the
value of W6 was 3.5% higher than W0. The results coincided with the brake thermal efficiency (BTE). The BTE of the diesel engine fueled
conclusion of reports on water addition in biodiesel-diesel blend fuel with three typical WBEs and pure RME were shown in Fig. 12(c). As
[40,49,63]. For instance, Ref. [64] also found that the content of water presented, the value of BTE was the highest. While the inclusion of
addition in diesel fuel (5–20%) would result in the increase of BSFC. water addition into pure RME led to the increase of BTE. The improved
Ref. [65] had reported that the low-level water additive in biodiesel- BTE might be attributed to the better combustion due to the occurrence
diesel was an effective way to improve the combustion and decrease the of micro-explosion in cylinder. When the water addition rate reached to
BSFC due to the occurrence micro explosion phenomenon. 4%, the BTE was improved by a large extent. In fact, the water addition
decreased the calorific value of fuel, but water addition could efficiently
trigger the micro explosion phenomenon in the combustion process.
4.2.5. Brake power The higher water addition rates could result in intense micro-explosion
As shown in Fig. 12(b), the brake power (BP) was slightly changed phenomenon not only compensating for the decrease in calorific value
for RME compared with WBE fuels. The water addition in the biodiesel but also improving the overall combustion. The results coincided with
fuel caused the decrease in power outputs due to the lower heating the conclusion of reports on water addition in biodiesel-diesel blend
values of WBE fuels caused by the presence of water. The reduction in fuel [34,67,68]. For instance, Ref. [40] had reported that the variations
BP was improved by increasing the water addition. As mentioned of BTE could be comprehended by taking into account the calorific
above, the reduction in BP was linked to the fact that the water addition value of the emulsified fuel blends and micro-explosion. Ref. [65] had

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

1600 (a) 100% load W0 1050

W2
W4
1000

Cylinder temperature (K)

1400

Cylinder temperature(K)
W6

1200 950

1000
900

800
850

600
800
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)

960
1200 W0
(b) 50% load
W2
W4

Cylinder temperature(K)
Cylinder temperature (K)

W6 920
1000

880
800

840
600

800
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
o
Crank angle ( CA) Crank angle ( oCA)
900
W0
850 (c) 25% load
W2
Cylinder temperature(K)

W4
800 W6
750

700

650

600

550

500
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Crank angle (oCA)

Fig. 10. Cylinder temperature results for different WBE fuels and pure biodiesel under different load conditions.

found that low-level water addition in biodiesel-diesel blend was a- [69,70]. For instance, Reference [70] had carried out the experiments
n effective way to improving the in-cylinder combustion due to the with a 4 cylinder diesel engine fueled with WBE fuels and found that
occurrence of micro explosion phenomenon [65]. NOx emission was reduced by nearly 8% at different loads. Ref. [71]
also had studied the combustion of blend fuels consisting of different
4.3. Emissions water-levels and the result obtained showed that NOx emission could be
decreased greatly.
4.3.1. Nox emission
NOx emission for WBE blend fuels was shown in Fig. 13 at different 4.3.2. Soot emission
loads. NOx emission was mainly caused by the occurrence of high Fig. 14 showed the variations in soot emission vs. crank angle for
temperature in cylinder. Specifically, the important aim of WBE blend WBE fuels at different loads. There were there different phenomena: (1)
fuel was to decrease the NOx emission. The in-cylinder temperature The soot oxidation rates at full and medial loads were faster than low
distribution fields at 0°CA and 10°CA ATDC were shown in Fig. 11. In load. (2) Lots of soot were generated in the earlier stage of combustion,
the Fig. 13, it can be clearly found that the combustion of W0 produces and oxidized during combustion process. (3) The soot mass fraction of
more localized higher temperature zones compared with the combus- W4 was the least.
tion of WBE blend fuels. It is due to the fact that the water addition Let us focus on the first one. The temperature and fuel/air ratio were
decreases the temperature in cylinder due to its cooling effect. In this very low at the low load. Specifically, the oxidation rate of soot was
paper, the NOx emission was decreased, along with the increasing very low due to the low turbulence intensity and cylinder temperature.
amount of water in WBE blend. In the earlier stage, lots of soot formed in the high-temperature and
Some researchers have also previously reported similar results poor oxygen region at full and medial loads. However, the formed soot

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Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

W0 W2 W4 W6

TDC=0°CA
100%

load

TDC=10°CA

50%
TDC=0°CA

load

TDC=10°CA

25%
TDC=0°CA

load

TDC=10°CA

Fig. 11. In-cylinder temperature distribution field.

was rapidly oxidized due to the intensive combustion and more pow-
erful turbulence.
The second one is mainly due to the influence of equivalence ratio.
After WBE fuels and pure RME were injected into combustion chamber,
an oxygen-poor and fuel-rich region was formed rapidly, and then the
compression ignition and the diffusion combustion started. Soot was
mainly formed due to incomplete combustion of carbon hydride. Thus,
lots of soot were formed near oxygen-poor and fuel-rich region in the
early combustion stage and more soot would formed with the increases
of load and fuel mass. The reason was that the local equivalence ratio
would reach a higher level near the injector.
The last one is mainly due to the influences of water addition and
viscosity. The result obtained showed that the combustion of W4 pro-
duced less soot compared with the combustion of other fuels. The dif-
ferent water addition rates in WBE fuels resulted in the fluctuation of
soot mass fraction. More specifically, the addition of 2% and 4% water
decreased the soot mass fraction. While the water addition rate in WBE
fuel reached to 6%, the soot mass fraction increased. As mentioned
above, it might be due to the micro-explosion phenomenon. The in-
cylinder fuel distribution fields at 0°CA and 10°CA ATDC were shown in
Fig. 7. In the figure, it can be clearly found that the micro-explosion
becomes more intense in W4, and the intense micro-explosion will lead
to significantly improving the combustion and reducing the soot for-
mation. Nevertheless, by further increasing water addition rate to 6%,

258
Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

biodiesel fuel. When the water addition rate in WBE fuel reached to 4%,
the reduction in CO emission reached the peak. The improvement might
be attributed to the micro explosion phenomenon caused by water
molecules. In fact, due to the lower boiling point, the water en-
capsulated by the fuel droplets vaporized earlier during the combustion
of WBEs. Similarly, the latent heat of biodiesel fuel was significantly
lower than that of vaporization of water. As shown in Fig. 1, the dis-
appearance of the fuel droplets could lead to a more efficient mixing of
the fuel particles and air. Many scholars had reached the same con-
clusion [63,66]. For example, Ref. [72] had reported that the 6% water
addition in biodiesel-diesel could decrease CO emission by 67%.
On the contrary, due to the reduced amount of in-cylinder tem-
perature, 6% water addition in biodiesel fuel increased CO emission. In
particular, when the water addition rate in biodiesel reached to 6%, the
importance of micro explosion in cylinder might be overshadowed by
Fig. 12. BFSC, brake power and BTE for different WBE fuels and pure biodiesel the high latent heat of vaporization of water. Overall, the CO emission
under different load conditions. of W4 was decreased by 35% at full load. In addition, with the decrease
of engine load, the CO emission increased continuously. It is ascribed to
the fact that the carbon monoxide is not efficiently oxidized to carbon
the improving effect of micro-explosion would be dominated by the
dioxide due to the low in-cylinder temperature caused by low calorific
impact of increased viscosity leading to increasing the soot mass frac-
value, especially at low load.
tion. Refs. [70,71] had studied that the effect of waste cooking oil
emulsion blends on diesel engine characteristics. They found that the
soot emission was reduced effectively under all load conditions [70,71].
4.3.4. CO2 emission
Fig. 15 (b) showed the variations in CO2 emission at different loads.
4.3.3. CO emission
As you can see in Fig. 14 (b), it was due to the increasing amount of
The CO is a toxic gas, and it is generated due to the incomplete
oxygen atoms in WBE fuels that the combustion of WBE caused slightly
combustion of fuel. In a word, the CO is not efficiently oxidized to
more CO2 emission. Similar findings already had been found in -
carbon dioxide due to the low in-cylinder temperature or low air/fuel
some studies [34,67]. The increase of CO2 emission of W6 might be
ratios. Thus, the oxygen content of biodiesel could improve the com-
attributed to the increased amount of oxygen atoms of the WBE fuel. In
bustion in the cylinder. As you can see in Fig. 15 (a), the water addition
other words, the mixture becomes a lean [73].
in the biodiesel fuel decreased CO emission. The reduction in CO
emission was intensified by increasing the content of water in the

0.32 0.12
W0
0.28 W2 0.10
NOx Mass Fraction (‰)

W4
NOx Mass Fraction (‰)

0.24
W6 0.08
0.20 W0
0.06 W2
0.16 W4
(b) 50% load W6
0.12 (a) 100% load 0.04

0.08
0.02
0.04
0.00
0.00
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Crank angle (oCA) Crank angle (oCA)

0.030
W0
W2
0.025 W4
NOx Mass Fraction (‰)

W6
0.020

0.015

0.010 (c) 25% load

0.005

0.000
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Crank angle (oCA)
Fig. 13. NOx emission for different WBE fuels and pure biodiesel under different load conditions.

259
Z. Zhang et al. Fuel 239 (2019) 245–262

0.14 0.8 a W0 W2 W4 W6
W0
(a) 100% load 0.6
0.12 W2

CO(vol%)
W4
Soot Mass Fraction (‰)

0.10
W6 0.4

0.2
0.08
0.0
0.06
8.0
b

0.04 7.5

CO 2(vol%)
0.02 7.0

6.5
0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 6.0
100% Load 50% Load 25% Load
Crank angle (oCA)
Fig. 15. Effects of different WBE fuels and pure biodiesel on emissions (a) CO
0.025 emission, (b) CO2 emission vs. various engine loads.

(b)50% load W0
W2 low-level WBE fuels (2, 4 and 6 wt%) and pure RME fuel were simu-
0.020
Soot Mass Fraction (‰)

W4
lated and compared. Moreover, the water addition in WBE fuels was
W6
beneficial to improving the combustion characteristic of diesel engine.
0.015 More specifically, the findings revealed that the addition of 2% and 4%
water into RME resulted in similar BSFC and BP values to RME, in spite
of the fact that the calorific value of water containing WBE fuel was
0.010 reduced. Due to the occurrence of micro-explosion in combustion
chamber, the spray and combustion characteristics of diesel engine
were improved greatly and the soot and CO emissions were reduced. In
0.005
particular, the NOx, CO and CO2 emissions were reduced respectively,
at maximum speed of 1000 rpm. Similarly, the ignition delay of diesel
0.000 engine would be increased due to water addition resisitance against the
flame spread, and then the in-cylinder pressure and temperature would
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
o
be reduced and the NOx emission was decreased too. Nevertheless, by
Crank angle ( CA) further increasing water addition rate to 6%, the improving effect
would be reduced. As the water content of WBE fuels increased, the CO2
0.0025
W0 emission would increase due to the increasing oxygen content in the
W2 WBE fuels. Overall, the optimal water addition level in terms of diesel
W4 (c)25% load engine emission and performance parameters was found at 4 wt%
0.0020
Soot Mass Fraction (‰)

W6 among WBE fuels. Thus, the water addition in WBE fuels plays a very
important role for diesel engine. It should be emphasized that water
0.0015 emulsified fuel is an important technique to improve the emission and
performance characteristics of diesel engine.

0.0010 Conflict of interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests regarding

0.0005 the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgements
0.0000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
Crank angle (oCA) of China under the research grant of 51676066 and 51508176.
Fig. 14. Soot emission for different WBE fuels and pure biodiesel under dif-
ferent load conditions.
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