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u 0 u a *
1 1
1 1 2 1 * 1 1
(1 M1 ) (1 ) 0.6339
0 2 0 2
T1 1 2 1 M1 =1 a *
T * 1
1
1
(1 M1 ) ( ) (1
2
)
2
0.9129
T0 2 a0 T0 2
p1 1 2 1 p* 1 1
(1 M1 ) (1 ) 0.5283
p0 2 p0 2
Sonic Throat Area A∗
The sonic flow area A∗ can be obtained from the constant mass
flow equation (1). For the sonic-flow process we have
m uA *u * A* uA *a * A* (1)
and we also note that u*= a* since M =1 at the sonic throat.
Therefore,
A a
* * *
0 a a0 a
*
A*
u 0 a0 a u
Using the previously-defined expressions produces
1 2 1 a (1 1) 2 a0 T0 2
1 1
1 1 * 1
* 1 1 0 1 a 1
0
(1 ) (1 M) ( ) (1 M 2 2
)
2 2 a0 2 a T 2 u M
1 1 1
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 12 1 1 2 2 ( 1)
1
A 1 2
(1 ) (1 M ) (1 ) (1 M ) [ (1 M )]
A*
2 2 2 2 M M 1 2
1
A 1 2 1 2 2 ( 1)
[
A* M 1
(1
2
M )] (5)
Area-Mach number Relation
This is the area-Mach relation, which is plotted in the figure below for γ
=1.4, and is also available in tabulated form in Appendix A . It uniquely
relates the local Mach number to the area ratio A/A∗, and can be used to
“solve” compressible duct flow problems. If the duct geometry A(x) is given,
and A∗ is defined from the known duct mass flow and stagnation
quantities, then M(x) can be determined using the graphical technique shown
in the figure, or using the equivalent numerical table.
1
Given A(x), m , 0 , p0 , T0
A 1 2 1 2 2 ( 1) *
1
1 1 a
*
1 2
1
1 1
[ (1 M )] (1 ) (1 )
p*
(1 )
A* M 1 2 0 2 a0 2 p0 2
m *a * A* A* A( x) / A*
1
A 1 2 1 2 2 ( 1)
[ (1 M )]
A*
M 1 2
1
A 1 2 1 2 2 ( 1)
M< 1 M>1 [ (1 M )]
A*
M 1 2
A/A* = 1
Laval Nozzle Flows (I)
• The convergent-divergent nozzle was
developed by Swedish inventor Gustaf de Laval
in 1888.
• Assume that the flow at the inlet is fed from a
large gas reservoir (stagnation condition) where
the gas is essentially stationary.
Me,6 • The reservoir and inlet pressure and
temperature are Po and To.
M=1
• The area distribution of the nozzle, A = A(x), is
specified at every station along the nozzle.
• The area of the throat is denoted by At , and the
0.528Po exit area is denoted by Ae.
• The Mach number and static pressure at the exit
Pe,6 are denoted by Me and Pe.
• Assume an isentropic expansion of the gas
through this nozzle to a supersonic Mach
number Me = Me6 at the exit The
0.833To
corresponding exit pressure is Pe6
• For this expansion, the flow is sonic at the
Te,6 throat, M = 1 and At = A * at the throat.
Laval Nozzle Flows (II)
The flow properties through the nozzle are a
function of the local area ratio A/A* and are
obtained as follows:
• The local Mach number as a function of
x is obtained from Eq. (10.32), or from
Me,6 the tabulated values in App. A.
1
A A 1 2 1 2 2( 1)
[ (1 M )]
M=1 A*
At M 1 2
• For the specified A = A(x), we know the
corresponding A/A* = f(x). Then read the
0.528Po related subsonic Mach numbers in the
convergent portion of the nozzle from
Pe,6 the first part of App. A (for M < 1) and
the related supersonic Mach numbers in
the divergent portion of the nozzle from
0.833To the second part of App. A (for M> 1).
• The Mach number distribution through
Te,6 the complete nozzle is thus obtained and
is sketched in Fig. b.
Laval Nozzle Flows (III)
• Once the Mach number distribution is
known, then the corresponding variation
of temperature, pressure, and density can
be found from isentropic relations,
respectively, or more directly from App.
A.
• The location of the shock wave inside the nozzle, is determined by the requirement that
the increase in static pressure across the wave plus that in the divergent portion of the
subsonic flow behind the shock be just right to achieve Pe4 at the exit,
• As Pe is further reduced from Pe4 , the normal shock wave moves downstream, closer to
the nozzle exit, At a certain value of exit pressure, Pe = Pe5, the normal shock stands
precisely at the exit.
Back Pressure PB Effects
Pe6 <PB <Pe5 (overexpanded nozzle)
The back pressure is still above the isentropic
pressure at the nozzle exit. Hence, the jet of gas
from the nozzle must be compressed such that its
pressure is compatible with PB. This compression
takes place across oblique shock waves attached
to the exit.
PB =Pe6 (matched nozzle)
There is no mismatch of the exit pressure and the
back pressure; the nozzle jet exhausts smoothly
into the surroundings without passing through
any waves.
(underexpanded nozzle)
Mass Flux of Isentropic Nozzle Flow
If we assume that the flow in the duct is isentropic, the stagnation
density ρo and stagnation speed of sound ao are both constant. This
allows the normalized ρ and u to be given in terms of the Mach
number alone.
m ( x)u ( x) A( x) constant
(2)
(3)
(4)
The figure shows these variables, along with the normalized mass
flux, or ρu product, all plotted versus Mach number.
The significance of ρu is that it represents the inverse of the duct
area, or
Max Mass Flux at Throat
It is evident that the maximum possible mass flux occurs at a
location where locally M =1. This can be proven by computing
d u
( ) 0 at M 1 maximum
dM 0 a0
1
p0 1 2 1 2 p0
(1 Me ) Me2 [( ) 1]
pe 2 1 pe
1 1 1
e 1 2 1 1 1 P0
(1 Me ) e (1 M ) (1
2 1 2 1
Me )
0 2 2
e 0
2 ( 1)h0
ae Te 1/ 2 1 2 1/ 2 1 2 1/ 2 1 2 1/ 2
Me ) ( 1)1/ 2 h0
1/ 2
( ) (1 Me ) ae (1 Me ) a0 (1
a0 T0 2 2 2
1 2 11 P0 1 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
eue Ae eMeae Ae (1
m Me ) Me (1 Me ) ( 1)1/ 2 h0 Ae
2 ( 1)h0 2
1 1 1
p0 1 2 2( 1) p0 1 2 2( 1) p0 1 2 ( 1)
m (1 Me ) Me Ae (1 Me ) Me Ae (1 Me ) Me Ae
( 1)h0 2 RT0 2 RT0 2
Subsonic nozzle flow and Chocking
1
2 p0 1
M
2
[( ) 1] uthroat A* 2 1 2
2 ( 1)
e
1 pe M [ (1 M )]
u
* *
1
throat throat
Athroat 2
1
2 p0
M
2
[( ) 1]
e
1 pe
1
u A a At
m * * * * * p
0 (1
m
1 2 ( 1)
Me ) Me Ae
RT0 2
As pe is reduced, mass flow rate will first increase, but at some point it will level
off and remain constant even if pe is reduced all the way to zero (vacuum). When
˙mass flow rate no longer increases with a reduction in pe, the duct is said to be
choked.
Subsonic nozzle flow before Chocking
Given A(x), P0 , T0 , pe
1
2 p0
Me2 [( ) 1]
1 pe
1
p0 1 2 ( 1)
m (1 Me ) Me Ae f ( p0,T0, pe , Ae )
RT0 2
m *a * A* A* A( x) / A*
1
a* 1 2
1
* 1 1
(1 ) (1 )
0 2 a0 2
1
A 1 2 1 2 2 ( 1)
[ (1 M )]
A*
M 1 2
Solve for M(x),
p 1
(1 2 1
M) Solve for p/p0
p0 2
Maximum Mass Flow Rate after Chocked Condition
The onset of choking coincides with the throat reaching M = 1. This also
corresponds to the mass flux ρu at the throat reaching its maximum possible value
ρ∗ a ∗ , which is given by *
1
1 1 a * 1
1
(1 (1
2
) )
a * * 0 2 a0 2
m uAt a At 0 a0
* *
At p0
0 a0
1
0
a0 [( 1)h0 ]
2
1 1 ( 1)h0
P0 1 p0 1
m (1 ) 2 ( 1)
At ( ) ( 1)
At f ( P0 , T0 , At )
( 1)h0 2 RT0 2
Therefore, the only way to change the mass flow of a choked duct is to change the
reservoir’s total properties p0 and T0. For a given sonic nozzle, ideal chocked
mass flow rate is proportional to p0.
Before chocked flow condition
1
2 p0
Me [( ) 1]
1 pe
1
p0 1 2 ( 1)
m (1 Me ) Me Ae f ( p0,T0, pe , Ae )
RT0 2
Chocked flow condition
1
p0 1
m ( ) ( 1)
At f ( P0 , T0 , At )
RT0 2
Ideal (isentropic) v.s. Actual supersonic diffuser
A diffuser is a duct designed to slow an incoming gas flow to lower velocity
at the exit of the diffuser with as small a loss in total pressure as possible.
1
p0 1
m ( ) ( 1)
At f ( P0 , T0 , At )
RT0 2 The art of diffuser design is to
obtain as small a total pressure
loss as possible, i.e., to design the
convergent, divergent, and
constant-area throat sections so
that P02/P01 is as close to unity as
1
possible.
p0 1 p0
m actual Cd ( ) ( 1)
At ~
RT0 2 T0
where Cd : disch arg coefficient
It is extremely difficult to slow a
supersonic flow without
generating shock waves in the
process. Note that the supersonic
flow in convergent section will
inherently generate oblique shock
waves, which will destroy the
isentropic nature of the flow.
Actual Mass Flow Rate of Sonic Nozzle
1
1 p0 p0
m actual Cd ( ) ( 1)
At Cd C * At
2 RT0 RT0
1
1
where C* ( ) ( 1)
AGARD-AR-321
Sonic Nozzle Mass Flow Rate Calibration by
Gravimetric System
http://www.tuvnel.com/_x90lbm/The_Calibration_of_Flow_Meters.pdf
Sonic Nozzles for Gas Mass Flow Meter
1
p0 1 p0
m actual C D ( ) ( 1)
At ~
RT0 2 T0
where C D : disch arg coefficient
Calibrated Sonic Nozzles for Gas Mass Flow
Meter Calibration
SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL DESIGN (I)
If you want to create a Mach 2.5 uniform flow in a laboratory
for the purpose of testing a model of a supersonic vehicle, say,
a cone, How do you do it?
design 1
design 2
However, the "normal shock diffuser" sketched in design 2 has several problems:
1. A normal shock is the strongest possible shock, hence creating the largest
total pressure loss. If we could replace the normal shock in design 2 with a
weaker shock, the total pressure loss would be less, and the required reservoir
pressure Po would be less than 2.4 atm.
2. It is extremely difficult to hold a normal shock wave stationary at the duct
exit in real life, flow unsteadiness and instabilities would cause the shock to move
somewhere else and to fluctuate constantly in position. Thus, we could never be
certain about the quality of the flow in the constant-area duct.
3. As soon as a test model is introduced into the constant-area section, the oblique
waves from the model would propagate downstream, causing the flow to
become two- or three-dimensional. The normal shock sketched in design 2 could
not exist in such a flow.
design 2
SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL DESIGN (III)
design 3
p01 p02
m 1*a1* At1 2 u 2 At 2
F m Ve ( pe pa ) Ae
( pe pa )
F m [Ve Ae ] m Veq
m
Me RT0Me
2
Ve Meae a0
1 2 1 2
1 Me 1 Me
2 2
The specific impulse (Isp) is the ratio of the
thrust produced to the weight flow of the
propellants.
p0 Ve F Veq
I sp
m g g
T0 p e pa
where F = Thrust q = Propellant mass flow rate
Ve = Velocity of exhaust gases Pe = Pressure at
1
2 p0 1 2 nozzle exit Pa = Ambient pressure Ae = Area of
M
2
[( ) 1] ae (1 Me )1/ 2 a0
1 pe
e
2 nozzle exit
ROCKET ENGINE NOZZLE DESIGN (II)
nozzle exit
pe pa
p e pa Underexpanded
If a nozzle is under
or overexpanded,
pe pa
then loss of
p e pa Ambient (ideal) efficiency occurs
relative to an ideal
p e pa nozzle.
p e pa
Overexpanded
pe pa
Overexpanded
If a normal shock
appear inside the
nozzle, then loss of
efficiency occurs
relative to an ideal
nozzle.
Rocket Nozzle Design: Optimizing Expansion for Maximum Thrust