Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

III/IV Year B Tech Program (Y16)

A.Y. 2018-19, Even Semester

STUDENT LAB MANUAL

Communication Theory-III (15EC3212) LAB

K L Deemed to be University
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Lab Handout for III/IV Year B Tech Program (Y16)
A.Y. 2018-19, Even Semester

Course Title : Communication Theory-III

Course Code : 15 EC 3212
L-T-P Structure : 2-2-2
Credits :4
Pre-requisite : Communication Theory-II (15 EC 3108)
Course Coordinator : Dr. Sampad Kumar Panda
Team of Lab Instructors: Dr. Md. Z Rehman, Dr. Dambarudhar Seth, Dr. R. Revathi, Dr. B.
Siva Kumar Reddy, Ms. K. Sony, Mr. J. Chandrasekhar Rao, Mr. G.L.P.
Ashok, Mr.K.Suresh Kumar, Mr. T. Penchala Naidu, Mr. Muzammil
Parvez M, Mrs. B. Priyadharshini

Lab Associates: Dr. M.V.D.Prasad, Mr. K. Nageswara Rao, Dr. Bukya Balaji, Mr. R.Sekar,
Dr. Lakshman Pappula, Mona Mudaliar, Dr. Sumit Gupta, Mr. R. Agilesh
Saravanan, Pronami Bora, Mr. Ali Baig Mohammad

Course Objective: The Main objective of this course is to provide the students with a
comprehensive view of advanced communication systems and techniques such as spread
spectrum techniques, satellite communications, radio signal propagation through different fading
channels, cellular communications, optical communications, and signal detection techniques.
Course Rationale: This Course provides a detailed study on concept of spread spectrum
communication, PN sequence generation and its properties, direct sequence spread spectrum
with coherent BPSK, Signal-space dimensionality and processing gain and it gives overview of
satellite communications. It provides the clear idea of radio signal propagation through
reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering, and different fading concepts. Further, cellular
communication concepts and 2G and 3G cellular wireless standards, optical fibers and sources
used in optical communications. Finally, it describes the signal detection techniques using
integrated and dump filter, optimum filter and matched filter, correlator.
 List of Experiments

Lab session Title of Experiment

1 Generation of Pseudo-noise (PN) sequence using Linear Feedback
Shift Register
2 Implementation of Spread Spectrum Modulation Technique
3 Implementation of the Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum with
Coherent Binary Phase-Shift Keying
4 Implementation of FSK, QPSK with Frequency Selective Fading
5 Implementation of FSK, QPSK with Flat Fading
6 Classification of channels based on Doppler frequency spread
7 Study of Co-channel and Adjacent Channel Interference
8 Measurement of Losses in Optical Fibers
9 Measurement of Numerical Aperture
10 Verify the Characteristics of Fiber Optic LED’s
11 Setting up a Fiber Optic Digital link
12 Implementation of Signal Detection Scheme using Matched Filter
 EXP. 1: GENERATION OF PN SEQUENCE

Aim: Generate the Pseudo Noise (PN) sequence using linear feedback shift register with
different lengths and initial conditions.

Software required:
1. QT-Octave/Matlab

Theory:
A pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary sequence with a noiselike
waveform that is usually generated by means of a feedback shift register, a general
block diagram of which is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Feedback shift register.

A feedback shift register consists of an ordinary shift register made up of m flip-flops
(two-state memory stages) and a logic circuit that are interconnected to form a
multiloop feedback circuit.
The flip-flops in the shift register are regulated by a single timing clock. At each
pulse (tick) of the clock, the state of each flip-flop is shifted to the next one down the
line. With each clock pulse the logic circuit computes a Boolean function of the states
of the flip-flops. The result is then fed back as the input to the first flip-flop, thereby
preventing the shift register from emptying.
The PN sequence so generated is determined by the length m of the shift register, its
initial state, and the feed-back logic. Let Sj(k) denote the state of the jth flip-flop after
the kth clock pulse; this state may be represented by symbol 0 or 1. The state of the
shift register after the kth clock pulse is then defined by the set {S1(k), S2(k),…,
Sm(k)}, where k ≥ 0. For the initial state, k is zero. From the definition of a shift
register, we have

(1)

where S0(k) is the input applied to the first flip-flop after the kth clock pulse.
According to the configuration described in Figure 1, S0(k) is a Boolean function of
the individual states S1(k), S2(k), …, Sm(k). For a specified length m, this Boolean
function uniquely determines the subsequent sequence of states and therefore the PN
sequence produced at the output of the final flip-flop in the shift register. With a total
 number of m flip-flops, the number of possible states of the shift register is at most
2m. It follows therefore that the PN sequence generated by a feedback shift register
must eventually become periodic with a period of at most 2m.
A feedback shift register is said to be linear when the feedback logic consists entirely
of modulo-2 adders. In such a case, the zero state (e.g., the state for which all the flip-
flops are in state 0) is not permitted. We say so because for a zero state, the input
S0(k) produced by the feedback logic would be 0, the shift register would then
continue to remain in the zero state, and the output would therefore consist entirely of
0s. Consequently, the period of a PN sequence produced by a linear feedback shift
register with m flip-flops cannot exceed 2m -1. When the period is exactly 2m -1, the
PN sequence is called a maximal-length-sequence or simply m-sequence.

Practical Implementation:

a) Method-1: Generate a PN sequence using feedback shift register in Octave/Matlab

with initial sequence: 1 0 0 0 and number of flip-flops: 4
Input-(i):
Length of shift register r= 4
Valid tap array: [4 1]
Sequence of input data array of length r: [1 0 0 0]
Output(i):
length of the m_sequence N = ?
M_sequence is = ?

b) Method-2: Develop a generalized code in Octave or Matlab to generate PN

sequence and discuss the output with autocorrelation properties for the following
inputs:
Input-(i):
Length of shift register r= 3
Valid tap array: [3 1]
Sequence of input data array of length r: [1 0 0]
Output(i):
length of the m_sequence N = ?
M_sequence is = ?

Input-(ii): Length of shift register r= 5

Valid tap array: [5 2]
Sequence of input data array of length r: [1 0 0 1 1]
Output(ii):
lenth of the m_sequence N = ?
 M_sequence is = ?

Input-(iii): Length of shift register r= 5

Valid tap array: [5 4 3 2]
Sequence of input data array of length r: [1 0 0 1 1]
Output(iii):
lenth of the m_sequence N = ?
M_sequence is = ?

Fig.2 Model diagram of autocorrelation of M-sequence

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:
1. What is pseudo noise sequence?
2. What are the properties of maximal length sequence?
3. What does Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR) mean?
4. What are the entities in a linear feedback shift register?
5. What is the basic difference between LFSR with XOR and LFSR with XNOR
operations?
6. When is the PN sequence called as maximal length sequence?
7. What is meant by linear code?
8. How to control the operation of shift registers?
9. If the initial pulse of 1000 is fed to shift register, after how many clock pulses
does the sequence repeat?

***
 EXP. 2: SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUE

Aim: Implement the code for spread spectrum modulation technique.

Software Required:

1. QT-Octave/Matlab

Theory:
An important attribute of spread-spectrum modulation is that it can provide protection
against externally generated interfering (jamming) signals with finite power. The
jamming signal may consist of a powerful broadband noise or multitone waveform
that is directed at the receiver for the purpose of disrupting communications.
Protection against jamming waveforms is provided by purposely making the
information-bearing signal occupy a bandwidth far more than the minimum
bandwidth necessary to transmit it. This has the effect of making the transmitted
signal assume a noiselike appearance so as to blend into the background. The
transmitted signal is thus enabled to propagate through the channel undetected by
anyone who may be listening. We may therefore think of spread spectrum as a
method of “camouflaging” the information-bearing signal.
One method of widening the bandwidth of an information-bearing (data) sequence
involves the use of modulation. Let {bk} denote a binary data sequence, and {ck}
denote a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence. Let the waveforms b(t) and c(t) denote their
respective polar nonreturn-to-zero representations in terms of two levels equal in
amplitude and opposite in polarity, namely, ±1. We will refer to b(t) as the
information-bearing (data) signal, and to c(t) as the PN signal. The desired
modulation is achieved by applying the data signal b(t) and the PN signal c(t) to a
product modulator or multiplier, as in Figure 2.1(a). We know from Fourier transform
theory that multiplication of two signals produces a signal whose spectrum equals the
convolution of the spectra of the two component signals. Thus, if the message signal
b(t) is narrowband and the PN signal c(t) is wideband, the product (modulated), signal
m(t) will have a spectrum that is nearly the same as the wideband PN signal. In other
words, in the context of our present application, the PN sequence performs the role of
a spreading code.
By multiplying the information-bearing signal b(t) by the PN signal c(t), each
information bit is “chopped” up into a number of small time increments, as illustrated
in the waveforms of Figure 2.2. These small-time increments are commonly referred
to as chips.
For baseband transmission, the product signal m(t) represents the transmitted signal.
We may thus express the transmitted signal as

Figure 2.1: Idealized model of baseband spread-spectrum system, (a) Transmitter, (b)
Channel, (c) Receiver.
 Figure 2.2: Illustrating the waveforms in the transmitter of Figure 5(a).
The received signal r(t) consists of the transmitted signal m(t) plus an additive
interference denoted by i(t), as shown in the channel model of Figure 2.1(b). Hence,

To recover the original message signal b(t), the received signal r(t) is applied to a
demodulator that consists of a multiplier followed by an integrator, and a decision
device, as in Figure 2.1(c).
The multiplier is supplied with a locally generated PN sequence that is an exact
replica of that used in the transmitter. Moreover, we assume that the receiver operates
in perfect synchronism with the transmitter, which means that the PN sequence in the
receiver is lined up exactly with that in the transmitter. The multiplier output in the
receiver is therefore given by

Equation (3) shows that the data signal b(t) is multiplied twice by the PN signal c(t),
whereas the unwanted signal i(t) is multiplied only once. The PN signal c(t) alternates
between the levels -1 and +1, and the alternation is destroyed when it is squared;
hence,

Accordingly, we may simplify Equation (9) as

We thus see from Equation (5) that the data signal b(t) is reproduced at the multiplier
output in the receiver, except for the effect of the interference represented by the
additive term c(t)i(t).
Multiplication of the interference i(t) by the locally generated PN signal c(t) means
that the spreading code will affect the interference just as it did the original signal at
 the transmitter. We now observe that the data component b(t) is narrowband, whereas
the spurious component c(t)i(t) is wideband. Hence, by applying the multiplier output
to a baseband (low-pass) filter with a bandwidth just large enough to accommodate
the recovery of the data signal b(t), most of the power in the spurious component
c(t)i(t) is filtered out. The effect of the interference i(t) is thus significantly reduced at
the receiver output.
In the receiver shown in Figure 2.1(c), the low-pass filtering action is actually
performed by the integrator that evaluates the area under the signal produced at the
multiplier output.
The integration is carried out for the bit interval providing the sample
value v. Finally, a decision is made by the receiver: If v is greater than the threshold
of zero the receiver says that binary symbol 1 of the original data sequence was sent
in the interval , and if v is less than zero, the receiver says that symbol was
sent; if v is exactly zero the receiver makes a random guess in favor of 1 or 0.

Practical Implementation:

Input for PN sequence generation:

enter the length of shift register r= 3
enter the valid tap array: [3 1]
enter the sequence of input data array of length r: [1 0 0]
Output:
length of the m_sequence N = 7
M_sequence is : 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Input for data sequence:
Enter the input data sequence: [1 0 0 1 0 1 0]
Output of SSM:

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:

1. What are the two common spread spectrum techniques used to transmit signals?
2. What is frequency Hopping method?
3. What is direct Sequence Spread Spectrum?
4. What is the benefit of spread spectrum?
5. What is Fast Hopping?
6. What is Direct sequence is a spread spectrum technique?
7. Jamming can be avoided by using____ ?
8. Technique that uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by source
signal is called?
9. What are the three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal?
10. What are the applications of spread spectrum?

***
EXP. 3: DIRECT-SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM WITH
COHERENT BINARY PHASE-SHIFT KEYING

Aim: Generate the code for Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum with Coherent Binary
Phase-Shift Keying.

Software required:

1. QT Octave/Matlab

Theory:
The spread-spectrum technique described in the previous section is referred to as direct-
sequence spread spectrum. The discussion presented there was in the context of baseband
transmission. To provide for the use of this technique in passband transmission over a
satellite channel, for example, we may incorporate coherent binary phase-ship keying
(PSK) into the transmitter and receiver, as shown in Figure 3.1.
The transmitter of Figure 3.1(a) first converts the incoming binary data sequence {bk}
into a polar NRZ waveform b(t), which is followed by two stages of modulation. The first
stage consists of a product modulator or multiplier with the data signal b(t) (representing
a data sequence) and the PN signal c(t) (representing the PN sequence) as inputs. The
second stage consists or binary PSK modulator.
The transmitted signal x(t) is thus a direct-sequence spread binary phase-shift-keyed
(DS/BPSK) signal. The phase modulation θ(t) of x(t) has one of two values, and it,
depending on the polarities of the message signal b(t) and PN signal c(t) at time t in
accordance with the truth table.
Figure 3.1: Direct-Sequence Spread Coherent Binary Phase-Shift Keying (a) Transmitter,
(b) Receiver.

Figure 3.2 illustrates the waveforms for the second stage of modulation. Figure 3.2(b)
shows the waveform of a sinusoidal carrier, and Figure 3.2(c) shows the DS/BPSK
waveform that results from the second stage of modulation.

Figure 3.2 (a) Product signal m(t) = c(t)b(t). (b) Sinusoidal carrier, (c) DS/BPSK signal.
The receiver, shown in Figure 3.1(b), consists of two stages of demodulation. In the first
stage, the received signal y(t) and a locally generated carrier are applied to a product
modulator followed by a low-pass filter whose bandwidth is equal to that of the original
message signal m(t). This stage of the demodulation process reverses the phase-shift
keying applied to the transmitted signal.
The second stage of demodulation performs spectrum despreading by multiplying the
low-pass filter output by a locally generated replica of the PN signal c(t), followed by
integration over a bit interval , and finally decision-making is done.

Practical Implementation:

Input for PN sequence generation:

enter the length of shift register r= 3
enter the valid tap array: [3 1]
enter the sequence of input data array of length r: [1 0 0]

Output:

length of the m_sequence N = 7

M_sequence is : 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

Input for data sequence:

Enter the input data sequence: [1 0 0 1 0 1 0]

Output of SSM and DS/BPSK:

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:
1. What is multipath propagation?
2. What is fading?
3. How fading can be avoided?
4. What are the advantages of Spread spectrum techniques?
5. What is the major drawback of DSSS?
6. What is processing gain of DSSS system?
7. What are the applications of spread spectrum techniques?
8. How PN sequence is generated?
9. What is maximum length sequence (m- sequence)?
10. Which property of PN sequence avoids interference between CDMA users?
***
 EXP. 4: IMPLEMENTATION OF FSK, QPSK WITH
FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE FADING
AIM: To implement of FSK, QPSK with Frequency-Selective Fading

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1. QT-Octave/Matlab

THEORY:

If the channel has a constant-gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth that is
smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel creates frequency-
selective fading on the received signal.

Frequency selective fading channels are also known as wideband channels since the
bandwidth of the signal is wider than the bandwidth of the channel impulse response.
Frequency-selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted symbols
within the channel. For frequency-selective fading:
Practical Implementation:
Increase the symbol rate to 45 kbps and the frequency separation to 200 kHz. Calculate
the new samples per symbol and sample rate parameters.

A. FSK MODULATION IN FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE FADING

symbolRate = 45e3;
freqSep = 200e3;
sampPerSym = ceil(M*freqSep/symbolRate);
fsamp = sampPerSym*symbolRate;
 Update the FSK modulator properties.

 Update the spectrum analyzer sample rate property, sa.SampleRate. Apply FSK
modulation and plot the resulting spectrum.

The spectrum has the same shape as in the flat-fading case but the four tones are now
separated by 200 kHz.
Update the channel sample rate property. Pass the signal through the Rayleigh fading
channel and apply AWGN.
The impulse and frequency responses show that the multipath fading is frequency
selective.
Plot the received signal spectrum.
There are still four identifiable tones but their relative peak power levels differ due to the
frequency-selective fading. The signal bandwidth, 800 kHz, is larger than the coherence
bandwidth, 50 kHz.

B. QPSK MODULATION IN FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE FADING:

Increase the symbol rate to 500 kbps and update the related channel property. Pass the
signal through the Rayleigh channel and apply AWGN.
symbolRate = 500e3;
release(ch)
ch.SampleRate = symbolRate;
rxSig = awgn(step(ch,modSig),25);
The impulse and frequency responses show that the multipath fading is frequency
selective.
 Plot the constellation.
step(cd,rxSig)

As the signal bandwidth is increased from 500 Hz to 500 kHz, the signal becomes highly
distorted. This distortion is due to the inter-symbol interference (ISI) that comes from
time dispersion of the wideband signal. The delay span of the channel (10 microseconds)
is now larger than the QPSK symbol period (2 microseconds) so the resultant bandlimited
impulse response is no longer flat. Alternatively, the signal bandwidth is much larger
than the coherence bandwidth, 50 kHz.

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:
1. What is aliasing effect? How to overcome it?
2. What is the difference between Bit Rate and Baud Rate?
3. What is bandwidth of BPSK signal?
4. What is frequency-selective fading of a channel?
5. What is frequency-selective fading of a channel?
6. Does a Fading channel has memory?
7. How can frequency selective distortion be minimized?
8. How can slow fading be minimized?
9. How can slow fading be minimized?
10. Which noise component plays a role in decision making?
11. Which modulation needs more signal power?

***
 EXP. 5: IMPLEMENTATION OF FSK, QPSK WITH FLAT
FADING
AIM: To implement FSK, QPSK with Flat Fading

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1. QT-Octave/Matlab

THEORY:

If the channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is
greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, the received signal will undergo flat
fading. The received signal strength changes with time due to fluctuations in the gain of
the channel caused by multipath. The received signal varies in gain but the spectrum of
the transmission is preserved.

Flat fading channel is also called amplitude varying channel. Also called narrow band
channel: bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel
bandwidth. A signal undergoes flat fading if
CODE:
Pass FSK and QPSK signals through a Rayleigh multipath fading channel. Change the
signal bandwidths to observe the impact of the fading channel on the FSK spectrum and
the QPSK constellation.

A. FSK MODULATION IN FLAT FADING

Set modulation order to 4, the modulated symbol rate to 45 bps, and the frequency
separation to 200 Hz.
M = 4; % Modulation order
symbolRate = 45; % Symbol rate (bps)
freqSep = 200; % Frequency separation (Hz)

Calculate the samples per symbol parameter, sampPerSym, as a function of the

modulation order, frequency separation, and symbol rate. To avoid output signal aliasing,
the product ofsampPerSym and symbolRate must be greater than the product
of M and freqSep. Calculate the sample rate of the FSK output signal.
sampPerSym = ceil(M*freqSep/symbolRate);
fsamp = sampPerSym*symbolRate;

Create an FSK modulator.

fskMod = comm.FSKModulator(M, ...
'FrequencySeparation',freqSep, ...
'SamplesPerSymbol',sampPerSym, ...
'SymbolRate',symbolRate);

Set the path delays and average path gains for the fading channel.
pathDelays = [0 3 10]*1e-6; % Discrete delays of three-path channel (s)
avgPathGains = [0 -3 -6]; % Average path gains (dB)

By convention, the delay of the first path is typically set to zero. For subsequent paths, a
1 microsecond delay corresponds to a 300 m difference in path length. The path delays
and path gains specify the average delay profile of the channel.
Create a Rayleigh channel using the defined parameters. Set the Visualization property
to display the impulse and frequency responses.
ch = comm.RayleighChannel(...
'SampleRate',fsamp, ...
 'PathDelays',pathDelays, ...
'AveragePathGains',avgPathGains, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift',0.01, ...
'Visualization','Impulse and frequency responses', ...
'SamplesToDisplay','10%');
Generate random data symbols and apply FSK modulation.
data = randi([0 3],2000,1);
modSig = step(fskMod,data);

Plot the spectrum of the FSK modulated signal.

sa = dsp.SpectrumAnalyzer('SampleRate',fsamp);
step(sa,modSig)

The modulated signal is composed of four tones each having approximately 20 dBm peak
power separated by 200 Hz.
Pass the signal through the Rayleigh fading channel and apply AWGN having a 25 dB
signal-to-noise ratio.
snrdB = 25;
rxSig = awgn(step(ch,modSig),snrdB);
The impulse and frequency responses show that the channel behaves as though it were
flat. This is because the signal bandwidth, 800 Hz, is much smaller than the coherence
bandwidth, 50 kHz.
Plot the received signal spectrum.
step(sa,rxSig)
The four tones comprising the FSK signal maintain the same frequency separation and
peak power levels relative to each other. The absolute peak power levels have decreased
due to the fading channel.

B. QPSK MODULATION IN FLAT FADING

Set the symbol rate parameter to 500 bps.
symbolRate = 500;
Generate random data symbols and apply QPSK modulation.
data = randi([0 3],10000,1);
modSig = pskmod(data,4,pi/4,'gray');
Create a Rayleigh channel using the defined parameters. Set the Visualization property
to display the impulse and frequency responses.
fsamp = symbolRate;
ch = comm.RayleighChannel(...
'SampleRate',fsamp, ...
'PathDelays',pathDelays, ...
'AveragePathGains',avgPathGains, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift',0.01, ...
'Visualization','Impulse and frequency responses');
Pass the signal through the Rayleigh channel and apply AWGN.
rxSig = awgn(step(ch,modSig),25);

The impulse and frequency responses show that the channel behaves as though it were
flat. This is because the signal bandwidth, 500 Hz, is much smaller than the coherence
bandwidth, 50 kHz. Alternatively, the delay span of the channel (10 microseconds) is
much smaller than the QPSK symbol period (2 milliseconds) so the resultant bandlimited
impulse response is approximately flat.
Plot the constellation.
 cd = comm.ConstellationDiagram;
step(cd,rxSig)

The QPSK constellation shows the effects of the fading channel; however, the signal still
has four identifiable states.

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:
1. What are the characteristics of flat fading?
2. What are different channel parameters?
3. Why the spectral characteristics of the channel changes with time in flat fading?
4. Why Flat fading channel is also known as Amplitude varying channel?
5. Justify for fast fading channel, the coherence time of the channel is smaller than Symbol
period of transmitted signal.
6. Justify for slow fading channel, Doppler spread of the channel is much less than the
bandwidth of baseband signal.
7. Why a wave that is incident on mobile does not undergo Doppler shift?
8. Out of FSK and QPSK which one is the linear modulation scheme?
9. What is the bandwidth efficiency of QPSK with respect to BPSK?
10. What is BFSK?
***
 EXP. 6: CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNELS BASED ON
DOPPLER FREQUENCY SPREAD
Aim: To classify the channels based on Doppler frequency spread in Cellular Mobile
Communications
Software required:
 MATLAB/Q-Octave

Theory:
A mobile radio channel generally exhibits both Delay and Doppler shift spreading. Delay
spreading corresponds to time dispersion in time domain and to frequency-selective
fading in frequency domain. Doppler spreading corresponds to frequency dispersion in
frequency domain and to time-selective fading in time domain. These effects are shown
by any mobile radio channel, but their importance varies according to the symbol
duration and the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

Doppler Spread (BD) or Spectral broadening: It is caused by the relative movement of the
mobile and the base station. Note that power density spectrum of a sine wave suffering from
a Doppler spread. Figure 1. shows a Doppler power spectral density S(v) plotted as a function
of Doppler-frequency shift v.

S(v)

Fig.1 Doppler power spectrum

For the case of the dense-scatterer model, a vertical receive antenna with constant azimuthal
gain, a uniform distribution of signals arriving at all arrival angles throughout the range (0,
2π), and an unmodulated CW signal, the signal spectrum at the antenna terminals is given by:

The equality holds for frequency shifts of v that are in the range fd about the carrier frequency
fc and would be zero outside that range. The shape of the RF Doppler spectrum described by
the above equation is classically bowl-shaped, as seen in figure 1. Note that the spectral
shape is a result of the dense-scatterer channel model. And the dense-scatterer model does
not hold for the indoor radio channel; the channel model for an indoor area assumes S (v) to
be a flat spectrum.
In figure 1., the sharpness of the boundaries of the Doppler spectrum are due to the sharp
upper limit on the Doppler shift produced by a vehicular antenna traveling among the
stationary scatterers of the dense scatterer model. The largest magnitude (infinite) of S(v)
occurs when the scatterer is directly ahead of the moving antenna platform or directly behind
it. In that case, the magnitude of the frequency shift is given by;

where V is relative velocity, and is the signal wavelength. fd is positive when the transmitter
and receiver move toward each other, and negative when moving away from each other.

Knowledge of S(v) allows us to gather how much spectral broadening is imposed on the
signal as a function of the rate of change in the channel state. The width of the Doppler
power spectrum is referred to as the spectral broadening or Doppler spread denoted by f d and
sometimes called the fading bandwidth of the channel.

Coherence Time
The Doppler spread fd and the coherence time TO are reciprocally related (within a
multiplicative constant. When T0 is defined more precisely as the time duration over which
the channel's response to a sinusoid has a correlation greater than 0.5, the relationship
between T0 and fd is approximately;

An implication of coherence time to mobile system design is that the radio channel changes
its characteristics within a time interval that is of order of the coherence time. Thus, adaptive
parts of the receiver (e.g. adaptive equalizer) must be able to adapt within this time frame.

Time-flat and time-selective Fading

If the symbol duration in the modulated signal is less than the coherence time of the
channel, the channel appears to a single symbol to be time-invariant, and the fading is
called time-flat fading. On the other hand, if the symbol duration of the modulated signal
is much greater than the coherence time of the channel, different time segments of the
symbol encounter different fading characteristics, and the fading is called time-selective
fading. Time-selective channels are also called frequency dispersive channels, because
the large Doppler shift corresponds to broadening of the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal.

Channel classification based on Doppler frequency spread:

Based on Doppler frequency spread the channel can be classified as slow fading (Time flat
fading) and fast fading (Time selective fading) with the criteria given below;
 Slow fading Fast fading

Procedure:
Step 1: Consider the mobile speed 120 kmph, velocity of light is 3x10^8 m/s, carrier
frequency 900 MHz and symbol period 577 us
Step 2: Find Doppler spread fd
Step 3: Compute coherence time Tc from Doppler spread fd
Step 4: Compare Tc with Ts to classify fast fading or slow fading channel.

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:
1. Explain Delay and Doppler shift spreading?
2. Describe Mean access delay?
3. What is RMS delay spread ?
4. What is Coherence Bandwidth?
5. Define flat and frequency selective fading?
6. Define slow and fast fading?
7. What is Doppler Spread?
8. How to determine Coherence Time?
9. Classify the channels based multipath time delay spread?
10. Classify the channels based on Doppler frequency spread?
***
EXP. 7: STUDY OF CO-CHANNEL AND ADJACENT CHANNEL
INTERFERENCE
AIM: Study of Co-Channel and Adjacent Channel Interference

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB/Q-Octave

THEORY
In this experiment we investigate interferences generated by other spectrum users: Co-channel
Interference and Adjacent Channel Interference.
The received signal quality is usually described by SINR value. In case the other user
interference is much higher than the noise level the system quality can be described solely by
interference level. Such situation is called interference limited system. In such case the
disturbance from transmitters in other cells is much higher than the noise power and the latter
can be ignored.
In case the interference level is much lower than noise level the system is called noise limited
system. An example of a noise limited system is a cellular system with extremely large cells.
Interference reduction is the challenging issue in the field of cellular communication system. Due
to limited frequency bandwidth and high cost, we have to reuse same frequency band in the
different geographic area resulting the Co-channel Interference and Adjacent Channel
Interference.
Conception of Co-channel Interference: The interference among signals of co-channel cells is
called Co-channel Interference. It main reason behind this interference is frequency reuse.
Reduction Method: Co-channel cells must be physically spaced at a minimum interval to ensure
adequate isolation of transmission.
Conception of Adjacent Channel Interference: The signal interference from the frequency
adjacent to that of the signal used is called Adjacent channel Interference.
Reduction Method: Accurate filtering and channel allocation (maximizing channel intervals of
the cell).
Though Frequency reuse is one of the main reason behind co-channel Interference but it can
increase the spectrum efficiency drastically.
Concept of Frequency Reuse Channels: A radio channel consists of a pair of frequencies one
for each direction of transmission that is used for full-duplex operation. Particular radio
channels, say F1, used in one geographic zone to call a cell, say C1, with a coverage radius R can
be used in another cell with the same coverage radius at a distance D away. Frequency reuse is
the core concept of the cellular mobile radio system. In this frequency reuse system users in
different geographic locations (different cells) may simultaneously use the same frequency
channel (see Fig.1.). The frequency reuse system can drastically increase the spectrum
efficiency, but if the system is not properly designed, serious interference may occur.
Interference due to the common use of the same channel is called co-channel interference and is
our major concern in the concept of frequency reuse.

Fig-1 The ratio of D/R

Frequency reuse scheme: The frequency reuse concept can be used in the time domain and the
space domain. Frequency reuse in the time domain results in the occupation of the same
frequency in different time slots. It is called time division multiplexing (TDM). Frequency reuse
in the space domain can be divided into two categories. 1. Same frequency assigned in two
different geographic areas, such as A.M or FM radio stations using the same frequency in
different cities. 2. Same frequency repeatedly used in a same general area in one system - the
scheme is used in cellular systems. There are many co-channel cells in the system. The total
frequency spectrum allocation is divided into K frequency reuse patterns, as illustrated in Fig. 2
for K — 4, 7, 12, and 19.
 Fig-2. N-cell reuse pattern

Practical Implementation:
This experiment shows the effects of adjacent and co-channel interference on a PSK modulated
signal. The model includes interferers. The number of interferers can be one or more than one.
The communication system in this example includes these components:
 A transmitter, which creates a PSK modulated signal and applies a square root raised
cosine filter. The result is the original signal to which interference is added.
 One interferer, Interferer1 which is similar to the transmitted signal but has a modifiable
frequency offset and power gain. A sum block in the model adds the two interfering
signals to the original signal.
 An AWGN channel.
 A receiver, which filters, down-samples, and demodulates the received signal.
 Shown below the block diagram for simulation of Co-channel and Adjacent channel
interference.
 The transmitted signal is generated using the above shown transmitter is passed through a
AWGN channel that reflects the property of co-channel interference and then another
interference signal is being added to show the property of adjacent channel interference.
Finally at receiver end a distorted signal is obtained affected from both co-channel and
adjacent channel interference. Images below shows step by step changes in the original
signal.

 The Original Signal is shown in fig.4.

 Fig 3: Shows the schematic block diagram to understand Interference process

Fig 4: The original transmitting signal

 Then the signal is passed through the AWGN channel to have effect co-channel
interference is shown below
 Fig 5: Original Signal after passing through AWGN channel
 The suffering from co-channel interference the signal is then added with another
interference signal show the effect of adjacent channel interference shown in the figure.

Figure 6(a): Shows color schematic of noisy Tx signal

 Figure 6(b): Shows the noisy Tx signal moving towards receiver
 At the receiver after demodulation, the final received signal is shown below

Fig 7: Shows the received signal at receiver

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:

1. Cellular concept replaces many low power transmitters to a single high power transmitter.
(True or False)
2. Why neighboring stations are assigned different group of channels in cellular system?
3. What is frequency reuse?
4. Why the shape of cell is not circle?
5. A spectrum of 30 MHz is allocated to a cellular system which uses two 25 KHz simplex
channels to provide full duplex voice channels. What is the number of channels available per
cell for 4 cell reuse factor?
6. What is the Objective of channel assignment Strategy.
7. What is co-channel interference?
8. What is adjacent channel interference?
9. What is cell sectoring?
10. What is near-far effect in wireless network?
11. How sectoring uses direction antennas to control interference?
12. What is the advantage of zone cell technique?
***
 EXP. 8: MEASUREMENT OF LOSSES IN OPTICAL
FIBERS

Aim:
To measure propagation loss in plastic fiber provided with the lab for different
wavelengths of radiation as 950nm, 660nm, also to measure the bending loss.

Apparatus required:
1. Power supply
2. Kit 1 and Kit 2
3. 20 MHz Dual race Oscilloscope
4. 1 and 3-meter fiber cable

Theory:
Optical fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are usually
selected by considering of their absorption characteristics of different wavelengths of
light. In the case of optical fiber, since the signal is transmitted in the form of light, which
is completely different in nature as that of electrons, one must consider the interaction of
matter with the radiation to study the losses in fiber. Losses are introduced in the fiber
due to various reasons. As light propagates from one end of the fiber to another end, part
of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also, part of the light is
reflected back or in some other directions from the impurity particles present in the
material contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the fiber. In general, it is
known as propagation loss. Plastic fibers have higher loss of the order of 180 dB/km.
whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses
are introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when the fiber is subjected to
bending. lower the radius of the curvature more is the loss. Another loss is due to the
coupling of fiber at LED and photo detector ends.
Procedure:
1. Refer to Fig. 8.1 and make the following connections.
2. Slightly unscrew the cap of IR LED SFH 450V (950nm) from Kit 1. Do not
remove the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into
the cap and assure that the fiber is properly fixed. Now tighten the cap by
screwing it back.
3. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity of Kit-1 and Kit-2. While
connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
4. Connect the on-board signal generator between the AMP I/P and GND posts in
Kit-1 to feed the analog signal to the amplifier.
5. Keep the signal generator in sine wave mode and select the frequency=1KHz with
amplitude =2 V p-p.
6. Switch ON the power supply.
7. Check the output signal of the amplifier at the post AMP O/P in Kit-1.
8. Now rotate the optical power control pot P1 located below power supply
connector in Kit-1 in anti-clockwise direction. This ensure minimum current flow
through LED.
9. Short the following posts in Kit-1 with the links provided.
A. +9V and -9V: This ensures supply to the transmitter.
B. AMP O/P and TRANSMITTER I/P.
10. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 250V (Analog detector) in Kit-
2 very carefully as per the instructions in step 1.
11. Ensure that the jumper located just above the IC U1 in Kit-2 is shorted to pins 2
and 3. Shorting of the jumper allows connection of PIN photodiode to the
transimpedance amplifier input.
12. Observe the output signal from the detector at AC OUTPUT post in Kit-2 on
CRO. Adjust optical power control pot P1 in Kit-1. You should get the
reproduction of the original transmitted signal. Also adjust the amplitude of
received signal as that of the transmitted one. Mark this amplitude level as V1.
13. Now replace 1-meter fiber by 3-meter fiber without disturbing any of the previous
settings in Kit-1 and Kit-2. Measure the amplitude level at the receiver side again.
You will notice that it is less than the previous one. Mark this as V2.
14. If α is the attenuation of the fiber then we have,

Where α = Neper/meter
L1= fiber length for V1
L2= fiber length for V2
This α if for the wave length 950nm. To get the α for 660nm wavelength proceed
as follows:
 15. Make use of Kit-4 and Kit-2 to perform this experiment. Connect the power
supply cables to Kit-4 and Kit-2 from respective supplies assuring them to be
OFF.
16. Make the jumper settings in Kit-4 as shown in the jumper block diagram.
17. Now apply 1 KHz, 2 V p-p sinusoidal signal from the function generator between
EXT-ALALOG and GND posts.
18. Connect 1-meter fiber between LED SFH 756V (660 nm) from Kit-4 and detector
SFH 250V (analog detector) from Kit-2 as per the instructions in step-1.
19. Switch ON the power supply and signal generator.
20. Observe the output signal from the detector at AC OUTPUT post in Kit-2 on
CRO. You will get the reproduced signal of same amplitude. Mark this amplitude
level as V1.
21. Now replace 1-meter fiber by 3-meter fiber. Measure the amplitude level at the
receiver side again. You will notice that it is less than the previous one. Mark this
as V2.
22. Use the above formula in step 13 to calculate value for α for 660nm.

Measurement of Bending Losses:

1. Repeat all the steps from 1-11.
2. Bend the fiber in a loop. Measure the amplitude of the received signal.
3. Keep reducing the diameter to about 1-2 cm and take corresponding output
voltage reading. (do not reduce the loop diameter less than 2 cm)
4. Plot the graph of the received signal amplitude verses the loop diameter.

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:

1. Which fibre has more distortion?

2. In which mode loss occurs inside the fibre?
3. What causes microscopic bend?
4. The macroscopic bending losses show an exponential increase due to ------in radius of
curvature.
5. Which among the following is/are responsible for generating attenuation of an optical
power in fiber?
6. What is the principle of fibre optical communication?
7. Which is known as fibre optic back bone?
8. What is the other name for a maximum external incident angle?
9. How does the refractive index vary in Graded Index fibre?
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of optical fibers?

***
 EXP. 9: MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE

Aim:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the numerical aperture of the plastic fiber
provided with the kit using 660 nm wavelength LED.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power Supply
2. Experiment Kit4
3. 1-meter fiber cable
4. NA JIG
5. Ruler

THEORY:
Numerical Aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber
end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone
formed by the rotation of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of
the fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance, else it is
reflected out of the fiber core.

PROCEDURE:
1. Refer to fig 5.1 and make the following connections.
2. Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756V (660nm). Do not remove the cap from
the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap. Now tighten
the cap by screwing it back.
3. Now short the jumpers as shown in the jumper diagram.
4. Connect the power cord to the kit & switch on the power supply.
5. Insert the other end of the fiber into the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold
the white sheet facing the fiber. Adjust the fiber such that its cut face is
perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
6. Keep the distance of about 10 mm between the fiber tip and the screw. Gently
tighten the screw and thus fix the fiber in the place.
7. Now observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen.
8. Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical and horizontal diameters MR
and PN as indicated in the fig 5.1.
9. Mean radius is calculated using the following formula
 10. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula

Where is the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly

transmitted through the fiber.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. It is very important that the optical source should be properly aligned with the
cable & the distance from the launched point & the cable is properly selected to
ensure that the maximum amount of optical power is transferred to the cable.
2. This experiment is best performed in a less illuminated room.

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:

1. What do you mean by refractive index?

2. What is difference between reflection and refraction?
3. What is the basic principle of propagation of light in an optical fiber?
4. Define critical angle?
5. How to calculate the numerical aperture?
6. Name the two types of optical fibers?
7. What are the advantages of optical fiber?
8. What are the applications of optical fibers?
9. On what factor does the Numerical aperture depend?

***
 EXP. 10: VERIFY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER
OPTIC LED
AIM:
To study the V-I Characteristics of fiber optic LED and plot the graph of forward current
v/s output optical energy and also study the photo detector response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power supply
2. Kit4
3. 20 MHz Dual Trace Oscilloscope
4. Volt meter
5. Jumper to crocodile wires

THEORY:
In optical fiber communication system, electrical signal is first converted into optical
signal with the help of E/O conversion device as LED. After this optical signal is
transmitted through optical fiber, it is retrieved in its original electrical form with the help
of O/E conversion device as photo detector.
Different technologies employed in chip fabrication lead to significant variation in
parameters for the various emitter diodes. All the emitters distinguish themselves in
offering high output power coupled into the plastic fiber. Data sheets for LEDs usually
specify electrical and optical characteristics, out of which are important peak wavelength
emission, conversion efficiency (usually specified in terms of power launched in optical
fiber for specified forward current), optical rise and fall ties which put the limitation on
operating frequency, maximum forward current through LED and typical forward voltage
across LED.
Photo detectors usually comes in variety of forms like photoconductive, photovoltaic,
transistor type output and diode type output. Here also characteristics to be taken into
account are response time of the detector which puts the limitation on the operating
frequency, wavelength sensitivity and responsivity.
PROCEDURE:
1. Refer to fig 15.1 and make the following connections.
2. Confirm that the power switch is in OFF position.
3. Make the Jumper settings as shown in the Jumper diagram.
4. Insert the Jumper connecting wires (provided along with the kit) in Jumpers JP17
and JP16 at positions shown in the diagram.
5. Connect the current meter and volt meter with the jumper wires connected to JP17
and JP16 as shown in the diagram.
6. Keep the potentiometer Pr10 in its maximum position (anti clockwise rotation)
and Pr9 in its minimum position (clockwise rotation). Pr10 is used to control
 current flowing through the LED and Pr9 is used to vary the amplitude of the
received signal at phototransistor.

7. To get the IV characteristics of LED, rotate Pr10 slowly and measure forward
current and corresponding forward voltage. Take number of such readings for
various current values and plot IV characteristics graph for the LED.
8. For each reading taken above, find out the power which is product of I and V.
This is the electrical power supplied to the LED. Data sheets for the LED specify
optical power coupled into plastic fiber when forward current was 10 mA as 200
µW. This means that the electrical power at 10 mA current is converted into 200
 µW of optical energy. Hence the efficiency of the LED comes out to the approx.
1.15%.
9. With this efficiency assumed, find out optical power coupled into plastic optical
fiber for each of the reading in step 7. Plot the graph of forward current v/s output
optical power of the LED.
10. Data sheets for the phototransistor detector specified responsivity as 0.8 mA for
10 µW of incident optical energy. In our experimental kit, when Pr9 is at its
minimum position, 100Ω of resistance is in series of emitter and ground of
phototransistor.
11. Connect the 30 cm optical fiber cable supplied with the kit between LED
SFH756V (Analog Detector).
12. From the transfer characteristics obtained in step 8, launched known optical
energy into plastic fiber and measure output voltage at ANALOG OUT terminal.
Find out the current flowing through phototransistor with this voltage value and
100Ω of resistance.
13. Repeat step 11 for various launched optical energy values and plot the graph for
the responsivity of phototransistor. Find out the portion where detector response is
linear.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER OPTIC LED

Vf (v) If (mA) Pi (mW) Po (μW) V (v) I (mA) R

Where,
Vf= Forward voltage of LED SFH756
If= Forward current of LED SFH756
Pi= V*I (Electrical power)
Po= Pi*1.15% (optical power of LED 756)
V= Output voltage of SFH350
I= V/R=(V/100-ohm) (Output current)
R= 0.8mA*PO/10μw (Responsivity)
Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:

1. Draw the I-V Characteristics of LED?

2. List out the types of LED?
3. The internal quantum efficiency of LEDs decreasing exponentially with increasing
temperature. Explain why?
4. Linearizing circuit techniques are used for LEDs. State whether the given statement is
true or false. Support your answer with justification?
5. Which is greater among optical bandwidth and electrical bandwidth and why?
6. The optical power at 20 MHz is 246.2 μW. Determine dc drive current applied to device
with carrier recombination lifetime for LED of 6ns.
7. Define Photodetector?
8. Explain working principle of photodiode
9. Why does the output voltage on my oscilloscope not increase when we increase the
incident power on the photodetector?
10. List types of noise sources in detectors?

***
 EXP. 11: DIGITAL LINK SET UP USING A FIBER

AIM: To setup the fiber optic digital link and measure the maximum supportable bit
rates and the bandwidth.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

i) OFT Trainer Kit

ii) CRO and CRO probes
iii) Function Generator
iv) 1mm diameter 1m fiber

THEORY:

The OFT can be used to set up two fiber optic digital links, one at a wavelength of 650nm and the
other at 850nm.LED1, in the optical Tx1 block, is an 850nmLED, and LED2, in the optical Tx2
block, is a 650nm LED.PD1, in the optical Rx1 block, is a PIN detector which gives a current
proportional to the Optical power falling on the detector. The received signal is amplified and
converted to a TTL signal using a comparator. The gain conversion plays a crucial role in this
conversion. PD2, in the optical Rx2 block, is another receiver which directly gives out a TTL
signal. Both the PIN detectors can receive 650nm as well as 850 nm signals, through their
sensitivity is lower at 650nm.

PROCEDURE:

SET UP FOR DIGITAL LINK

1. The interfaces used in the experiment are summarized in a table. Identify them on the
OFT with the help of the layout diagram. The block diagram of Fig.2 Set the jumpers and
switches as given in table to start the experiment.

2. Set the switch SW8 to the digital position.

3. Connect a 1m optical fiber between LED1 and PIN diode PD1.Remove the shorting
plugs of the coded data shorting links, S6 in the Manchester coder block and S26 in the
decoder and clock recovery block. Ensure that the shorting plug of jumper JP2 is across
the posts B and A1 [for PD1 receiver selection].
4. Feed a TTL signal of about 20 KHz from the function generator to post B of S6. Use
the BNC I/Os for feeding and observing signals as described in experiment 1.Observe the
received analog signal at the amplifier post P31 on channel1of the oscilloscope. Note that
the signal at P31 gets cutoff above 3.5v. Increase and decrease the gain and observe the
effect.

5. Observe the received signal at post A of S26 on channel 2 of channel1 .Note that the
signal at S26 is the inverted version of the signal at P31. Vary the gain potentiometer
setting. Note that even though the received signal at P31 changes with gain, the out put at
S26 does not .Reduce the gain till the signal at P31 is less than 0.5v.[if the signal does not
drop 0.5V even at the lowest gain setting, pull the fiber out slightly at the receiver to
reduce level below 0.5 V]. Note that the signal at S26 now becomes all high. This is
because the P31 signal is fed

to the comparator –cum-inverter to give the signal at S26 as shown in fig.The comparator
reference voltage is 0.55V, and unless the signal amplitude is greater than 0.55V, the
comparator output is high. Verify this.
6. Set the gain such that the signal at P31 is about 2V.observe the input signal from the
function generator on channel 1 and the received TTL signal at post A of S26 on
channel2.vary the frequency of the input signal and observe the output response. What is
the maximum bit rate that can be transmitted on this digital link?

7. Repeat steps 4, 5&6 with the 3m fiber.

8. Use the 1m fiber and insert it into LED2.Observe the light output at the other end of
the fiber [keep it away from the eye].The output is a bright red signal. This is because the
light output at around 650 nm is in the visible range. The other end of the fiber should
now be inserted into PD1.

9. Repeat steps 4, 5&6 with this new link.

10. Use the 3m fiber and set up the 650nm digital link between LED2&PD1. Repeat steps
4, 5 & 6.

(SETTING UP A DIGITAL LINK AT 650 nm)

SETTING UP A TTL TO TTL DIGITAL LINK AT 650nm

11. Change the shorting plug in jumper JP2 across the posts B&A2 [for selection of PD2
receiver].use the 1m fiber to connect LED2 and optical receiver PD2.

12. Feed a TTL signal of 20KHz at postB of S6 &observe the received TTL signal at post
A ofS26.display both the signals on the oscilloscope on channels 1&2
respectively[triggering with channel 1].Note that the GAIN control does not play any role
now in the operation of the link. The Receiver at PD2 is an integrated PIN diode and
comparator that directly gives out a TTL signal. Vary the frequency and find the
maximum bit rate that can be transmitted on this link.

13. Repeat steps 11&12 using the 3m fiber.

SETTING UP A 850NM TTL TO DIRECT DIGITAL LINK

14. Use the 1m fiber to connect LED1 and PD2 .Feed a TTL signal of 20 KHz of postB
of S6 and observe the received signal at post A of S6.Display both the signals on the
oscilloscope. An 850 nm TTL to direct digital link is obtained. Vary the frequency and
find the maximum bit rate that can be transmitted on this link.

15. Repeat step 14 with 3m fiber.

16. Change the short in plug in JP2 to connectA1 and B (for PD1 Receiver
selection).Using 1m fiber connect LED1 (850 nm) and PD1.Let the gain control be at the
minimum. Feed a 20 KHz TTL signal at post B of S6 .Measure the peak to peak voltage
at P31 and designate it as V1.

17. Now connect the fiber between LED2 (650nm) and PD1 with out changing any other
setting. Measure the peak to peak voltage atP31 and designate it as V2.
18. The factory setting at the light output at the end of 1m fiber for LED1 is 3db higher(2
times) than that for LED2.the PIN diode current ‘i’ can be written as i=pP, where P is the
optical intensity of the light falling on the detector and p is the responsitivity. The voltage
at P31 is directly proportional to the PIN diode current ‘i’. Using the results of step
16&17, compare the responsitivity of the diode at 650 nm and 850 nm using the
expression

[V1/V2]= (p1P1)/ (p2P2)

Where P1 is twice P2 (at factory setting) and p1 and p2 are responsitivities of them diode
at 850nm and 650nm respectively.

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:

1. What is Fiber Optic Data Link?

2. What Is Multiplexing? Name The Types Of Multiplexing?
3. Can you please tell me what the difference between, dB and dBm when you are trying
to test fiber optic cable?
4. Determine the internal quantum efficiency generated within a device when it has a
radiative recombination lifetime of 80 ns and total carrier recombination lifetime of 40
ns?
5. For a GaAs LED, the coupling efficiency is 0.05. Compute the optical loss in decibels.
6. Which is slower among diffusion and drifting?
7. What is the main factor contributing to the choice of the operational amplifier?
8. Which process gives the laser its special properties as an optical source?
9. How many types of sources of optical light are available?

***
 EXP. 12: IMPLEMENTATION OF SIGNAL DETECTION
SCHEME USING MATCHED FILTER

AIM: Implementation of Signal Detection Scheme using Matched Filter.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1. QT-Octave/Matlab

THEORY: The Matched Filter is the linear filter that maximizes

S so 2  t 
   2
 N out no  t 

Design a linear filter to minimize the effect of noise while maximizing the signal. s(t) is
the input signal and s0(t) is the output signal. The signal is assumed to be known and
absolutely time limited and zero otherwise. The PSD, Pn(f) of the additive input noise is
also assumed to be known. Design the filter such that instantaneous output signal power
is maximized at a sampling instant t0, compared with the average output noise power.

The goal is maximize (S/N)out .

The matched filter does not preserve the input signal shape. The objective is to maximize
the output signal-to-noise ratio. The matched filter is the linear filter that maximizes
(S/N) out and has a transfer function given by:
S   f  e jto
Hf K
Pn  f 

where S(f) = F[s(t)] of duration T sec, t0 is the sampling time, K is an arbitrary, real,
nonzero constant. The filter may not be realizable.
Practical Implementation:

Design a matched filter using Octave/Matlab.

Results/Inference: Summarize the outputs from the experiments.

Viva Questions:
1.What is correlator?
2.Draw the Block diagram of correlator?
3.Explain operation of correlator?
4.Difference between matched filter and correlator?
5.What is correlation?

***
EVALUATION:

Evaluation Evaluation Assessment Duration

Weightage/Marks CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
Type Component Dates (Hours)

Blooms Taxonomy Level 2 2 2 2 4

Weightage 12% 6% 6%
Test 1 Max Test 1 Dates 2 hrs
30M 15 15
Marks
In- Weightage 12% 6% 6%
Semester Test 2 Test 2 Dates 2 hrs
Max
Summative 30M 15 15
Marks
Evaluation
Total=30% Lab Weightage 6% 6%
Lab Internal
Internal 1 ½ hrs
Max Dates
Tests 50M 50
Marks
Weightage 6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5%
Tutorial Max
100M 25 25 25 25
Marks Continuous Evaluation
ALMs Weightage 4% 1% 1% 1% 1%
(LTC, in-
Max Continuous Evaluation
class Quiz, 100M 25 25 25 25
etc. ) Marks
Weightage 2% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%
Home
Max Continuous Evaluation
Assignment 60M 15 15 15 15
Formative Marks
Evaluation
Total=20% Lab Weightage 1%
1%
Continuous Continuous evaluation
Evaluation Max
100M 100
Marks
Weightage 2% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%
Project/Skill Continuous evaluation
Max
100M 25 25 25 25
Marks
Weightage 5%
Attendance Max Continuous evaluation
5M
Marks
Weightage 3% 3%
SE Lab Lab External
Max 1 ½ hrs
Expt. 50M Dates 50
End- Marks
Semester Weightage 7% 7%
SE Lab
Summative Max 1 ½ hrs
Proj. 50M 50
Evaluation Marks
Total=50% Weightage 40% 10% 10% 10% 10%
Semester End Sem
Max 3 hrs
End Exam 60M Exam Dates 15 15 15 15
Marks

Signature of COURSE COORDINATOR: HEAD OF DEPARTMENT: