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Training Manual

MARINE PIPING SYSTEMS

Mechanical Division
School of Engineering
NGEE ANN POLYTECHNIC
CONTENTS

1. Introduction
1.1 Considerations of Engine room Layout
1.2 Classification Societies, Statutory bodies and Codes for Piping
1.2.1 Classification societies
1.2.2 Statutory bodies
1.2.3 Codes 4
1.3 The Role of Classification Societies, Statutory Bodies and Codes on Design and 5
Manufacture of Piping System

2. Pipe and Symbols


2.1 Pipe
2.2 Symbols
2.3 Abbreviations

3. Pipe Materials 15

4. Fittings
4.1 Flanges
4.2 Elbows
4.3 Reducers
4.4 Tees
4.5 Unions
4.6 Expansions
4.7 Penetration Pieces
4.8 Other Fittings
4.9 Supports

5. Valves
5.1 Gate Valves
5.2 Globe Valve
5.3 Check Valve
5.4 Butterfly Valve
5.5 Ball Valve
5.6 Plug Valve
5.7 Diaphragm Valve
5.8 Pressure Relief Valve
5.9 Suction Valve
5.10 Foot Valve
5.1 1 Operators and Actuators of Valve
5.1 2 Strainers
5.12.1 Mud box
5.12.2 Basket strainer
5.12.3 Auto-clean strainer
5.12.4 Magnetic filter
5.13 Valve selection

6. Equipment
6.1 Punlps and Pumping Systems
6.1.1 Introduction to pumps
6.1.2 Reciprocating pump
6.1.3 Rotary pumps
6.1.4 Rotor dynamic pumps
6.1.5 Characteristics of centrifugal pump
6.1.6 Cavitation
6.1.7 Net Positive Suction Head
6.1.8 Priming
6.1.9 Axial-flow pumps
6.2 Heat Exchangers
6.2.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger
6.2.2 Plate type heat exchanger
6.3 Compressors
6.4 Boiler
6.5 Centrifugal Separators

7. Instrumentation
7.1 Pressure Measurement
7.2 Temperature Measurement
7.3 Sentinel Recorder

8. Calculation
8.1 Pipe Thickness Calculation
8.2 Pipe Size Calculation for Bilge Suction
8.3 Liquid Flow in Pipes
8.4 Pipe Head Loss Calculation
8.5 Expansion and Flexibility Calculation
8.6 Pipe Fabrication Calculation

9. Piping Drawing
9.1 Schematic Diagram (P&ID) of Pipe System
9.2 Arrangement Drawing
9.3 Pipe Piece Drawing
9.4 Material Lists
9.5 Drawings to Be Submitted for Classification
9.6 Guidelines on Pipe Layout
10. Various Piping Systems
10.1 On Board Systems
10.2 Marine Systems
1 0.3 Drilling Process Systems

1 1. Procedure

12. Fabrication

13. Welding

14. Non Destructive Tests

15. Cleaning

16. Installation

17. Testing

18. Painting

19. Material Handling

References
1. Introduction

Piping systems carry fluids from one point to another. The fluids may be corrosive,
erosive, flarnrnable-or benign. Pressure and temperaturesmay be high or low.
Because of the varying nature of the functions, the requirements from the ship
construction, the nature and arrangement of the machinery and regulations of
certifying authorities, piping systems may become complex and may require a
variety of fittings & materials.

An efficient piping system is essential to the safety and correct operation of ships
and offshore structures.

Compared to the total weight of all steelwork, the weight of piping system is
small. But fabrication & installation of piping system involves substantial amount
of job. Because of the complicated routes & interference with other installations,
improper fabrication and installation of piping system can lead to high cost of
production and delay in delivery. Hence the people involved in fabrication and
installation of piping systems need to have proper understanding of the various
aspects of piping systems. No doubt, for development of thorough understanding
of the practical aspects, nothing can beat experience. But a good knowledge based
start can take a long way towards achieving the objective of thorough
understanding of the various aspects of piping system.

This manual attempts to introduce various aspects of piping systems in an "easy to


understand" way.
1.1 Considerations of Engine Room layout
When we arrange pipes in enginer room or other places, the followings should be
considered.

1) Optimize the available space


- Could increase cargo carrying capacity
Result: Increase cargo payload

2) Grouping related components together


- Minimize pipes and cable runs
- Reduce operating power losses
- Reduce operator's movement
Result: Reduce construction and operating costs

3) Maintenance
- provide sufficient clearances for carrying out maintenance
- Provide clear transfer passages
- Provide access for lifting by handling trolley beams and overhead cranes
Result: Reduce maintenance downtime and cost
4) Safety
- Provide escape passages, e.g. stairways and exits, in case of emergencies
- Avoid incompatible arrangement
Result: provide a safer working space

5 ) Construction
- Assist in building - in modules or blocks
Result: Reduce construction duration

6) Living comfort
- Locate noise generating machinery away from living area
Result: Comfortable living area

1.2 Classification Societies, Statutory bodies and Codes for Piping


Design and construction of any system, which may cause damage to persons,
environment or property, are subjected to rules and regulations laid down by various
authorities. For piping system, these authorities are (i) Classification Societies and
(ii) Statutory Bodies. For the purpose ease of design, production, repair and
maintenance various codes are used.

1.2.1 Classification societies


To ensure the soundness of construction and sea worthiness, ships/offshore
structures are required to be certified by some competent authorities, no~mally
known as Classification Societies. Since piping systems are parts of ship/offshore
structure, their design, manufacture and installation are governed by the rules and
regulations laid down by various Classification Societies.

The resposibilities of Classification society are:

- The development of Rules, Guides, standards and other criteria for the design
and construction of marine vessels and structures, for materials, equipment and
machinery.
- The review of design and survey during and after construction to verify
compliance with such Rules, Guides, standards or other crireria
- The assignment and registration of class when such compliance has been
verified.

There are various Classification Societies in the world. Some of them are listed in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Various Classification Societies

Name Abbreviation Country of Origin


American Bureau of Shipping ABS U.S.A

Lloyd's Register of Shipping LRS U.K

Det Norske Veritas DNV Norway

Bureau Veritas BV France

Germanischer Lloyd GL Germany

Nippon Kaiji Kyokai NKK Japan

For classification, vessels are to comply with both the hull and the machinery
requirements of the Rules.

1.2.2 Statutory bodies


In order to ensure safety, the design and construction of ships/offshore structures are
required to comply with some rules and regulations. The bodies which lay down and
enforce these rules and regulations are called statutory bodies. These are some
international and national bodies representing various governments. Some of the
statutory bodies are listed in Table 1.2.

The rules made by statutory authorities are targeted towards ensuring safety of life
and environment, e.g., in the case of IMO the safety of life is covered under SOLAS
(Safety of Life at Sea) and safety of environment is covered under MARPOL
(Prevention of Marine Pollution).
Table 1.2 Various Statutory Bodies

Name Abbreviation Country of Origin


International Maritime Organisation IMO International

Norwegian Maritime Directorate NMD Norway

Norwegian Petroleum Directorate NPD Norway

Danish Maritime Authority DMA Denmark

Health and Safety Department HSE U.K

Department of Energy UK Den U.K

Department of Transport DOT U.K

Canada Oil and Gas Drilling Regulation COGLA Canada

Danish Energy Agency DEA Denmark

US Coast Guard USCG U.S.A

1.2.3 Codes
These are various standards, which specify standard material, size etc of pipes and
pipe fittings. Some of codes are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Various Piping Codes
1

Name Abbreviation Country of Origin


American Society for Testing and Material ASTM U.S.A

American National Standard Institute ANSI US.A

American Petroleum Institute API US.A

American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME U.S.A

Japanese Industrial Standard JIS Japan

National Fire Protection Association W A U.S.A


-- ---- - - - -

British Standard BS U.K

National Association of Corrosion Engineers NACE U.S.A

German Industrial Standards DIN Germany

International Standards Organisation IS0 International

1.3 The Role of Classification Societies, Statutory Bodies and Codes on


Design and Manufacture of Piping System

Design pipe pressure,


choice of material
type, method of and statutory bodies
manufacture,
surface coating

v
Codes

size
2. Pipe and Symbols

2.1 Pipe
Pipe
It is a cylindrical tube opens at both ends and is used for the conveyance of water,
oil, steam, or other liquids or gases. Pipes are constructed of many materials -
most commonly of carbon steel. They may also be of stainless steel, cast iron,
copper, plastic and other materials.

Based on the method of manufacturing, pipes can be specified as Seamless pipe


and seam pipe. Seam pipe can further be specified by the method of welding, e.g.
SAW - Submerged Arc Welding, ERW - Electric Resistance Welding.

Depending upon the use, surface of pipes may have to be coated with Zinc. If the
pipe is coated with zinc, it is called Galvanized. If the steel pipe is not having any
surface coating, then it is called black pipe.

Pipe size
Size of pipe is defined by diameter and thickness. While specifying the diameter
we can specify one of the followings:

Nominal Diamctcr (ND)


- Outside Diameter (OD)
Inside Diameter (ID)

Fig. 2.1 shows the thickness, pipe inside diameter and outside diameter.

THICKNESS

-- .
. .... .. ... .-

Fig. 2.1 Pipe inside diameter and outside diameter


Generally, for specifying diameter of a pipe, we use a standard diameter called
nominal diameter (also called Nominal Bore). Nominal diameter has a value close
to inside diameter. In most cases, ND is a multiple of 5 mm.

Pipe Group and Class


To distinguish between detail requirements on the various piping systems the
pipings on board, ABS divides pipes into two groups.

Group I in general includes all piping intended for- working pressures or


temperatures in various services as below:

Service Pressure bar (kgf/cm2,psi) Temperature C0 (P)


Vapor and Gas Over 10.3 (10.5, 150) Over 343 (650)
Water Over 15.5 (15.8,225) Over 177 (350)
Lubricating Oil Over 15.5 (15.8, 225) Over 204 (400)
Fuel Oil Over 10.3 (10.5, 150) Over 66 (150)
Hydraulic Fluid Over 15.5 (15.8, 225) Over 204 (400)

Group I1 includes all piping intended for working pressures and temperatures
below those stipulated under Group I, cargo-oil and tank-cleaning piping, and
addition such open-ended lines as drains, overflows, vents and bioler excape
pipes.

Lloyd's Register of Shipping divides pipes into three classes as below:


-

I Piping
-
Class I Class I1 Class I11
System for
Pbar t°C Pbar t°C P bar t°C
Steam > 16 Or > 300 <= 16 And <= 7 And
<= 300 <= 170
Fuel oil > 16 Or>150 <=I6 And <= 7 And <= 60
<= 150
Other > 40 Or> 300 <= 40 And <= 16
media <=200
<= 300
Note:
For Class II and I11 piping both specified conditions are to be met, for Class I piping
one condition only is sufficient.
Other media includes air, water, lubricating oil, hydraulic oil, cargo oil and open-
ended pipes (drains, overflows, vents, boiler escape pipes, etc).
Pipe Schedule
The thickness of a pipe is defined by schedule, e.g. SCH40, SCH80. Schedule
number can be calculated by using the formula:

1000 x PIS

where P is the internal pressure of the pipe (in pounds per square inch), and S is
the allowable fibre stress (in pounds per square inch). Thus if pressure is higher,
schedule is higher, then thickness of pipe is thicker.

Piping System
A piping system is a group of pipes, valves, pumps and other components, which
connect together to perform a certain task, such as sea water cooling system, fuel
oil system. Various systems are mentioned in Chapter 2.

Pressure Head
Pressure head sometimes' is simply called head, which is a representation of
pressure inside piping system. The unit is metre. The conversion between head
and pressure of unit ICg/cm2 is: P = ph/10000, where the unit of P is Kg1cm2; p is
the density of fluid, unit is Kg1m3; h is the pressure head, unit is m.

Flanges
Flanges make a bolted joint. A gasket is then inserted between two flanges. The
bolts are tightened to form a flanged joint.

Fittings
Fittings are many and varied. Some are elbows, tees, reducers, etc.

Instruments
Instruments tell the operator what is happening inside a storage tank, vessel or
pipe. A pressure gauge shows the pressure- in piping system. A gauge glass
connected to a tank shows what the tank's liquid level is. A level indicator shows
what the level is from a remote location. Temperature indicators tell the fluid
temperature in the pipe, tank or vessel. They can be remotely located.

Storage Tank
A storage tank or vessel is a large volume of space, where water, oil or gas is
stored. In a ship, storage tanks mostly locate in double-bottom space, side hull
space. Small tanks can be located in engine room, accommodation area.

Pump
Pumps increase the pressure of a liquid and cause circulation. Many different
pumps exist. The most common is the "centrifugal", which uses a high speed
impeller and centrifugal force to increase the pressure. A "reciprocating" pump's
parts reciprocate and increase the pressure much like a car's pistons, which go
back and forth. This type is often called a positive displacement pump.
Compressor
Compressors increase the pressure of a vapor or gas. They also come as
"reciprocating" and "cenpifugal". A typical compressor is an air compressor,
which produce compressed air for starting engine and other uses.

Heat exchanger
The "heat exchanger" gets its name from exchanging.heat from one stream to
another. Exchangers differ in size and shape. Most are the "shell and tube" type
installed horizontally. Another is the "plate-type" heat exchanger.

Valves
Valves stop or open and regulate flow. Different types of valves are introduced in
Chapter 4.

2.2 Symbols
In piping schematic diagrams, piping components are represented by symbols.
The following tables show all the symbols commonly used in piping schematic
diagrams.
PIPING MATERIAL LEGEND
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
PIPELINE
CONCENTRIC REDUCER
ECCENTRIC REDUCER
PlPE WlTH FLANGE
PlPE CAP
UNION JOINT
FULL COUPLING JOINT
ORIFICE
FI LTER
LUBRICATOR
BILGE WELL
ROSEBOX STRAINER
FIRE HOSE WlTH REEL OR RACK
WASHDOWN HOSE WITH REEL OR RACK
DUPLEX STRAINER
SIMPLEX STRAINER
Y-STRAINER
FLEXIBLE HOSE
FLEXIBLE HOSE WlTH QUICK DISCONNECT COUPI-ING
EXPANSION JOINT
SIGHT GLASS
L N E L GAUGE
STEAM TRAP WlTH Y-STRAINER
SPECTACLE FLANGE
FOG APPLICATOR
QLllCK DISCONNECT COUPLING
FLOWM ErER
VlCTAULlC COUPLING
S'TRAUB COUPLING
DRESSER COLlPLlNG
PIPING MATERIAL LEGEND
1
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
r>.a GATE VALVE
D.3 GLOBE VALVE
M GLOBE STOP CHECK VALVE
Kj SWlNG CHECK VALVE OR DUO CHECK VALVE
I'd BUTTERFLY VALVE
Ed BALL VALVE
ANGLE VALVE
ANGLE STOP CHECK VALVE
b( 10
PET COCK
L% NEEDLE VALVE
SELF CLOSING VALVE
!%I QUICK CLOSING VALVE
HYDRANT VALVE WlTH CAP AND CHAIN

& FOOT VALVE

& 3-WAYVALVE

& RELIEF VALVE OR SAFETY VALVE


FLUSHING VALVE
VENT CHECK
!Y?l PLUG VALVE

El DIAPHRAGM VALVE
MI KNIFE VALVE

#C$3
SCUPPER VALVE
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE (REGuLAToR)
SOLENOID OPERATED VALVE
& VALVE WlTH ACTUATOR
TEMPEATURE CONTROL VALVE (REGULATE-BYPASS)

Pa VALVE WITH REACH-ROD (EXTENDED SPINDLE)


STEAM TEMTERATURE CONTROL VALVE
INSTRUMENT LEGEND
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
I 3 PRESSURE SWITCH
@ PRESSURE GAUGE
@ COMPOUND GAUGE
@ PRESSURE REMOTE READOUT
@ PRESSURE CONTROL
0 TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
0 TEMPERATURE REMOTE READOUT
0 TEMPERATURE CONTROL
@ WORKING THERMOSTAT
@ SAFETY THERMOSTAT
@ TEMPERATURE ALARM
@ SALINITY ALARM
@ LEVEL ALARM

@ LEVEL ALARM HIGH

@ LEVEL ALARM LOW


0 LEVEL INDICATOR
2.3 Abbreviations
In piping diagrams, drawings and documentation, a lot of abbreviations are used
as the common language for piping people. The abbreviations are grouped as two,
group 1 should be memorized and group 2 should be generally known.

Group 1
ANSI American National Standards INS Insulate
Institute INV. Invert (insidebottom of
ASME American Society of pipe)
Mechanical Engineers IPS Iron Pipe Size
ASTM American Society of IS0 International
Testing Materials Organization for
OF Degrees Fahrenheit Standardization
OC Degrees Centigrade JIS Japanese Industrial
LBS Pounds Standard
Q, Diameter LR Long Radius
BB Bolted Bonnet MI Malleable Iron
BC Bolt Circle OD Outside Diameter
BE Beveled Ends (for 0s & Y Outside Screw and Yoke
welding) PE Plain End (not beveled)
BF Blind Flange PR Pair
BL Base Line PSIA Pounds Per Square Inch
BM Bill of Material Absolute
BOP Bottom of Pipe PSIG Pounds Per Square Inch
BW Butt weld Gage
Ch. Op. Chain Operated RED Reducer
CI Cast Iron RF Raised Face
CO Clean Out RTJ Ring Type Joint
CONC. Concentric (sometimes just designed
CPLG. Coupling RJ)
CS Carbon .Steel, Cast Steel SCH Schedule
or Cold Spring SCRD Screwed
DF Drain Funnel SMLS Seamless
DIA. Diameter SO Slip-On
DIN Deutsche Normen SPEC Specification
(Germany Standard) SR Short Radius
ECC Eccentric SS Stainless Steel
ELEV. Elevation STD Standard
FF Flat Faced or Full Faced STL Stee1
FLG. Flange STM Steam
FOB Flat ori ~ o t t o m SW Socket weld
FW Field Weld SWG Swage
HC Hydrocarbon TE Threaded End
IBBM Iron Body Bronze TEMP Temperature
Mounted TOC Top of Concrete
ID Inside Diameter TOS Top of Steel
TYP Typical WT Weight
VERT Vertic a1 XS Extra Strong
WE Weld End XXS Double Extra Strong
WN Weld Neck

Group 2

AISI American Iron and Steel Miter Weld


Institute Nickel
API American Petroleum Normally Closed
Institute Normally Open
AWS American Welding Piping and
Society Instrumentation
AWWA American Water Works REINF. Reinforce
Association S.O. Steam Out
MSS Manufacturers SQ Square
Standardization Society SWP Standard Working
Channel (a structural 4" [ Pressure
shape) S.C. Sample Connection
ASSY. Assembly T.C. Test Connection
AVG Average T&C Tough and Coupled
B&B Bell and Bell T&G Tough and Groove
BLDG Building WB Welded Bo
B&S Bell and Spigot
CAS Cast Alloy Steel
co2 Carbon Dioxide
COND Condensate
CORR. Corrosion
DWG Drawing
EFW Electric Fusion Welded
ERW Electric Resistance
Welded
FIG Figure or Figure Number
FS Forged Steel
FSS Forged Stainless Steel
FT Feet or Foot
GALV Galvanized
GR Grade
H2 Hydrogen
HDR Header
LC Lock Closed
LO Lock Open
LW Lap weld
M&F Male and Female
MFG Manufacture
MIN Minimum
Material
The type of material used in a piping system depends upon the type, pressure and
temperature of the fluid flowing through the piping system. The specification of the
material is governed by the rules and regulations.

Normally, seamless mild steel pipes are used for steam, high pressure air, feed
discharges and fuel oil systems. Carbon steel is used for salt water and fresh water
system. Seamless copper may be used for lubrications, and fresh water systems.

Some of the commonly used materials for pipes are listed in table 3.1 below:

Table 3.1 Materials used for Pipes and Fittings


Pipe Material Duty
Seamless mild steel saturated steam
boiler feed water
lubricating oil > 175mm diameter oil fuel pressure
(discharge) superheated steam below 461°C high
pressure compressed air bilge and ballast
(ga lva nised)

Seamless steel l0/0Cr 0.5%Mo Superheated steam above 460°C


-

Electric-Resistance Welding (ERW) mild steel Auxiliary feed


Lubricating oil < 175mm diameter Oil fuel suction
Low pressure air discharge

I Electric fusion welded mild steel Large fresh water


Sea water (lined or galvanised) Bilge and ballast
(galvanised) Diesel exhaust gas

Low pressure saturated steam ~ 2 2 0 ° C


Auxiliary feed water
Lubricating oil
Small high pressure compressed air
Low pressure compressed air

Aluminium brass Circulating fresh water


Circulating sea water
Fire-fighting main
Bilge and ballast
Condensate
Heating coils
Domestic fresh and sea water

Copper-nickel-iron alloy Circulating fresh water


Circulating sea water
Bilge and ballast

Test pressure may be taken a s 2 x working pressure (WP) generally

2.5 x WP for boiler feed


2 to 3 x WP for alloy steel for temperatures above 460°C.
Table 3.1 Materials used for Pipes and Fittings (continued)
Fittinqs Material Duty
Cast iron Low pressure steam
Low pressure lubricating oil.
Low pressure fuel oil transfer
circulating sea water (lined)
Fresh water
Bilge and ballast
Domestic water

Spheriodal (S.G.) cast iron Steam <46i°C


Boiler feed water
Diesel exhaust

Cast steel Steam < 4 6 i 0


Boiler feed water
Oil fuel pressure (discharge)
High pressure compressed air

Cast steel 0.S0/0 Mo Superheated steam >460°C

Gunmetal Saturated steam


Auxiliary feed water
Fire-fighting main
High pressure compressed air
Small fittings

Electric fusion welded mild steel Large fittings for fresh water
Large fittings for sea water (lined)
Large fittings for lubricating oil

Test pressure may be taken as 2 x working pressure (WP) generally


2.5 x WP for boiler feed
2 t o 3 x WP for alloy steel for temperatures above 460°C.
Table 3.1 Materials used for Pipes and Fittings (continued)

Material Use Example

Carbon Steel Low pressure Sea water,


API - 5L GR B System Fresh water
Copper -DO- Potable water, Water
ASTM B88
Acrylonitrile Butadiene
Styrene(ABS) Plastic, -DO- -DO-
ASTM - Dl512
Fibre ~einforcedPlastic -DO- -DO-
ASTM - C581
Copper Nickel 90110 Corrosion
ASTM - B466 -DO- resistance
(Sea water)

Low alloy steel High pressure system Mud


API-5LX GR C
Low alloy steel High pressure Cement
API - A519 GR 4130 System
Stainless steel Lowlhigh Tank gauge,
ASTM - A3 12 TP304,316 pressure system Hydraulic
4. Fittings

In the wide sense, in piping systems the term "fittings" covers everything which
-
is not a pipe. In Chapter 5 , valves and strainers will be introduced. We will mainly
introduce connection fittings in this Chapter.

There are three types of connections of fittings:

- Butt-weld connection
Butt-weld connection is generally used for 2" or 3" and larger pipe. Fig. 4.1
shows the butt-weld connection.

BUTT-WELD CONNECTION

Fig 4.1 Butt-weld connection

- Socket-weld connection
Socket-weld connection is generally used for 1-112" or 2" and smaller pipe. Fig.
4.2 shows the socket-weld connection.

SOCKET-WEL D CONNECTION

Fig. 4.2 Socket-weld connection

- Screwed connection
Screwed connection is generally used for 1-112" or 2" and smaller pipe. Fig. 4.3
shows the screwed connection.
SCREWED CONNECTION

Fig. 4.3 Screwed connection

The commonly used fittings are introduced below

4.1 Flanges

flanges are bolted joints, which are generally used in the engine room, steering gear
room and other machinery spaces and on exposed deck for convenience of removal
of the pipes. Flanges must be paired, that is, one flange is welded in one pipe and
another flange is on another pipe, in between of the two flanges, a gasket is used.
Bolts and nuts are used to tighten these two flanges.

Flanges are normally made from carbon steel, stainless steel, bronze or brass.
Usually, the nominal pressure of flanges are 5 , 10, 16,20, 30kglcm2.

There are different types of flange commonly used.

- Slip-on flanges
Slip-on flanges are widely used because of low initial cost. Depending on the
working pressure, they can be divided into late type, flat face type and raised
face type. Fig. 6.4 shows these three types of slip-on flange.

SLIP-ON PLATE FLANGE

Fig. 4.4 Three types of slip-on flange (continued ...)


SLIP-ON F L A T FACE FLANGE

S L I P - O N RAISED FACE FLANGE

Fig. 4.4 Three types of slip-on flange

- Welding neck flanges


Welding neck flanges are distinguished from other types of flange by their long
tapered hub and gentle transition of thickness in the region of the butt weld
joining them to pipe. The long tapered hub provides an important reinforcement
of the flange proper from the standpoint of strength and resistance to dishing. The
smooth transition from flange thickness to pipe wall thickness effected by the
taper is extremely beneficial under conditions of repeated bending caused by line
expansion or other vibration force. This type of flange is preferred for every
severe service condition. Fig. 4.5 shows a welding neck flange.

Fig. 4.5 Welding neck flange


- Other types of flange
Fig. 4.6 shows a lap-joint flange, which is employed with lap joint stub ends. The
chief use of lap joint flanges in alloy or low-alloy steel piping systems is in
services requiring frequent dismantling for inspection or cleaning. Fig. 4.7 shows
two types of flange used for connecting copper pipes.

Fig. 4.6 Lap joint flange

FLANGE FOR COPPER PlPE


(SILVER BRANZE N P E )

FLANGE FOR COPPER PlPE


(COMPOSITE BRANZE N P E )

Fig. 4.7 Flanges for copper pipe

4.2 Elbows

The 90' elbow is the most common fitting. It is used for turning right angled
comers. The 45' elbow is also used. Depending to radii of elbows, elbows can be
divided into long elbow and short elbow.

Radius of long elbow = 1.5 x nominal diameter of pipe


Radius of short elbow = 1.O x nominal diameter of pipe
The connection between elbow and pipe can be butt-weld, socket-weld and
screwed elbow.

Fig. 4.8 shows different types of elbow

90" S O C K E T - W E L D I N G ELBOW 45' SOCKET-WELDING ELBOW

90' S C R E W E D E L B O W 45" S C R E W E D ELBOW

Fig. 4.8 Different types of elbow

4.3 Reducers

A reducer is a fitting used'to make a reduction in pipe size. The two types
are:

- Concentric - One with a common centerline. It is commonly used.


- Eccentric - One with offset centers and one flat side.
CONCENTRIC REDUCER E C C E N T R I C REDIJCER

Fig. 4.9 Concentric reducer and eccentric reducer

4.4 Tees
A tee is a 3-way fitting shaped like the letter "'T''. It is used to take a perpendicular
line branch from a straight run of pipe. The installation of this fitting requires three
welds or screws.

According to the inlet and outlet size, there are two types of tees commonly used:
Straight and Reducing Tees. The straight tees have all three opening the same
size. The reducing tee has a branch connection smaller than the run. Fig. 4.10
shows butt-weld tees and screwed tees.

STRAIGHT T E E REDUCING T E E

Butt-weld Tee

STRAIGHT TEE REDUCING T E E

Screwed Tee

Fig. 4.10 Butt-weld tees and screwed tees

4.5 Unions
The union is basically used as a dismantling fitting, and in many cases it is
necessary for assembly. The field may install union at their own discrete to
expedite and facilitate the construction of socket-weld and screwed piping.
Fig. 4.1 1 shows a socket-weld union and a screwed union.
SOCKET-WELD LlNlON SCREWED UNION

Fig. 4.1 1 Two types of union

4.6 Expansions
Expansion pieces should be fitted in those pipe systems whose pipe lengths may be
changed due to the change of temperature change, such as steam system, engine
exhaust system. There are three types of expansions.

- Tie-rod expansion (Fig. 4.12a)


It is commonly used for low-pressure steam on deck.

- Fabricated loop (Fig. 4.12b)


These loops may be welded using 90' elbows at four comers or may consist of
bent pipes. There are "U" type and "52" type loops: It is used for high pressure
steam pipe.

- Bellow (Fig. 4 . 1 2 ~ )
There are stainless steel bellow and rubber bellow. They are commonly used since
they will absorb movement and vibration in several planes, and take up minor
misalignment.

a. Tie-rod expansion

b. Fabricated loop
Fig. 4.12 Different types of expansion joint (continued ...)

TRAP -W

c. bellow

Fig. 4.12 Different types of expansion joint


4.7 Penetration Pieces
If a pipeline passes through watertight bulkhead or deck, penetration piece
should be used. Fig. 4.13 shows different types of penetration piece.

PENETRATING PIECE !
--
SLEEVE a PENETRA~INGPIECE

Fig. 4.13 Penetration piece (continued ...)


(NON WATERTIGHT)

USING PIPE SLEEVE

Fig. 6.13 Penetration piece (continued ...)


Doubkr diameter

USING DOUBLER PLATE

1
1

USING FULL COUPLING


Fig. 4.13 Penetration piece
4.8 Other Fittings
Couplings are used for connecting straight lengths of pipelines. Half
couplings are used for branch connection on 2" and larger lines. Fig. 6.14
shows different types of couplings..

. ...

REDUCER-COI JPLING

Fig. 4.14 Couplings

Nipples: Fig. 4.15 shows different types of nipples.

Pipe,
f Pipe

\screwed Nipple \-screwed Long Nipple

Pipe

\ B u t t - w e l d a n d Screwed Nipple

Fig. 4.15 Nipples


Caps are used to close the end of pipe. Fig. 6.16 shows different types of

SOCKET-WELDING CAP SCREWED CAP

cap.
Fig. 4.16 Caps

Fig. 4.17 shows various types of fittings, including screwed fittings, butt-
welded fittings and fitting for copper pipe.

SERVKE TEE CROSS 45*%BEND


YO'ELW w'ELBOrv G-ELEOW
93'5TREm TEE
- PLAIN- ELBOW

RETURN REWW
COURlNG CXP BUSHING !%SHIN' PLUG CLOSE SHORT 'LONG
- ~ fY E X ins~wHrx. NIPPLE NIPPLE

Saewed Fittings.

WELBOW 4SgEL80W TEE CAP

RETURN BEND REDUCING WELGG


NlPPLE NIPPLE

Butt-Welded Fittings A d a p t e r d o p p e r Tube to Threaded Pipe

Fig. 4.17 Various types of fittings


4.9 Supports

There are a great variety of pipe hangers and supports available to ensure
that the piping system can actually serve its function without being
dislocated. It is particular important having suitable supports where,stresses
induced by high pressure, high temperatwe and low temperature, vibrations
caused by various motions of the ship. There are a lot of designs of supports.
Fig. 4.1.8 shows some commonly used types of supports.

Fig. 4.18 Pipe support (continued ..)


A - A

I
!
PIPE CLAMP

PLATING 'ANGLE BAR

Fig. 4.18 Pipe support

32
5. Valves
A valve is a mechanical device whose function is to control the flow of fluids in
piping systems. The fluids controlled can be common liquids, gases and vapors;
but they also can be liquids carrying suspended particles. The control applied to
these fluids can take one or more of the following forms:

- Starting and stopping flow


- Regulating flow volume (frequently called throttling)
- Preventing reverse flow
- Changing flow direction
- Limiting fluid pressure

A valve performs its control function by placing an obstruction (called flow


control element) in the fluid path through the valve. The nature of the flow
control element determines the valve type, which are listed below:

- Gate valve
- Globe valve
- Check valve
- Butterfly valve
- Ball valve
- Plug valve
- Diaphragm valve

Besides of these valves, according to the function that a valve takes, there are
some other valves:

- Pressure relief valves


- Suction valve
- Foot valve

The connection between a valve and a pipe can be flange, screw, union,
socket weld or other means.

5.1 Gate Valves

Gate valves are mostly used as stop valves, that is to fully shut off or provide full
open. The flow control element of a gate valve (called gate, wedge, or slide)
enters the fluid path from the side and traverses it until the fluid path is
completely closed off, stopping the flow. When the valve is open, the gate is
entirely out of the fluid path. Thus flow is in a straight line, with very little
resistance from the valve. Because the gate valve is symmetrical, either end can
be the inlet, and thus flow can be from either direction through the valve. Fig. 5.1
shows a typical gate valve.
Fig. 5.1 Gate valve

5.2 Globe Valve


Globe valves are used primarily in situation where throttling of the flow is
required. By simply rotating the handwheel, the rate at which the fluid flows
through the valve can be adjusted to any desired level. This kind of valves can
also be used as stop valves (for starting and stopping flow). The body of a globe
valve is configured so that the flow control element (called a disc) is moved along
the axis of the fluid path. The disc is always in the fluid path. The valve opening
is annular. Fig. 5.2 shows a typical globe valve. If the inlet line and outlet line is
at right angle (90°), such kind of valve is called right-angle valve.

Fig. 5.2 Globe valve


5.3 Check Valve
Check valves "check" flow. They let flow go one way and will not let it reverse.
They come in two basic styles: swing check valve and lift check valve. In the
first, the flow control element, called a disc,flapper, or plate, rotates about an
axis perpendicular to the fluid path. In the second style, the flow control element,
which can be a disc, piston, or ball, moves along the axis of the fluid path. In both
styles the force of the fluid causes the flow control element to unseat
automatically, opening and maintaining the fluid path through the valve. If the
flow stops, the weight of the flow control element, an auxiliary spring, or both,
causes the flow control element to return to its seated, closed position. In the case
of prevented reverse flow, the back-pressure of the fluid assists in seating the flow
control element and makes for a tighter seal. Fig. 5.3 shows a swing check valve
and a lift check valve.

(a) Swing check valve (b) Lift check valve

Fig. 5.3 Check valve

Replacing the cap of a lift piston check valve with a bonnet and adding a stem,
but not connecting it to the disc, produces a hybrid known as a stop-check valve
(also called a screw down non-return valve - SDNR valve). Fig. 5.4 shows screw
down non-return valve, which modified by a globe valve.
S D N ~
1. .:'?Body
2 Bonnet
3. Ctand Jlangc
1. Gland.
5.4 Dpc --stop type
5 8 Dirc - piston SDNR
6. Disc stcnt nut
7.4 Stem - 1 t o p f f p 5
78 Stem - piston SDNR
- --
8. -Bonnet gasket
9. Gland pacpng
10. 'Bdn'net stu&
11. Bonnet stud nuts
12, Yoke bush
i3. ,Ha%Buihi$l
14. Ha.ndwheel nui,

Fig. 5.4 Screw down non-return valve

5.4 Butterfly Valve

The butterfly valve has a unique body style unlike the other valves. The
butterfly valve uses a circular plate or wafer operated by a wrench to control
flow. A 90' turn of the wrench moves the wafer from a fully open position to
a fully closed position.

Butterfly is tight in size. They valves have minimal turbulence and pressure
drop. They are good for on-off and throttling service and perform well when
controlling large flow amounts of liquids and gases. However, these valves
do not normally create a tight seal and must be used in low-pressure situation
or where some leakage is permissible. Fig. 5.5 shows a butterfly valve.
Gland I-- sha"

Fig. 5.5 Butterfly valve

5.5 Ball Valve

Ball valves are suitable for most manual on-off service (starting and stopping flow).
They are not suitable for throttling because in the partially open position, sealing
surfaces of the ball are exposed to abrasion by process fluids.

The flow control element of a ball valve is a ball with a round hole through it. The
ball rotates about an axis that is perpendicular to the hole and to the fluid path. The
ball is always in the fluid path. However, when the valve is open the hole aligns with
the fluid path, and the fluid passes straight through it. Fig. 5.6 shows a ball valve.
Fig. 5.6 Ball valve

5.6 Plug Valve

Plug valves are suitable for the same applications as ball valves, that is, on-off
service. The flow control element of a plug valve, the plug, is a cylinder or a
truncated cone with a hole through it. The plug rotates about an axis that is
perpendicular to the hole and to the fluid path. The plug is always in the fluid path.
However, when the valve is open the hole aligns with the fluid path, and the fluid
passes straight through it. Because this valve is symmetrical, either end can be the
inlet, and thus flow can be from either direction through the valve. Fig. 5.7 shows a
plug valve.

Fig. 5.7 Plug valve


5.7 Diaphragm Valve

Diaphragm valves are used primarily for low pressure water (200 psi or less) services.
They are especially suitable for systems containing appreciable sand or other solids.
The flow control element of a diaphragm valve is a flexible membrane, called a
diaphragm, that is deformed to close the fluid path. The diaphragm lines the side of
the fluid path and is pushed across it until the diaphragm seats against the other side of
the fluid path, stopping the flow. Fig. 5.8 shows a diaphragm valve.

Fig. 5.8 Diaphragm valve

5.8 Pressure Relief Valves

These valves are mounted on equipment that contains fluid pressure (e.g. boilers,
pressure vessels, and air receivers). They automatically open to relieve overpressure
by the discharge of fluid, thereby preventing violent equipment failure, subsequent
damage to adjacent equipment, and possible injury and loss of life. Pressure relief
valves close and prevent the further discharge of fluid when pressures in the
equipment have been restored to normal.

There are two varieties of pressure relief valves: safety valve and relief valve. They
are similar in design and operation but have different applications. The safety valve is
used with compressible fluids, that is, gasses and vapors. The relief valve is used with
incompressible fluids, that is, liquids.

A typical safety valve is shown in Fig. 5.9. Under normal conditions, the fluid force
on the bottom of the disc is balanced by the force of the spring. The force acting on
the bottom of disc will be increased if the fluid pressure increases. If the fluid force
acting on the bottom of disc is equal to the spring force, the disc begins to lift. The
compressible fluid then rapidly expands into what is commonly called a huddling
chamber and acts on a substantially larger disc area. The resulting increased force
greatly overbalances the spring force and fully opens the valve. With the valve open,
the fluid discharges through the outlet into the atmosphere or discharge piping until
the fluid pressure in the equipment is reduced to a level below the pressure at which
the valve began toopen. The spring force is then adequate to overcome the fluid force
on the disc and close the valve.

Fig. 5.9 Safety valve Fig. 5.10 Relief valve

A typical relief valve is shown in Fig. 5.10. Its operation is similar to that of the safety
valve. Construction of the relief valve is simpler than the safety valve. It does not have
a huddling chamber or adjusting rings, and separate nozzles and levers are uncommon.
As in the safety valve, when the disc lifts off the seat, a larger disc area is exposed to
the fluid, giving increased opening force; however, there is no such mechanism in relief
valve, so that rapid fluid expansion and subsequent full opening do not occur. The
amount of opening of the relief valve is directly proportional to the increase in pressure
over the opening pressure.
5.9 Suction Valve

Suction valve, as its name implies, is used to suck in fluid from tank, such as tanks in
ballast system. Usually the suction opening is facing down to connect with tank. The
open or close of the disc is controlled by a handle. Fig. 5.11 shows a typical suction
valve.

EXTENSION ROD

DISC PLUNGER

Fig. 5.1 1 Suction valve

5.10 Foot Valve

Foot valves are usually fitted at the end of suction pipes. When the suction operation
starts, the valve is opened. Some foot valves have strainers at the suction inlet to
prevent the solid impurities going into pipes. Fig. 5.12 shows some types of foot
valve.
Fig. 5.12 Foot valve

5.11 Operators and Actuators of Valve

Valves are usually supplied with and operated by a handwheel attached to the valve
stem or yoke nut, or in the case of quarter-turn valves, a lever handle attached to the
valve shaft. There are circumstances in which these devices are not adequate. These
include the following:

1. When the forces required to open or close the valve are great.
2. When the time it takes to open or close the valve is longer than required.
3. When the valve must be operated from a remote location, including
automatically controlled valves.

The following operators and actuators are used in operating valves:

1. Gear operators - When it is necessary to reduce the force to manually operate a


valve, it can be equipped with a spur, bevel, or worm gear operator.
2. Pneumatic actuator - It is driven by compressed air.
3. Hydraulic actuator - It is driven by pressurized liquids, usually oil.
4. Electric actuator - It is a gear operator driven by an electric motor.
Fig. 5.13 shows a diaphragm actuator controlled by compressed air. If pneumatic
pressure is lost, the spiing will automatically close the valve.

Fig. 5.13 A diaphragm actuator

5.12 Strainers
Strainers, sometimes called filters, are devices designed to prevent the
passage of unwanted solid into or further along piping system.

5.12.1 Mud box

The simplest strainer consists of a box with a removable lid in which a flat
perforated plate is inserted such that the fluid must pass through the perforations.
Such mod box (Fig. 5.14) is installed close to sea water suction valves or before
bilge valves.

Fig. 5.14 Mud box


5.12.2 Basket strainer
In many installations, basket strainers are used. They consist of a cylindrical
container in which a perforated metal or wire basket is suspended. They are
frequently used in duplex units with three-way cocks at the inlet and outlet so that
one basket can be cleaned while the other is in use. Fig. 5.15 shows two single
strainers.

Fig. 5.15 Single basket strainer


5.12.3 Auto-clean strainer

Fig. 5.16 shows a self-cleaning strainer. This consists of a series of discs ganged
to a shaft. Interspaced between the discs are a number of thin fingers. The solids
are trapped on the edges of and between the discs. By rotating the disc shaft, the
particles are cleared by the fingers and fall to a sump.

Fig. 5.16 Auto-clean strainer


5.12.4 Magnetic filter
The purpose of the magnetic strainer is to remove any ferrous debris that is found in
the lubricating oil while under circulation. During operation, it is expected that
some parts of the running surfaces will wear and cuttings will be produced. Should
any of the engine rusts, the ferrous oxide is washed down by the lubricating oil.
Such debris and rust must be removed from the system to prevent them from being
carried to the running surfaces and cause damage to bearings.
Fig. 5.16 shows a magnetic filter.

SERVKIWO I N U I U T O R '

VENT R U G '

811155 bSI2MLU.Y
l ~ u a R ~ G l i n t OIL
uc
FILTERS o w n

OIVISION PLATE

DIFFERENTIAL W E W R E
UY(NECTIONS

Fig. 5 17 Magnetic filter

5.13 Valve Selection

There are 6 factors that should be considered.


1. Properties of the fluid
Does the fluid contain solids or corrosive substances? Those fluids can corrode and erode
the flow passage within the valve.
2. Valve size
The size must be adequate to provide the flow capacity that is needed and at the same
time within acceptable limits of friction losses.
3. Valve service
This is generally determined by its application and use. For example, gate valve is for
simple shut off operation, globe valve for modulation of flow, check valve for controlling
reversal flow.
4. Fluid friction losses
Pressure drop can be controlled and reduced by selecting valve bodies with streamlined
configuration. Incorrect selection of valve type will increase the friction loses.
5. Pressure and temperature
This is determined by the condition of the fluid being handled. It will affect the class of
valve.
6. Valve material
The choice is determined by the type of service to which the valve is applied on.
6. Equipment
6.1 Pumps and Pumping Systems
6.1.1 Introduction to pump
A pump is a device, which adds energy to a liquid or gas causing an increase in its pressure
and perhaps a movement of the fluid.

The purposes of adding pressure to the fluid by the pump are:


a) to produce velocity
b) to overcome friction and fitting losses (shock losses)
c) to overcome external pressure.

A pumping system is consisted of a pump; the suction branch, which draws the fluid from a
source and the discharge branch, which conveys the fluid to the desired user or destination.

Fittings, such as valves and strainers are installed along the suction and discharge lines to
carry out the various functions of control, regulation, cleaning, etc. in order for the system to
perform efficiently.

The machinery space of a ship contains many pumping systems that are arranged to carry and
control many different fluids at various temperatures and pressures safely and efficiently for
their various duties. These include maintaining essential services for efficient operations of
main engines and auxiliary units. These systems are also influenced by safety requirements
recommended by classification societies and legislation imposed by national marine
departments and other international maritime bodies.

Types of Pumps
Marine pumps may be divided into the following two categories:-

1. Displacement pumps
2. Dynamic pressure pumps

Displacement Pumps
In displacement pumps, the liquid or gas is displaced from the suction side to the discharge
side of the pump by the mechanical variation of the volume of a chamber or chambers. They
can be further subdivided into two classes as shown in Fig. 6.1.
Fig 6.1 Type, duties and capacities of displacement pumps

6.1.2 Reciprocating pump


In reciprocating pumps, the pumping is obtained by a plunger or piston reciprocating in a
liquid cylinder. This class of pumps is most suitable and efficient for handling small volumes
and high differential pressure. It is also suitable to handle any required viscosity.

1
I Reciprocating pumps are characterised by the following features:

I. Output is almost directly proportional to speed


2. Output is marginally reduced by increased pressure.
Usually, there is more slip with less viscous fluids.
3. The pump will develop a discharge pressure EQUAL TO the resistance to be
overcome, irrespective of the speed.
4. They are self-priming, and can handle liquid from a level below the pump.

Air Chamber
A reciprocating pump does not discharge a steady flow, but in a series of pulsations. This
causes vibration and hammering at high speeds with shock to the pump and fittings.
Reciprocating pumps are therefore usually fitted with air vessel (see Fig 6.2) on the discharge
side of the pump in order to reduce these effects. At the peak of the discharge, the air is
compressed and some water enters the air vessel. When the piston reaches the end of the
stroke, the air expands and discharges the water collected in the air chamber. This process of
air compression and expansion helps to maintain a steady rate of flow.

Figs 6.3,6.4and 6.5 show examples and applications of reciprocating pumps used in cargo
oil stripping, boiler feeding and bilge pumping.
Fig 6.2 Diagramatic reciprocating displacement pump
Fig 6.3 Duplex direct-acting cargo oil pump
Fig 6.4 Simplex direct-acting pump used in boiler feed water system
Fig 6.5 Two-throw reciprocating pump used in bilge pumping
6.1.3 Rotary pump
In rotaw pumps, the liquid is forced through the pump cylinder or casing by means of screws
or gears. This class of pumps is suitable for the intermediate ranges of volumes, differential
pressures and viscosities.

Like the reciprocating pump, the rotary pump is also self-priming. They give a steady flow
but are less efficient because of the large areas and running clearances exposed to differential
pressures between the suction and the discharge. Wear increases the clearances and result in
loss of efficiency, especially when handling low viscosity fluids.

There is a wide range of rotary pump design, and can be sub-divided as follows: ..
1. Screw pumps
2. Gear pumps
3. Rotary vane pumps
4. Lobe pumps
Screw pumps
Screw pumps are rotary positive displacement pumps.
Flow of liquid is axial
Liquid is carried between the screw threads of one or more rotors and displaced as the
screws rotate.
Screw pumps in themselves do not create pressure; they simply transfer a quantity of fluid
from the inlet to the outlet.
Pressure is built up on the outlet as a result of resistance to flow in the discharge line.

Fig 6.6 shows a double-screw pump, typically used in main engine lubricating oil system.

Double-screw pumps - working principle


This type of pump can be mounted both horizontally or vertically. Pumping is effected by two
intermeshing screws rotating within a pump casing. One screw is connected directly to the
driver shaft and the other screw connected to the driven shaft. The torque applied to driven
shaft is derived through the set of timing gears and metal contact on the screwshafts is
avoided. Each screwshaft has a right and left hand screw which ensures axial hydraulic
balance. This arrangement will not impose any load on the supporting bearings.

Once the casing has been filled with liquid, the pump is self-priming and ready for operation.
Displacement takes place when the screws are rotated and liquid is drawn into the screws at
the outer ends; and pumped inwards to discharge into the pump outlet branch, located about
mid-length of the rotors. This displacement of liquid is done continuously without pulsation.

Shaft sealing is effected by either of mechanical seals or by packed stuffing boxes. In both
cases, sealing is at the suction end, so that seals are subjected only to low pressure or vacuum.

Since screw pumps are displacement pump and will produce increasing pressure until rupture
or drive fail occurs. It is necessary to safeguard the pump, the prime mover and the associated
pipework in the event of a discharge line valve accidental closure. Thus the pump is equipped
with full-flow relief valve capable of bypassing the entire throughput of the pump (see Fig 6.7
and 6.8). In many installations, the relief valve is often fitted with automatic volume control
valve. The output of the pump can thus be maintained a constant pressure at a specific point
in the system. An example of such arrangement is found in diesel engine lubricating oil
supply to ensure constant pressure at the engine outlet irrespective of oil viscosity.
Fig 8: A I@~F-~::~vJ F=m@
di.$@b~@nr~$tt

Fig 6.7 A two-screw displacement pump used in lubricating oil system


Gear pumps
This type of pumps (often called external gear pumps) are suitable for handling all clean
liquids and are particularly effective where the fluid has lubricating properties. They are often
used as attached lubricating oil pumps in auxiliary engines and as transfer pumps in
lubricating and fuel oil systems.

The basic form is shown in Fig 6.9. Two intermeshing gears of the same diameter and form
are mounted on separate spindles and are housed in a close fitting casing. Inlet and outlet
ports are formed directly in the side casing, in line with the line of meshing. One gear shaft is
driven whilst the other idles. Both shafts are carried in low-friction bearings (usually rolling
bearings).

During rotation, as each pair of teeth inter-mesh on the inlet side, the volume on that side is
reduced by the volume of two tooth spaces, providing a suction effect. Oil flowing into the
suction space is then trapped on each side of the tooth crest approaching the bore of the
housing and carried round to the delivery side by 'pockets' between the adjacent pairs of teeth.
On the delivery side, the oil is displaced from the delivery port under pressure.

For maximum volumetric efficiency, there should be no leakage between the teeth, and no
leakage across the end faces of the gears. However, this can increase friction and lower
mechanical efficiency. Thus in achieving maximum overall efficiency, a compromise of has
to be reached in a way that higher gains in volumetric efficiency will not have undue adverse
affect on the mechanical efficiency. I

These pumps should not be run dry or else they will overheat and seize up.

Fig 6.10 shows a vertical gear pump used for feeding lubricating oil from the storage sump
tank to the L 0 cooler and filters before getting to the bearings in the main engine. The by-
pass valve arrangement is also shown.
Fig B& Ra!@t-$~p&rItrbriw@'tglyl pump (varttcdj

Fig 6.9 Diagram showing gear arrangement


Fig 6.10 Rotary gear lubricating oil pump (vertical)
Rotary Vane pumps
Sliding vane pumps are light, simple in construction, compact and low-cost. They are
particularly suitable for low and medium pressure duties and can hand.le both gases and
liquids. Their basic form and working principle is shown in Fig 6.11.

The pump itself consists of a circular rotor with radial slots mounted eccentrically in a
substantially circular casing. Each rotor slot carries a rigid vane, free to slide in a radial
direction. Rotation throws the vanes outwards so that the tips always rub against the inner
surface of the casing, providing a seal. The actual shape of the casing and the eccentric
location produce pockets between adjacent vanes, which alternatively expand and contract in
volume.

An inlet port connects with the casing on the expanding volume side (or suction area); and an
outlet port connects on the contracting valve side (or pressure area). Fluid is thus drawn in
through the inlet ports and squeezed out under pressure through the outlet port.

The simple single-cell pump is unbalanced hydraulically and tends to suffer from low
volumetric efficiency because of the difficulty of controlling internal leakage. The geometry
can provide variable characteristics by the simple adjustment of the relative position of the
rotor and the outer ring, thus modifying the capacity of the 'pockets' swept during revolution.
The casing can also readily be fitted with a replacement liner to take wear.

Vane pumps are often used as attached circulating water pumps of auxiliary engines. Vane
pumps can be also used for air handling as rotary compressors or exhausters.

Fig 6.11: Working principle of sliding vane pumps


60
Stothert and Pitt Lobe pump
The Stothert and Pitt rotary pumps have two types known as the Three-Four and Seven-Eight
as shown in Fig 6.12. They are often called internal gear pumps.

The pumping elements consist of an eccentric inner rotor integrated to the outer rotor. The
rotor assembly is fitted to a shaft located by bearings in the pump covers. The complete rotor
rotates in a renewable special, synthetic rubber liner fitted to the pump body. Rotation of the
inner rotor creates a pocket of increasing capacity between the rotor on the rising side and a
corresponding falling decrease on the falling side. Displacement is thus effected and the
pumping action draws the fluid into the pump through the inlet ports while the pocket is
increasing in size and forces it out in the opposite side of the pump when the pocket is .
decreasing.

The pumping action of a internal gear pump is more gentle than that produced by an external
gear pump since the generation of high localised pressures is avoided and shear forces
generated are substantially lower. It is thus suitable for handling higher viscosity and shear-
sensitive fluids, although it is equally suitable for handling low viscosity and even volatile
liquids with suitable shaft seals.

The normal range of these pumps covers pressure rising to 21 kg/cm2 and capacities up to 400
tonneslhr. The Three-Four are particularly suitable for handling high-viscosity fluids such as
heavy fuel oil and can run comparatively slow speeds. The Seven-Eight types are designed to
operate at higher speeds of around 720 revlmin and are efficient in handling lower viscosity
fluids.

Fig 6.12: Lobe dispacement pump

61
Fig. 6.13 Lobe pump
6.1.5 Rotordynamic Pumps
Introduction
Rotordynamic pumps can be broadly classified into three main types,
there are :
a) Centrifugal pumps
b) Mixed flow pumps
c) Axial flow pumps (also known as propeller pumps)

Centrifugal pumps are the most common rotordynamic pumps used in marine pumping .
systems.

In general, the distinction between positive displacement and rotordynamic pumps lies in
their mode of operation. The positive displacement pumps takes clearly defined volumes of
fluid from the inlet side of the pump, and transfer them to the delivery side. There are seals to
prevent the fluid returning to the inlet side when the pump is stopped. On the other hand,
rotordynamic pumps rely on the hydrodynamic action of suitably shaped impellers, which are
mounted onto the motor-driven shaft and the fluid flow is induced to flow from the inlet to
the delivery side. A rotordynamic pump has no ability to sustain pressure when at rest; the
inductive action relies entirely on the impeller motion.

Although rotordynamic pumps are not able to generate high pressures as compared with the
positive displacement pumps, the various advantages of rotordynamic pumps over positive
displacement pumps are:
ability to handle large volume flow rates at regular delivery,
ability to handle low to medium heads,
ability to handle liquids from medium to low viscosities,
ability to handle contaminated.liquids,
quiet in operations,
low care and maintenance requirements,
comparatively lower cost.
Centrifugal Pumps
The difference between centrifugal, mixed flow or axial flow pumps lies in the general
direction of fluid takes in flowing through the impeller. In the case of the centrifugal pump,
fluid enters in the axial direction and the impeller's rotation induces the fluid to flow outwards
to the periphery (centrifugal action), where it is directed to the delivery pipe. The impeller
may be single or double sided, and a pump may have more than one impeller in series at
attain higher pressures.

A cross-sectional diagram, showing the side and end elevation of a centrifugal pump with a
single-sided impeller is given in Fig 6.14.

The design of centrifugal pumps can vary widely in details, but most have the characteristic
volute shape of casing, necessary for efficient collection of the outflow from the impeller,
converting the kinetic energy into pressure energy. Impellers vary from the crude to the
efficient, with from two to eight vanes, with single or double curvature, unshrouded or
shrouded, all to accommodate the wide-ranging utility of this all-purpose machine. The
impeller vanes are usually curved backwards, to minimise outflow velocity head and
maximise exit pressure. For higher pressures in general, a larger diameter impeller and a set
of fixed internal guide vanes known as the dimser is used.

~v%:
wyw D i f h tuw
~

Fig 6.14 Features of centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal Pump Description


In the centrifugal pump as shown, liquid enters the centre or eye of the impeller and flow
radially out between the vanes. The velocity of the liquid is increased by the rotation of the
impeller. A diffuser or volute is then used to convert most of the kinetic energy in the liquid
into pressure. This is already shown in Fig 6.14.

A vertical single stage centrifugal pump for general marine duties is shown in
64
Fig 6.15.The mainframe and casing together with the motor support bracket, house the
pumping element assembly. The pump element is made up of a top cover, apump shaft, an
impeller, a bearing bush and sealing arrangement around the shaft. The sealing arrangement
may be packed gland or a mechanical seal and bearing lubrication system will vary according
to the types of seal. Replaceable wear rings are fitted to the impeller and the casing. The
motor support bracket has large apertures to provide access to the pumping element and a
coupling spacer is fitted between the motor and pump shaft enable the removal of the
pumping element without disturbing the motor.

Fig 6.15 Single-entry centrifugal pump

Other configurations
The configurations of centrifugal pumps depend on the system requirements and the
particular duties required. A vertical single stage double-entry centrifugal pump is shown in
Fig 6.16. The incoming liquid enters the double impeller from the top and bottom and passes
into the volute casing for discharge. A double-entry has a lower NPSH required characteristic
65
which will have advantages in poor suction conditions.

Most pumps are designed such that different impeller sizes can be fitted into basic pumping
element. This enables various discharge head characteristics to be provided for the same basic
pump frame.

A vertical multi-stage single-entry centrifugal pump used for deep-well cargo pumping is
shown in Fig 6.17. This can be considered as a series of centrifugal pumps arranged to supply
one another in series and thus progressively increase the discharge pressure. The pump drive
is located outside the tank and can be electric or hydraulic. Another example of multi-stage
pump is the boiler feed pump.

Fig 6.16 Double-entry centrifugal pump Fig 6.17 Multi-stage centrifugal pump
Fig 6.18 Centrifugal pump curve

6.1.5 Characteristics of centrifugal pump


The performance of a centrifugal pump is essentially dependent on the action of the impeller
vanes. Impeller vanes and the volute casing come in a variety of shapes and affect the
characteristics of the pump. Centrifugal pumps are generally operated at constant speed and
regardless of load, so the characteristic curves of the head versus volume delivery rate for a
given design speed can be drawn as shown in Fig 6.18.

The theoretical H versus Q characteristic for a centrifugal pump is a straight line of negative
slope. The real operating characteristics, however lies below this line to the extent of losses
within the pump. These losses are :
a) shock and eddy losses due to the flow into and out of the impeller
b) losses due to fluid friction and turbulence.

The losses should be minimum at the design operating point. Thus, the typical operating
characteristic is seen to be a generally decreasing head with increasing delivery flow rate. The
head decreases rapidly as maximum discharge is approached, and the maximum head is
generally at, or very close to, the point of zero delivery. There is no necessity for a relief valve
in centrifugal pumps.

Head is actually developed by the pump, being the theoretical head minus losses.

i.e. Hpurnp = beoretical - losses


Efficiency is the ratio of fluid power output to power input, with fluid power output being
evaluated as the product as p g Q H .

Fluid power
i.e. Efficiency =
Input power

It should be noticed that the efficiency curve is convex, which means that maximum
efficiency occurs at a point somewhat between maximum and minimum discharge head and
throughput conditions.

6.1.6 Cavitation
Cavitation refers to the phenomenon otherwise known as boiling. Water is known to boil at
100°C at standard atmospheric pressure. But if water is held in a vessel at a lower pressure, it
will boil at a lower temperature. On the other hand, if the water is at a higher pressure, it will
boil at a higher temperature. The terms saturation temperature and pressure are given to
these specifically related quantities at boiling but, in this context, the saturation pressure (at a
given temperature) is termed as the vapourpressure.

The effect is that when water pressure falls to low value (such as 2.3 W a absolute pressure at
20°C), it will boil at the given temperatures. Therefore, if water being pumped at 20°C,
anywhere that the pressure falls to 2.3 kPa(abs), the water will boil, or cavitation will occur.

Cavitation is harmful to liquid flow system for two main reasons:

1. When liquid becomes a vapour there is massive increase in specific volume,


for which the system is not designed for. The local areas at which, cavitation
occurs will experience a choking of the flow or even a breakdown of the flow
The effect is a serious loss of pump performance.

2. The formation and collapse of vapour bubbles within a liquid flow cause
intense local pressure disturbances in the manners of impacts. These causes
fatigue and erosion of solid surfaces in the vicinity. A centrifugal pump is
most susceptible to cavitation at the entry to the impeller, where consequential
fatigue or erosion damage may occur.
Datum
I
Fig. 6.1 9 A pumping system
I
I

i
6.1.7 Net Positive Suction Head
i Consider the pumping arrangement in Fig 6.19.

From Bernoulli's Equation (Total Energy Equation);


i

But the pressure gauges at 1 and 2 being zero, and the velocities being zero, this equation can
be reduced to:
!
1
zi + hp -
- z2 + hL
-
- + h~
hp z2 - ~2
I

1 This may also be written as :


Now applying the equation between points 1 and 3,

Since the vapour pressure that influences cavitation is usually expressed as an absolute
pressure, absolute pressure need to be used in this energy equation. Now introducing the
suction reservoir conditions and making minor changes:

pl becomes Pa -
- the atmospheric absolute pressure
23 becomes h~ -
- the suction head (and zl will be zero)
vg becomes VS
-
- the velocity in the suction pipe
hLs is the head. loss in suction pipe
vl will be zero at the reservoir surface.

then equation may be written as :

This is the value of the pump inlet absolute pressure head.

To avoid cavitation, this head must exceed the absolute vapour pressure head (p3/pg) by a
reasonable margin, of at least the increase of velocity head between point 3 and the entry to
the pump impeller. This margin is called the net positive suctio~zhead available (NPSHA).

The net positive suction head required (NPSHR) is a design characteristic of each individual
pump, being the lowest value of NPSH of the pump which will operate the pump without
cavitation. This contrasts with the NPSHA, which is the actual NPSH of the system in
operation.

Thus the net positive head (available) is :


($3 - P")
NPSH =
Pg
or, by substituting for p3 form the equation,
2
1 (Pa - P") v,
I NPSH = - - - h, - hLs
1 Pg 2g
I
It is clear that, as a general rule, NPSH(availab1e) should be as large as possible, with a value
Ii of zero predicating certain cavitation within the pump. Pump manufacturers will often supply
data on the required NPSH for their pumps when run at specified conditions; the
manufacturers obtain these data by running test in their own laboratories.

Example
Fresh water is being pumped at 8.85 litreslsec by a centrifugal pump from a double-bottom
tank. The centreline of the pump is located at 4.52 m on the upper engine room platform
above the surface of the water. The friction loss in the suction pipe (diameter 75-mm) is 1.8
m. Ambient atmospheric pressure is 98.8 kPa (abs).
Estimate the net positive suction head if the water temperature is :
(a) 25°C
(b) 45°C

Solution
I
For NPSH calculation,
2
(pa - PV) Vs
NPSH =
-- hs - IS
Pg 2g

For velocity v, in the suction pipe,

From Water Property Table, at a temperature of 25OC, p, = 3.2 kPa (abs),

then from
2
(pa - PV) Vs
NPSH = - - - hs
Pg 2g
(98.8 - 3.2)103
-
997 x 9.81
-
- 9.77 - 0.20 - 4.52
-
- 3.2 rn (Ans)

From Water Property Table, at a temperature of 45OC, p, = 9.6 kPa (abs),


then from
2
(pa - P") vs
NPSH = - -- hs - ~ I S

Pg 2g
(98.8 - 9.6)103
-
- - 0.20 - 4.52 - 1.8 rn
990 x 9.81
-
- 9.18 - 0.20 - 4.52 - 1.8 m
-
- 2.7 m (Ans)

The two answers to this problem give a further evidence of the danger of cavitation as the
liquid temperature increases.
Some Steps To Avoid Cavitation
1. Have the smallest possible suction lift.
2. Have the largest reasonable suction lift pipe diameter.
3. Have the shortest possible suction pipe.
4. Have the smoothest possible suction pipe.
5. Keep the liquid temperature as low as possible.
6. Have "low-loss" fittings in the suction when possible.
(Using foot valve or other non-return valve)
7. Avoid unnecessary fittings in the suction pipe.
8. Never throttle the flow in the suction line,
use the delivery line for throttling.

6.1.8 Priming
Since centrifugal pumps are not self-priming, they require some means of removing air from
the suction pipeline and filling it with liquid.

Where the liquid to be pumped is at level higher than the pump, opening an air cock near the
pump suction will enable the air to be forced out as the pipeline fills up under the action of
gravity. If the pump is below sea water level, and sea water priming is permissible in the
system, then opening a sea water injection valve and the air cock on the pump will effect
priming.

Alternatively, an air priming unit can be provided tc individual pumps. Similarly, a central
priming system may be connected to several pumping systems.

An example of mechanical air priming unit is the water-ring primer shown in Fig 6.20.

It has a rotor and may be connected to the centrifugal pump drive shaft or to a separate
electric motor. The hub is fixed as one piece with the air inlet ports and air discharge ports on
the cover. The rotor vanes revolve and force a ring of liquid to take up the elliptical shape of
the casing. The water ring, being elliptical, advances and recedes from the central hub,
causing a pumping action to occur. The suction piping system is connected to the air inlet
ports and suction line is thus primed by the removal of air. The air is removed from the
system is discharged to the atmosphere. A reservoir of water provided to replenish the water
ring as necessary.
Fig 6.20 Water ring primer

6.1.9 Axial-flow pumps


Axial-flow and semi-axial-flow pumps are frequently used for large volumes and low heads.
They are simple and occupy little space.

It is an equivalent to a low lift centrifugal pump.

An axial-flow pump uses a screw propeller to accelerate the liquid. The outlet passages and
guide vanes are arranged to convert the velocity increase of the liquid into a pressure.

A reversible axial-flow pump is shown on Fig 6.21. The pump casing is split either
horizontally or vertically to provide access to the propeller. A stuff-box prevents leakage
where the shaft leaves the casing. A thrust bearing of tilting pad type is fitted on the drive
shaft. It can be driven by an electric motor or a steam turbine.

The axial-flow pump is used where large quantity of water at a low head is required. It is
often used in condenser circulating or as a supplementary pump in condenser scoop
circulating (since the pump offers little resistance to flow when idling). With scoop
circulation, the normal movement of the ship will draw in water; the pump would be in use
only when the ship is moving slowly or stopped.
Fig 6.21 Axial flow pump

6.2 Heat Exchangers


Heat exchangers on board ship are mainly coolers where a hot liquid is cooled by sea
water. There are some instances where liquid heating is required, such as heavy fuel
oil heaters and sea water heaters for tank cleaning.

The heat exchange process is accomplished by having the two liquids pass on either
side of a conducting surface. It is usual for marine heat exchangers to have the two
liquids flowing in opposite directions. Mainly, two types of heat exchangers are used
in marine applications.

6.2.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger


A tube bundle or stick is fitted into a shell (Fig. 6.22). The end plates are sealed at
either end of the shell and provision is made at one end for expansion. The tubes are
sealed into the tube plate at either end and provide a passageway for the cooling
liquid. Headers or water boxes surround the tube plates and enclose the shell.
Fig. 6.22 Shell and tube heat exchanger

6.2.2 Plate type heat exchanger


The plate-type heat exchanger is made up of a number of pressed plates surrounded by
seals and held together in a frame pig. 6.23). The inlet and outlet branches for each
liquid are attached to one end plate. The arrangement of seals between the plates
provides passageways between adjacent plates for the cooling liquid and the hot
liquid. The plates have various designs of corrugations to aid heat transfer and provide
support for the large, flat surface. A double seal arrangement is provided at each
branch point with a drain hole to detect leakage and prevent intermixing or
Frame plate Carrier bar Pressure plate Support post
I I I I

Fig. 6.23 Plate-type heat exchange

6.3 Compressors
Compressors increase the pressure of gas or vapor. They also come as "reciprocating"
and "centrifugal". Air compressors are commonly used in marine application. Fig.
6.24 shows a two-stage air compressor.
Fig. 6.24 Two-stage air compressor

6.4 Boiler
The boiler is used to heat feedwater to produce steam. All boilers have a furnace or
combustion chamber where fuel is burnt to release its energy. There are two types of
boilers. The watertube boiler is employed for high-pressure, high-temperature, high-
capacity steam applications. Firetube boilers are used for auxiliary purposes to provide
smaller quantities of low-pressure steam on diesel engine powered ships. Fig. 6.25
shows a simplified boiler arrangement.
wate; wall \
header Floor tube

Fig. 6.25 Simplified boiler arrangement

6.5 Centrifugal Separators


Both fuel oils and lubricating oils require treatment before passing the engine. There
are types of centrifugal separators:

- Purifier
It is used to separate water from oil. Inside of the purifier, there are a lot of bowls
fitted on a track, which will rotate with a high speed. The purifying bowl arrangement
is shown in Fig. 6.26.

- Clarifier
It is used to separate impurities and small amount of water from oil. These two
separators are arranged as a continuous process. The clarifying bowl arrangement is
shown in Fig. 6.27.

The working principle of both purifier and clarifier is the same, that is, to use
centrifugal force to clean oil. The main difference of function between a purifier and a
clarifier is that a purifier separates water and solid particles from oil, while a clarifier
separates only solid particles from oil.

In the centrifugal purifier, it is essential to have the water seal which is carefully
introduced into the bowl to level slightly from the edge of the conical discs. The
purpose of the seal is to prevent oil from being ejected into the sludgelwater outlet. At
. i

the same time, it serves as a catching area for water or other heavier solids as they
separate from the oil.
I

I
Fig. 6.26 Purifying bowl arrangement Fig. 6.27 Clarifying bowl arrangement
: 1
7. Instrumentation
All machinery must operate within certain design parameters. Instrumentation
enables the parameters - pressure, temperature, and so on - to be measured or
displayed against a scale.

7.1 Pressure Measurement


The measurement of pressure may be take place from one of the two possible
datums, depending upon the type of instrument used. Absolute pressure is a total
measurement using zero pressure as datum. Gauge pressure is a measurement
above the atmospheric pressure, which is used as a datum. .

Pressure, vacuum and compound gauge


Fig. 7.1 shows a sketch of a pressure gauge, which is the most commonly used
pressure measuring instrument. The pressure within the C-shape tube causes it to
change in cross section and attempt to straighten out with a resultant movement of
the free end, which registers as a needle movement on the scale. The units of
pressure are lb/in2(~si),kPa, Mpa, kg/crn2, bar (1 bar=105 Pa).

Scale .

1 System
pressure

Fig. 7.1 Pressure gauge

81
7.2 Temperature Measurement
Temperature measurement by instruments will give a value in degrees Celsius
("(3.

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
Various liquids are used in this type of instrument, depending upon the
temperature range, e.g. mercury -35OC to +350°C, alcohol -80°C to +70°C. Fig.
7.2 shows such a thermometer.

Scale
[a, 310

Fig. 7.2 Liquid-in-glass thermometer

Bimetallic strip thermometer


A bimetallic strip is made up of two different metals firmly bonded together.
When a temperature change occurs different amounts of expansion occur in the
two metals, causing a bending or twisting of the strip. A helical coil of bimetallic
material with one end fixed is used in one form of thermometer (fig. 7.3). The
coiling or uncoiling of the helix with temperature change will cause movement of
a pointer fitted to the free end of the bimetallic strip.
Fig. 7.3 Bimetallic strip thermometer

7.3 Sentinel Recorder


Sentinel recorder is an extensive range of circular chart recorders/controllers that
include microprocessor multi input recorder/controllers, electrical input
recorder/controllers and a wide range of mechanical recorders for temperature,
pressure, humidity or flow with, if required, options for electrical or pneumatic
control. An UK company The British Rotothenn Co. Ltd. Is producing sentinel
recorder.

This group of recorders allow up to 3 pen recording with either 225mm (9") or
255mm (10") charts and a range of options that include recording only or either
pneumatic or electrical control.

Recorders that use 225mm circular charts are housed in a strong attractively
finished glass filled polyester resin (GPR) case, whilst recorders that use 255mm
circular charts are housed in steel epoxy painted cases. Fig. 7-4 shows the sentinel
recorder.
Fig. 7-4 A sentinel recorder

The Sentinel range of microprocessor-based circular chart recorders is available in


1, 2 or 3 channel versions. Each channel is equipped with a universal signal input
which is compatible with all industry standard sensors and signals including
thermocouple types J, K, T, E, N, R, S and B, PTlOO platinum resistance
temperature detectors and 4120mA current loops.

Low and high measurement ranges are provided for each input type, separate
range cards are not required. Multipen versions include opto-electronic isolation
of the input stages to eliminate troublesome installation ground loops.

Precise measurements are assured by the use of multi-slope integrating analogue-


to-digital converters with 16-bit resolution which sample the input every 0.5
seconds.

Thermocouple and RTD characteristics are fully linearized by means of software.


In addition, thermocouple measurements benefit from automatic cold-junction
compensation which uses software correction in conjunction with a stable
platinum resistance detector for cold-junction temperature sensing.

Alarm relay facilities are comprehensive. Single pen recorders are equipped with
three failsafe single-pole changeover relays, six relays are standard on the two and
three pen versions. Color-coded light-emitting diodes show the status of each
relay at a glance. All relay functions are under software control: set point values
and hysteresis levels are entered directly via the keypad, relay action and channel
assignment are selected from user-friendly menus. Relays may be freely assigned
to any recording channel.

Circuit precision is matched by the unique backlash-free pen drive mechanism


which provides positioning resolution better than 0.1%. An integral feedback
potentiometer enables closed-loop monitoring of each pen position. Low-
maintenance stepper motors are used throughout.

All Sentinel recorders are housed in a strong molded case that can be panel or
surface mounted. A gasketed lockable door protects internal components from
harsh industrial environments and offers protection generally to IP55. A tough
acrylic window allows the chart trace, digital channel readings and alarm status to
be viewed with the recorder's door closed.

Ease-of-operation is an important feature of all Sentinel recorders. The operator's


panel includes a five position tactile keypad and a two-line backlit liquid crystal
display with large easy-to-read characters. ,Using this Straightforward interface
the Sentinel is quickly configured to suit each application.

Clear prompts and menus presented on the large character display guide the
operator through the setup procedure with confidence.

The input type, chart range, display units, chart speed and relay configurations are
selected from logically- ordered option menus. At each stage of the setup
procedure the display recalls the value or setting currently stored memory and
data entries are checked automatically:-.The keypad allows direct entry of
numerical values such as relay setpoints and measurement ranges. The time for a
chart revolution may be set between 1 hour and 31 days in steps of 1 hour or 1
day.

Equally comprehensive user-friendly software is built-in for trouble-free


calibration. To ease chart changing a motorized pen lifter parks the pens at the
edge of the paper. Sentinel's high speed chart advance / reverse facility allows the
chart to be set quickly to the correct time mark.

Three levels of security, including password and hardware protection are


available to stop unauthorized access and alteration of the recorder's
configuration. All configured data (type of input, chart range, chart speed, display
units, setpoints, etc.) are stored in nonvolatile memory for security in the event of
power failure.

Sentinel's closed-loop feedback mechanism and circuits with excellent long-term


stability maintain performance and keep recalibration to a minimum, cutting the
costs of maintenance.
8. Calculations
In pipe design stage, there are some calculations, including pipe thickness, pipe size
for bilge system, pipe head losses and fabrication. These calculations normally are
performed in engineering department.

8.1 Pipe Thickness Calculation


This calculation is to determine the minimum thickness required for given working
pressure. According to Lloyd's Rules and Regulations, the minimum thickness t of
straight steel pipes is to be detepined by the following formula:

where t - the minimum thickness of a straight pipe in mrn, including corrosion


allowance and negative tolerance, where applicable
p - design pressure, in ~ / m m ~
0 -- maximum permissible design stress, in ~ / m m ~
c - corrosion allowance, in mm
a - percentage negative manufacturing tolerance on thickness

Example:
In a thermal fluid heating system, heating oil of operating pressure of 7 kg/cm2 is
circulated at 300°C to heat up viscous cargo. For design purpose, the pressure is
taken as 10 kg/cm2 .The carbon steel pipe material considered to be used has a
nominal bore of 65 mm and tensile strength of 360 ~ / m m An ~ . external erosion
allowance of 3 mm is assumed throughout the life of the pipe, calculate the
minimum thickness of the pipe and recommend the API schedule to be used.

Solution:
Converting p, p = 10 kg/cm2 = 9.8 1 x 10 N / 100 mm2 = 0.981 N / mm2
Using:
PD 100
t = ( ----------- + c ) ( ----------)mm
2 0 +p 100-a
d=65mm a =O
'for steel at 300 CO, 0 = 76 ~ / r n m ~
external corrosion allowance 3 mm and for oil internal corrosion allowance 0.3 mm,
so c = 3 + 0.3 = 3.3 m
0.981 x 65 100
+ 3.3 ) ( ----------)mrn = 3.717 rnm
t = (--------------------
2 x 76 +0.981 100 - 0

According to the Table of ASTM Standard Steel Pipe, the pipe of this application
should be Schedule 40 pipe with thickness 5.2 mm.

For offshore engineering pipe with Imperial System, The thickness can be calculated
by the following formula from ANSI 3 1.3:

PD
t = ---------------
2 (SE + PY)

where:
t - pressure design thickness (in inch) = minimum wall thickness minus
corrosion/mechanical strength allowance or thread allowance
P - internal design pressure, in psi (Pound Per Inch Square)
D - Pipe outside diameter, in inch
E - longitudinal weld joint factor (see ANSI B31.3), 1.0 for seamless, 0.85 for ERW
(electric resistance welded).
Y - temperature factor (0.4 for ferrous materials at 900°F or below when t < Dl6.
S - allowable stress in accordance with ANSI B3 1.3, in psi

Example:
Piping system : RIG FLOOR HYD.
Working pressure : 3000 psi (Maximum)
Pipe material : Carbon steel SMLS Sch 160, A106 Grade B
Tensile Strength : 60000 psi
Yield Strength :35000 psi
Pipe size : 2.5" Nominal (2.875" OD x 2.125" ID)
Wall Thickness : 0.375"
Wall thickness tolerance : 12.5%
Net wall thickness available :0.328"
Corrosion allowance ( c ) : 0.05

Solution:

PD 3000 x 2.875
t= - ........................... - 0.203"
2 (SE + PY) 2(20000x 1.0 + 3000~0.4)

Required thickness, t, = t + c = 0.203 + 0.05 = 0.253"

Net wall thickness available over minimum required design thickness


= 0.328 - 0.253 = 0.075
8.2 Pipe Size Calculation for Bilge Suction
According to the regulation of classification, the internal diameter of the main bilge
line is not to be less than stipulated by the following formula, to the nearest 5 mm:

d = 1.68 d L(B+D) + 25 (mm)

where: L - length of ship in metres


B -breadth of ship in metres
D - depth of ship to bulkhead deck in metres

The internal diameter of branch bilge suctions to cargo holds, machinery and boiler
spaces is not to be less than stipulated by the following formula, to the nearest 5 rnm:

d=2.15 d l(B+D) +25 (mm)

where: 1 - length of compartment in metres


B - breadth of ship in metres
D - depth of ship to bulkhead deck in metres

Example:
A general cargo liner uses a reciprocating displacement pump as the main bilge
pump. Using the classification rules on bilge pumping, calculate:
i1 the nominal bore diameter (mm) of the main bilge pipe,
ii) the nominal bore diameter (mm) of the branch pipe to a cargo
compartment if the distance between the bulkhead is 20.0 m.
The following are information of the vessel:
a) length of vessel is 122.80 m
b) Breadth of vessel is 17.50 m
c) Depth of ship to bulkhead deck is 8.00 m.

Solution:
Main bilge pipe:
d = 1.68 d L(B+D) + 25 = 1.68 d 122.8 (17.5 + 8.) + 25
= 119.01 mm
Take d = 125 mm (5")

Branch pipe:
d = 2.15 d 1 (B+D) + 25 = 2.15 d 20.0 (17.5 + 8.0) + 25
= 73.55 mm
Take d = 80 mm (3")
8.3 Liquid Flow in Pipes

Velocity and Quantity of Flow in a Pipe


When a liquid is flowing in a pipe, the motion is normally turbulent and individual
particles do not follow any regular path. The axial velocity is approximately uniform
across the section except very near to the pipe wall and it is usual to assume a uniform
velocity across the whole section.

The quantity of a liquid, flowing through a section of a pipe is known as the rate of
discharge or simply discharge. Generally, it is denoted by the symbol, Q.

Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe,

Let a -
- cross sectional area of the pipe
v - average velocity of the liquid

Therefore Q = area x average velocity


-
- a.v

Note :

1. If the area is in (square cm) and the velocity is in (cdsec),


then the discharge,
Q = (cm2) x ( c d s e c ) = (cm3/sec)

2. If the area is in (square metres) and the velocity in (dsec),


then the discharge,
-
Q = (m2 x m/sec) - (m3/sec)

3. Remember that 1 m3 = 1,000 litres


1 litre = 1,000 cm3

Equation of Continuity of a Liquid Flow


If an incompressible liquid is continually flowing through a pipe (whose cross sectional
area may or may not be constant), and the quantity of liquid passing per unit time is the
same at all sections; then the liquid is described to follow the equation of continuity.
Consider a tapering pipe, through which some liquid is flowing as shown in the figure
above.

Let a1 -
- area of pipe at section 1-1
"1
-
- velocity of the liquid at section 1-1

Similarly a2 - area of pipe at section 2-2


v2 -
- velocity of the liquid at section 2-2

The total quantity of liquid passing through section 1- 1,

Similarly, the total quantity flowing through section 2-2,

and Q3 = a3 v3

From the law of *conservationof matter,

then a1 vl - a2 v2 -
- a3 v3

This is known as the equation of continuity.

(The Law of Conservation of matter states that matter can neither be created nor
destroyed, though it can be transformed from one form to another.)
Example
Water is flowing through a pipe of 100-rnrn diameter with an average velocity of 4 d s e c .
What is the rate of discharge of the water?
Also determine the velocity at the outer end of the pipe, if the diameter of the pipe is
gradually changed to 200 mm.

Solution
Given Dia of pipe D - 0.100 m
Area of pipe a - .n/4 x 0. loo2
-
- 7.85 x m2

average vel v -
- 4 dsec

Discharge Q = 0.03 14 m3/sec

Dia of pipe at the other end of the tapering pipe,

Area of pipe a1 -
- n/4 x 0.200~
-
- 31.42 x 10" m2

But

average vel
Fluid Design Velocities
For shipboard pipe systems, the following maximum fluid velocities are recommended:

Service
condensate drain
cold freshwater discharge
cold freshwater suction
condensate pump discharge
condensate pump suction
diesel oil discharge
diesel oil suction
feedwater discharge
feedwater suction
fuel oil service discharge
fuel oil service suction
fuel oil transfer discharge
fuel oil transfer suction
hot water discharge
hot water suction
hydraulic oil discharge
hydraulic oil suction
lube-oil discharge
lube-oil service pump suction
seawater discharge
seawater suction

These velocities should be lowered,

i> if the pipework losses are too high or


ii) if the material used is not suitable for the chosen velocity
and erosion would occur.
Impingement Resistance and Maximum Velocity
When a fluid flow in a pipe, the fluid is in constant contact with the pipe material. Due to
the movement of the fluid flow on the pipe wall, the fluid would also impinge on the pipe
wall and erosion will occur. Different materials differ in their impingement resistance.
The table below shows the maximum velocity recommended for reasonable impingement
resistance together with a corrosion rate.

Relationship between Density, Specific Weight and Pressure Head

Density (p)
The density of a liquid may be defined as the mass per unit volzrme at standard
temperature and pressure. The variation in the density of water is so small, that for all
practical purposes, it is generally neglected. It is denoted by p (1.110).
Specific Weight (y)
The specific weight of a liquid may be defined as the weight per unit volume, at standard
temperature and pressure. The variation in specific weight of water, with the variation of
pressure and temperature, is-sosmall, that for all practical purposes, it is generally
neglected. It is usually denoted by y.

By definition,
Y - Pg ( where g = 9.8 1 m/sec2 )

Specific Gravity (s.g.)


The specify gravity of a liquid may be defined as the ratio of its specific weight to the
specific weight of pure water at 4OC.

In general, the s.g. of a liquid is

specific weight of liquid


s.g. =
specific weight of pure water

Pressure Head

Consider a vessel containing some liquid as shown in the figure. We know that the liquid
will exert pressure on all sides and the bottom of the vessel.

Let a cylinder be made to stand in the .liquid as shown in the figure.

The weight of the liquid contained in the cylinder is


Weight -
- mg
-
- V p g (mass = volume x density)
- hApg

where Pg = specific weight of the liquid


h = height of liquid in the cylinder
A -- area of the cylinder base

The pressure p , at the bottom of the cylinder due to the weight of the liquid contained in
the cylinder,

Weight of the liquid in the cylinder


pressure -
Area of the cylinder base

This equation shows that the intensity of the pressure at any point in a liquid, is
proportional to its depth, from the surface (as p g is constant for the given liquid).

Thus, pressure can be expressed in either of the following ways

a) as a force per unit area (i.e. kg/crn2 or ~ / ) m ~


b) as a height of equivalent liquid column (m, mm)

Example
Determine the pressure in (kg/cm2) at a depth of 4 m below the free surface of the oil
with specific gravity 0.9.

Solution
Height of oil h
s.g. of oil
density of oil

Therefore, pressure p
In other words, the 4.0 m pressure head of oil would exert a pressure of 0.36 kg/cm3.

It can also be expressed as

pressure p - 900 kg/m3 x 4 m x 9.8 1 m/s2


- 35.3 x lo3 (kg.m Is2).(l/m2)
-
- 35.3 x lo3 N/m2
-
- 35.3 kPa
Notes on pressure units:
I kg.mJs2 - . 1N
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

Energy of a Liquid in Motion


The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though energy exists
in many forms, the following are important in our study of fluid flows.
1. Potential energy
2. Kinetic energy, and
3. Pressure energy.

Potential Energy of a Liquid in Motion


It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its position.

If a liquid is Z metres above the horizontal datum (arbitrarily chosen), the potential
energy of the particle will be Z (m.kg) per kg of liquid.

Potential head of the liquid, at that point, will be Z metres of the liquid.

Kinetic Energy of a Liquid in Motion


It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity.

If a liquid is flowing with a mean velocity of v meters per second, then the kinetic energy
of the particle will be v2/2,9 (m.kg) per kg of the liquid.

Velocity head of the liquid, at that velocity, will be v2/2,9 metres of the liquid.

Pressure Energy of a Liquid in Motion


It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure.
If a liquid particle is under pressure of p (N/m2), then the pressure energy of the particle
will be plp g (m.kg) per kg of the liquid, where p g is the specific weight of the liquid.

Pressure head of the liquid, under that pressure, will be plp g metres of the liquid.

Total Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion


The total energy of a liquid particle, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy, kinetic
energy and pressure energy.
Mathematically,

Total energy,
2
V P
E -
- Z+ - +- m.kg I kg of liquid

Total Head of a Liquid Particle in Motion


The total head of a liquid particle in motion, is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head
and pressure head.
Mathematically,

Total Head
2
V P
H -
- Z+ -+ - m of liquid
2g Pg

where the pressure, p is in ( ~ l m ~ ) .

If the pressure, p is in (kg/m2), then the total head, H is,

v2 P
- -
H -
- Z+ + m of liquid
2g P
Example
Fresh water is flowing through a pipe of 70-rnm diameter under a gauge pressure of 3.5
kg/cm2, and with a mean velocity of 1.5 mlsec. Neglect friction, determine the total head,
if the pipe is 7 metres above the datum line.

Solution
Given Dia of pipe d - 70 m m
Pressure P - 3.5 kg/cm2
-
- .35000 kg/m2
Velocity v - i.5 m/s
Datum head Z - 7m

Let H -
- ~ o t ahead
l of water (m)

Total Head
v2 P
H -
- Z + -+ - m
Bernoulli's Theorem

The Bernoulli's theorem states

"For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream,


the total energy of a particle remains the same; while the particle
moves from one point to another."

This statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in the
pipe.

Mathematically,

v2 P
z+ -+
- = Constant
2g P

where
z -
- Potential energy

vL
- -
- Kinetic energy
2g

P
- -
- Pressure energy

Therefore for liquid flow in pipe from one section to another,

(Bernoulli, Daniel1 was a Swiss engineer, who belong to a renowned mathematical


family, and gave this theorem in 1738.)
Limitations of Bernoulli's Equation
The Bernoulli's theorem or Bernoulli's equation has been derived on certain assumptions,
which are rarely possible. Thus Bernoulli's theorem has the following limitations:

1. The equation has been derived under the assumptions that velocity of
every liquid particle, across any cross section of a pipe, is uniform. But in
actual practice, it is not so. The velocity of liquid particle in the centre of a
pipe is at maximum, and gradually decreases towards the walls of the pipe
due to pipe friction. Thus, while using Bernoulli's equation, only the mean
velocity of the liquid should be taken into account.

2. The equation has been derived under the assumption that no external
force, except the gravity force is acting on the liquid. But in actual
practice, there is always some external force (such as pipe friction, etc)
acting on the liquid, which the flow of liquid. Thus while using the
equation, all such external forces should be neglected. But if some energy
is supplied to, or extracted from the flow, the same should be taken into
account.

3. The equation has been derived, under the assumption, that there is no loss
of energy of the liquid particle while flowing. But in actual practice, it is
rarely so. In a turbulent flow, some kinetic energy is converted into heat
energy; and in a viscous flow, some energy is lost due to shear forces.
Thus, while using the equation, all such losses should be neglected.

4. If the liquid is flowing in a curved path (as in pipe bends), the energy due
to centrifugal force should also be taken into account.

Viscous Flow in Pipes

Viscosity
It is the property of a liquid, which controls its rate of flow. The viscosity of a liquid is
fundamentally due to cohesion between liquid particles and exhibited, by a liquid in
motion. It is thus obvious, that a thick liquid (like lubricating oil) has a greater viscosity
than a light liquid (like water).

Coefficient of Viscosity
While considering the effect of viscosity of a liquid, the following two assumptions are
made:

1. When a liquid is in contact with a solid boundary, the relative motion between the
liquid particles (immediately adjacent to the boundary) and the solid boundary
does not exist. Or in other words, if the boundary is at rest, the liquid particles are
also at rest. But if the boundary moves with some velocity, the liquid particles
also move with the same velocity.

2. The shear stress between the two adjacent liquid layers is proportional to the rate
of shear in the direction perpendicular to the motion. Or in other words, if two
adjacent layers move with a relative velocity of v, the rate of shear is v/y. The
shear stress between the two liquid layers is proportional to v/y where y is the
distance between the two layers.

Consider a thin layer of liquid, with a coefficient of viscosity; sandwiched between two
parallel plates. A force is applied on the upper plate, which will cause it to slide over the
lower plate; thus shearing the intervening thin layer of the liquid.

Let A -
- area of each of the plate
v -
- velocity of upper plate, relative to the lower plate
-
- thickness of the layer of the liquid
Y
P -
- coefficient of viscosity
(also known as coefficient of absolute viscosity or
coefficient of dynamic viscosity)

'
The force applied on the upper plate,
v
P -- p. A -
Y

The term v/y is known as velocity gradient.


In its differential form, the velocity gradient is also written as dv/dy.

The intensity of viscous shear to viscous shear stress,

dv
- -
Z P- Dynamic Viscosity has units of (kg.sec/m2or Pa s )
dy

The viscosity is also a function of temperature.

The table given under Properties of Water gives the value of dynamic viscosity of water
at different temperatures.

Kinematic Viscosity
In many engineering problems, it is convenient to use the modified form of viscosity. The
term kinematic viscosity, v is the ratio of absolute viscosity to the density of the liquid.

P
Thus v - Kinematic viscosity has units of (m2/sec)

Example
Find the kinematic viscosity of water v, at 15OC.

Solution
At 15OC, P = 1138 x 10' pa s
P = 999.0 kg/m3

Kinematic Viscosity,
1138 x 10.~x 1 (kg m/s2 x rn-2) s
Similarly, dynamic and kinematic viscosities can be also obtained from Viscosities-
Temperature Charts (given).

Classification of Viscous Flows

The viscous flows may be classified into the following two types depending upon the
factor, whether the viscosity is dominating or not: laminarflow, and turbulentpow.

Laminar Flow
It is a flow, in which the viscosity of the fluid is dominating over the inertia forces. It is
also known as viscous flow.

A laminar flow can be best understood by the hypothesis that the liquid moves in
concentric cylinders sliding one within another as shown in figure. These concentric
cylinders move like laminae. Such a flow takes place at low velocities, is known as a
laminar flow.

Turbulent Flow
It is a flow, in which the inertia force is dominating over the viscosity. In this flow, the
concentric cylinders diffuse or mix with each other. Such flows take place at high
velocities, is known as turbulentflow.

Critical Velocity
It is a velocity at which the flow changes from the laminar flow to the turbulent flow. The
critical velocity may be further classified into the following two types:

i) Lower Critical Velocity


It has been found that when a laminar flow changes into a turbulent flow, it does
not change abruptly. But it has got the transition period between the two types
flows. Thus a velocity, at which the laminar flow stops; or in other words, a
velocity at which the flow enters from laminar, to transition period is known as a
lower critical velocity.

ii) Upper Critical Velocity


A velocity, at which the turbulent flow starts; in other words, a velocity at which
the flow enters from transition period to turbulent flow is known as an upper
critical velocity.

Reynold's Experiment of Viscous Flow


Reynold's apparatus consisted of a tank containing water. The water entered a horizontal
glass tube through a faired bell-mouth from a tank where the level at the free surface is
kept constant. The nature of the flow in the pipe was made visible by allowing a highly
coloured solution to exude slowly from a capillary tube so placed that the filament of
coloured fluid entered the tube centrally.

Professor Reynold found that, when the mean velocity of discharge was less than a
certain limiting value, the coloured filament extended through the tube in a straight line.
However, when the velocity is increased, the filament wavered and became irregular.
This is known as the lower critical velocity. When the velocity is further increased, the
unsteady and irregular flow convoluted, diffusing the dye to the stage that the colouring
appeared to fill the tube. This is known as the upper critical velocity.
Reynold applied dimensional analysis to the phenomenon of 'transition' and concluded
that the change from laminar flow to turbulent flow should occur for a fixed quantity,
now in his honour called Reynold's Number.

Fig. 8.1 Reynold's experiment and three different flows

~ e ~ n b l dNumber
's (Re)
Reynold found that the value of critical velocity is governed by the relationship between
the inertia force and viscous forces (i.e. viscosity). He derived a ratio of these forces and
found our a dimensionless number, called the Reyl.iold Number, Re.

Inertia forces P v2 PvD


Re = -
- -
-

Viscous forces p v/D P

mean velocity of liquid x diameter of pipe


-
-
kinematic viscosity of liquid

Reynold's number is a dimensionless quantity providing the important information on the


type of flow (i.e. laminar or turbulent). After carrying out a series of experiment, it was
found that :
1) if Re < 2,000 (i.e. less than 2,000), the flow is laminar
2) if 2,000 < Re 2,800 (i.e. between 2,000 and 2,800), the flow is neither
laminar nor turbulent . .

3) if Re > 2,800 (i.e. greater than 2,800), the flow is turbulent

It may be noted that the value of critical velocity corresponding with Re = 2,000
is for a lower critical velocity and that corresponding with Re = 2,800 is for a higher
critical velocity.

8.4 Pipe Head Loss Calculation

When a fluid is flowing a pipe, it losses its energy (or sometimes termed as head)
due to the friction of the wall, change of cross section or obstruction in the flow.
Two losses are discussed here, that is minor losses and friction losses.

Minor losses
Minor losses are those associated with friction occurring when the fluid encounters
restriction in the system (i.e. valves), changes in direction (elbow, bends, tees),
changes in pipe sizes (reducer, expanders), and losses caused by the fluid entering or
leaving pipe.

A Loss coefficient K is associated with each component causing a loss, and total
losses are obtained from the product of the sum of the K values and the velocity
head.

v2
H, = CK ---
2g
K values for valves, fittings, and other common pipe components are shown in Table
8- 1.

Table 8-1. Minor loss coefficientK for common fittings


Fitting K Fitting K

Angle valve (fully open) 5.0 With foot valve 10.0


Check Valve (fully open) . Without foot valve 5 -5
Swing type 2.5 Close return bend 2.2
Ball type 70.0 Standard tee 1.8
Lift type 12.0 Standard 90°elbow 0.9
Gate valve: Standard 45' elbow 0.26
Fully open 0.19 Medium sweep elbow 0.75
3/4 open 1.15 Long sweep elbow 0.6
Yz open 5.6 Pipe entrance: square edge . 0.50
?4open 24.0 Pipe entrance: slightly rounded 0.23
Diaphragm valve: Pipe entrance: inward rounded 0.78
Fully open - 2.3 Pipe entrance: well rounded 0.04
Yz open 4.3 Pipe exit (all) 1.O

Pipe Friction Losses


Pipe friction losses are caused by the friction generated by the movement of the fluid
against the walls of the pipe.

Friction losses can be calculated by the following formula:

L v2
hf = f ---- -------
D 2g
Where: hf -- pipe friction head loss, m (or ft)
L - total straight length of pipe, m (ft)
V - fluid velocity, m/s (ftls)
g - gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2 (32.2 ws2)
f - friction factor, dimensionless
Friction factor f , sometimes called Moody friction factor, is a function of the
Reynolds number and the surface roughness of the pipe.

Reynolds number can be calculated by:


.V d
Re = ----------
v
where:
V - velocity of liquid in pipe ( d s )
D - Pipe diameter (rnrn)
v -- kinematic viscosity of liquid, unit m2/s. For water at 20°C, v = 1.007 x 10-6 m2/s.
Re below 2000 denotes laminar flow. The friction factor f for laminar flow is a
linear function and may be defined as:

Re between 2000 and 2800 is the transition zone, where the flow is very unstable.
Pipe designer should avoid using Re values in the transition zone.
. .

Flow with Re greater than 2800 is turbulent. Its friction factor should be obtained
from Moody's diagram. Fig. 8.2 shows the Moody's diagram. To get friction factor
we need to h o w the Reynold's number and the relative roughness of the pipe.

Related roughness = absolute roughness 1 diameter.

Absolut roughness can be found from the table shown below.

For steel pipe, absolute roughness may take 0.046 mrn.


Absolule r~ughnessceefficient E for diffctenr pipe materials.
Absoluk rougtiness
Pipe
rnatcrial (em) (in.) Source
--
Kivcted steel 0.091-0.9 i 9.0364.358 Whearon ( 1977)
Concrerc 0 03-0.3 I 0,012-0.122 Wheaton (1977)
Wood stave 0 , 0 1 8 4 . ~I 0.0074.036 Whearon ( 1977)
Casr iron 0.026 0.0 10 Wheaton (1977)
Galvanized iron 0.0 15 0 0059 Wheaton (1977)
Asphalted cast iron 0 OL2 0 0047 Wheaton (1977)
Commercial stcel 0.0046 0 018 Wheaton ( 1977)
or wrought iron
Drawn tubing . 0.00015 0 O(XX159 Wheaton ( 19771
fJVC 0 000005 0 CWOOl97 Wherron (1977)

(m1 (fr) Source

Glass. plastic. - O . ~ I ~ 0.W42 Huguenin and Colr 1 1 489)


fiberglass, copper.
brass. dwwn tubing
Steel, wrought iron 0.000036 0.GQqt 47 t luguenin and Colr ( 1989)
Asphalted cost irort 0.00012 0.00Q38 tlugucnin and Colr ( 1989)
Cast iron Q.OOa26 0 00083 Huguen~nand Cot[ (1989)
I<rvetcd stecl 0,004-0.0009 0.0284,029 Iluguenin ahd Colt (I 989)
Concrctc 0.003-0.0003 0.D0964,OOMb fiilgutnin and Colt ( 1989)
Fig. 8.2 Moody's diagram
Example:
The pumping system shown in the Fig. 8.3 is used to transfer sea water from
Tank A to Tank D. The bore size of all pipes and fittings is 100-mrn (4-inch). The
pipes used are of galvanized steel and are connected to the pump and fittings by
flanges. The pump capacity is assumed to be 1,500 litreslmin. Calculate the minor
losses and friction losses of the pipeline.

Fig. 8.3 A piping system for head loss calculation


'Solution
Firstly, convert units:
Q = 1500 litreslmin = 1500 x 160 (m3/s)= 25 x m3/s
Diameter of pipe = lOOmm = 0.100m
Area of pipe = n d2/4= 3214 x (0.125)~/4=. 12.27 x m2
V = Q/a = 25 x 10" 112.27 x 2.037 m/s

Pipe friction losses (hf)


Total straight pipe length: L = 7m + 5m + 7m + 17m = 36m -

Reynolds number can be calculated by:


Vd 2.037 x 0.1
- 2.02 lo5
Re = ---------- = -------------- -
v 1.007 x
Relative roughness = 0.046 / 100 = 0.00046
From the Moody's diagram, f = 0.018
so,
L v2 36 2.037~
hf=f -- --- = 0.018 ------- --------
D 2g 0.1 2 x 9.81

Minor Losses ( h d
K of each fitting can be got from Table 11-1.
CK=0.5 +0.9+0.19+1.0+0.5 +0.19+0.9+ 1.0=5.18
v2 2.037~
hm=CK ---- =5.18 ---------- = 1.09m
2g 2 x 9.81

Total head losses = hf + h, = 1.37 + 1.09 = 2.46 m

Measures to reduce head losses


Based on the equations of minor losses and friction losses, the following measures
can be considered to reduce head losses in pipe line.
- Use bigest possible pipe diameter
- Use smoothest possible pipes
- Layout shortest possible pipeliness
- Minimize the number os elbows/bends in pipelines
- Use valves with smaller K value if possible
- Keep the temperature of liquids higher if possible.

8.5 Expansion and Flexibility Calculation


Piping systems may be subjected to many diversified loadings. Generally, only
stresses caused by (1) pressure, (2) weight of pipes, fittings, and fluid, (3) external
loadings, and (4) thermal expansion are significant in the stress analysis of a
piping system. Normally, mostpipe movement will be due to thermal expansion.

a. A stress analysis should be made for a two-anchoi-(fixed points) system if the


following approximate criterion from ANSI B3 1.3-1980 is not satisfied.

D A1
----------- <= 0.03
(L - U)
Where:
D - nominal pipe size, inches.
Al -- expansion to be absorbed by pipe, inch.'It may be calculated by:
A1 = 12LBAT, B is the mean coefficient of thermal expansion at
operating temperatures normally encountered.
U - anchor distance, feet (straight line distance between anchors).
L - actual length of pipe, feet.

b. The following guidelines may help in screening piping or systems that


generally will not require stress analysis:
(1). Systems where the maximum temperature change will not exceed 50°F.
(2). Piping where the maximum temperature change will not exceed 750F,
provided that the distance between turns in the piping exceeds 12 nominal pipe
diameters.
c. ANSI B31.3-1980 does not require a formal stress analysis in system which
meet one of the following criteria:
(1). The systems are duplicates of successfully operating installations or
replacements of systems with a satisfactory service record.
(2). The systems can be fudged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed
systems.
d. Pipe movement can be handled by expansion bends (including "Loops", "U",
and " Z shaped piping), swivel joints or expansion bellows. Expansion bends
are preferred when practical. If expansion bends are not practical, swivel
joints should be used. Swivel joints may be subject to leakage and must be
properly maintained. Expansion bellows are often used in engine exhaust
systems and other low pressure systems

8.6 Pipe Fabrication Calculation


For fabrication, a pipe piece should be calculated to get the following parameters:
- Pipe cutting length
- Feeding length of each segment
. .
- Rotating angle between two-bends . .

- Bending angle

Fig. 8.4 A pipe piece for-calculation

On pipe drawings, pipes usually are referred by the centre lines. In Fig. 8.4, lines
1-2, 2-3, 3-4 are centre lines. The starting point 1 and end point 4, and the
intersection points 2 and 3 are called nodes. So, there are 4 nodes and two bends
in the pipe piece. In ship repairing, an old pipe should be measured to get their
nodes. The coordinates (X,Y,Z) of each node can be determined. A sketch of the
pipe piece should be drawn for calculation and fabrication purposes.

The length between two nodes can be calculated. For example, Length between
node 1 and 2 can be calculated by:

Using the same formula, I 4 3 and L34can be calculated. In pipe repairing, these
lengths can be measured directly.

.. -
Bending angle calculation
In Fig. 11.3, angle A is the first bending angle, which can be calculated. We know
from mathematics that, = L~~~ + L~~~- 2 L12LQ3 Cos(B).
. .

A = 180 -A~CCOS(( L~~~+ ~ 2 3 ~ 2 L12


~ -1 3/ ~ ) h3)
In Fig. 11-3, the second bending angle is the same as angle A. There is no need to
calculate it.

Feeding length and total cutting. length


The feeding length of each segment. is the length of the straight part of the
segment. In fig. 11-3, There are three feeding lengths, , L15,L67and L84.

Total cutting length is the sum of all feeding lengths and the lengths of bend part.

L = L15+ L67+ L84 + R A + R A (A must be in radian)

rota tin^ angle


If there are two or more bends on a pipe, the pipe should be rotated an angle after
bending a bend for next bending. That rotation angle is called rotating angle. As
we know, two consecutive pipe segments forms a plane. The rotating angle is the
angle between two planes. In pipe pieces, most rotating angles are 90' or 180°,
which are no need to be calculated.

Example:
Assuming that in Fig. 11-3, the coordinates of each node are:
X1 = o Y1 = o z1= o
X2=600 Y2=0 Z2 = 0
X3 = 1000 Y3 = 600 Z3 = 0
X q = 1800 Yq= 600 , Z4=0
Since all Zs are 0, they can be ignored in calculation. Firstly, calculate lengths of
each segment.

= d(1000-0)~+ (600-o)~= 1166


Bending angle:
A = 180 - Arccos( ( ~ 1 + G-
2 ~ LI?) 1 (2 L12 L23 ))
= 180 - Arccos(( 6002+ 72 l 2 - 11662)I ( 2 x 600 x 72 1))
= 180 - Arccos(-0.5544)
= 180 - 123.67
= 56.3

Assuming R = 250
Feeding length:
Lls = L12- R Tan(N2)
= 600 - 250 x ~an(56.312)
= 600 - 134
= 466
L67= L23 - R Tan(N2) - R Tan(N2)
= 721 - 250 x Tan(56.312) - 250 x Tan(56.312)
= 453
L84= L34 - R Tan(N2)
= 800 - 250 x Tan(56.312)
=800- 134
= 666

Length of bend:
Lbend= R x A = 250 x 56.3 157.2958 (converting 56.3' to radian)
Cutting length of the piece:.
L=Lls+b7+L84+RA+RA
= 466 -t 453 + 666 + 246 + 246
= 2077

So, the material consumption of this pipe is 2077 mrn. The bending sequences and
parameters are:
Feeding 466 mm
Bending 56.3'
Feeding 453 mm
Rotating 180'
Bending 56.3'
The straight length of final segment is 666 mm.
... .

9. Piping Drawing
Technical drawing is a precise international language for communication between
designer, manufacturer and user. A drawing is a graphic representation of an idea,
a concept or an entity, which actually or potentially exists in a life. A drawing
often contains more than just a graphic representation on its subject. It also
contains dimension, notes, and specifications.

Piping drawings describe the piping material, size, shape, and location of a piping
system. Pipe drawings can be categorized schematic diagram(or diagrammatic
plan or P&ID), arrangement drawing and piece drawings.

9.1 Schematic Diagram (P&ID) of Pipe System . .

Schematic drawings are produced at the prelimilary stage. They are used to show
the logical relationship among pipes, pipe fittings, equipment, machinery and
tanks.

The Classification Society and ship owners can examine the design idea for their
approval

The shipbuilders can make detailed arrangement of all pipelines based on the
diagrammatic plan
-..-

Features:
- Presenting only pipe relationship but not real position
- Each diagram presents a piping system
- Full of information, such as pipe specifications, fitting types, pressure, connects,
etc
- Use of Symbols

9.2 Arrangement Drawing


Arrangement drawings are produced at the detailed design stage. These drawings
represent the detailed layout of equipment and pipe routes. In order to show the
relationship among pipes, hull structures, machinery and equipment, some key
lines of hull and equipment should be drawn as the background of pipe
arrangement.

Arrangement drawings have the following features:

- Presenting exact positions


All pipes have the precise position on the arrangement drawings. These drawings
are the basis for interference checking, fabrication, and installation.

- Comprehensive arrangement
Not only all pipe systems are shown on the drawing, but also the hull lines, hull
structures, machinery and equipment are drawn on the arrangement drawings.
From these drawings, we can seethe overall relationship among pipes, hull,
machinery and equipment.

- Detailed dimension and notes


Specification, dimension of pipes, and text notes are written on arrangement
drawing.

There are two general types of piping arrangement drawings -- pictorial


(isometric) or orthographic. Either type may be prepared using a single line to
represent each pipe, or at a double line to represent the outline of a pipe. Double-
line drawings appear more realistic but require extensive drafting time. They are
used sparingly, except for large purposes. Single-line drawings are used the
majority of the time. In single-line drawings,: a single thick line is drawn at the
location of each pipe centerline, regardless of the pipe size.

Orthographic Drawing
Orthographic drawings effectively show the layout of piping systems when pipes
align on one or two planes. When pipes lie on many different planes and angles,
orthographic drawings become cluttered and complex.

When double-line orthographic projection is drawn, depending on the complexity


of pipe routes, sometimes the basic three-views (top view, front view and side
view) are used (Fig. 9.1). Sometimes, a main view, e.g. top view, is used and one
or several local section views can be added for showing the details. If a single-line
piping drawing is drawn (Fig. 9.2), the symbol for a pipe, a valve, a fitting or an
instrument must be used. Table 9.1 shows the commonly used piping symbols.
-

SYMBOL. MEANING

Straight pipe

A horizontal pipe with


-
0 A downward vertical
pipe
A horizontal pipe with
0
- A upward vertical-
pipe
Left pipe is horizontal
and r i g h t pipe is going
upward
Right pipe is horizontal
1 - and left pipe is going
upward

One m a i n pipe with two


branch pipes

Two pipes are not


connecting

Square and text are


OILY-WATER representing machinery,
SEPARATOR equipment o r tank.
I

I
Table 9.1 Symbols for orthographic single-line drawing (continued .. .)
SYMBOL MEANING
OVERBOARD
OVERBOARD ///////// representing the pipe
is connecting with hull
f o r suction from o r
discharge t o overboard

4
PUMP SYMBOL AND TEXT
representing b p u m p
BILGE PUMP
a n d i t s type

VALVE SYMBOL
- representing a valve.
Different valve has
d i f f e r e n t symbol.

L INSTRUMENTATION
representing an
i n s t r u m e n t . Different
i n s t r u m e n t has
d i f f e r e n t symbol.

INTERRUPTION SYMBOL
m e a n s t h e pipe will go
FROM MACHINERY
COAMING further. The location
&- where t h e liquid goes
t o o r c o m e s f r o m will
b e written with texts.

Table 9.1 Symbols for orthographic single-line drawing


Isometric Drawing
An isometric drawing can show three dimensions - length, width and depth of an
object in a sheet, so it is widely used in engineering drawings. Isometric piping
drawings are especially effective for describing complex systems that involve a
variety of pipe configurations, fittings, valves, and equipment. Fig. 9.3 and Fig.
9.4 show a double-line isometric piping drawing and a single-line isometric
piping drawing respectively.

Fig. 9.3 Double-line isometric drawing Fig. 9.4 Single-line isometric drawing

In isometric drawing, the elevation direction (Z axis) is upwards, and the frame
direction (X axis) is 30" with the horizontal line and the transverse direction (Y
axis) is 150" with the horizontal line. Fig. 9.5 shows the three-axis arrangement
of isometric drawing.

TF'A[\Iy'JEP:E
DIRECTION

Fig. 9.5 Three-axis arrangement of isometric drawing

The isometric drawing shows the required shape of the pipe, their dimensions and
the direction in which they are to be laid on board. Unless otherwise stated, bends
shown on the drawings have angles of 90". A small black-dot is drawn at the weld
connecting point of a socket-weld elbow and a pipe. From Fig. 9.6, you can see
two 90" degree welding elbows.
Fig. 9.6 Isometric pipe with two 90' elbows

If a bend angle is other than 90°, different dimensioning ways can be adapted. In
Fig. 9.7, a bending angle is written.-

Fig. 9.7 Isometric pipe with non-90' bend


Alternatively it may be fully dimensioned fiom the horizontal or vertical, (Fig. 9.8).
Sometimes, shaded lines are drawn at .the non-90' bend to emphasis the bend.

Fig. 9.8 Isometric pipe with non-90' bend

A pipe may be offset in two planes where this occurs the offset is shown 'boxed'
by dimension lines to both vertical and horizontal, (Fig. 9.9).

Fig. 9.9 A pipe with offset in two planes


9.3 Pipe Piece Drawing
.Pipe piece drawing, sometimes called spool piece, is a drawing, which shows the
shape and all information of a pipe piece or pieces needed for fabrication and
installation. The information includes pipe name, specification, dimension,
fabrication parameters, installation position and so on.

Usually, there are two forms of piece drawing, which can be found. in
applications. Fig. 9.10 shows an example of a piece drawing, in which only one
piece is drawn. Another form is an isometric drawing, in which several pieces are
drawn together. Fig. 9.13 shows an example.
PROJl demo (ZONE, EGRM IBLOCK(
~101 (PIECE NAME# 100 SW-EGRM 10-1
PIPE MATERIAL* API-5L-GRB-ER SURFACE PROCESSING1 GALV
MAIN N. D. SCH 0. D. THlCK BEND R TEST P F L ACL LENGTH WT
100 40 114.3 6.0 345 lBar 0 3464 76.8
BRANCH ND<SCH> BEND R AGL FEED1 BEND1 FEED2 BEND2 FEED3 LENGTH
1 80(40> 90.0' 286 90.0' 379 665
90'LEL-D80R114ASTM-A234
2 65<40) 90.0' 400
JOINT SPECIFICATION AND POSITION
PIPE SPECIFICATION CUT'FAGL CONNECT FITTING POSITION
MAIN S 10K-100 JIS-82222 7 8,6 F 12 200 B -2650 1H 500
MAIN E 100% 6 5 ASTM-A234 102 F 16 240 B -2060 1H 1300
BRAN 1 IOK- 80 JIS-B2222 7 0.0 F 12 700 B -2250 1H 1000
BRAN 2 65S1,SLEEVE F 15 570 B -2460 1H 1300
BENDlNG PARAMETERS OF MAIN PIPE
LENGTH FEED GRIP TWIST BEND REMARK
1100 964 964 0' 41'
1512 1254 1493 180' 41'
1000 769 1008
BILL OF MATERIAL
SPECIFICATION QTY WT REMARK
PIPE 100 (40) 1 55.2 LENGTH 3464 API-SL-GRB-ER
PIPE 80 (40) 1 3.2 LENGTH 2 8 6 API-5L-GRB-ER
PIPE 80 (40) 1 4.3 LENGTH 379 API-SL-GRB-ER
PIPE 6 5 (40) 1 3.5 LENGTH 400 API-5L-GRB-ER
90'LEL-D80R114 1 2.1
FLANGE 10K-100 JIS-82222 1 3.2
REDUCER lOOX 6 5 ASTM-A234 1 1,6
FLANGE 10K- 80 JIS-B2222 1 2.6
SLEEVE 65S1,SLEEVE 1 1,2
COORDINATE LIST
X Y z
0 0 0
1100 0 0
2240 590 800
3240 590 800
BR 500 0 0
500 400 0
500 400 500
BR 2770 590 800
2770 190 800

-
Fig. 9.10 An example of pipe spool piece
All information needed for fabrication and installation of that piece are listed in the
piece drawing. The messages include:

Project name, Zone name, Block or unit number, Piece name. If "ON BOARD" is
printed, it means this piece should be installed on board.

Diameter, Thickness, Bending mould radius, Material code, Surface processing code,
Related angle between two flanges (under the title FL AGL), Length, Total weight
which is the frnal product net weight of that piece.

Related angle between two flanges is used in the welding-prior-to-bending technology


(bending pipe with ilanges on it). It tells you what is the relative position of the two
flanges at the two ends when the two flanges are welded onto a straight pipe. It is
defined as: when the operator stands in the middle of a straight pipe, the flange at the
left end is set to duplex hole, the right end flange should be rotated some angle
counter-clock-wisely if the angle is a positive value.

If you use the welding-prior-to-bending technology, The first rotating angle of pipe
bending parameter (under title TWIST) is sometimes not 0. That means you should
rotate the pipe after you place 9 e pipe on-the bending machine. You should place the
first flange to be in duplex position (two holes on the top position), you stand on the
front of bending machine, the positive angle means you should rotate the pipe
clockwisely.

For a branch, branch specification, branch position are shown. AGL indicates the
included angle between the first segment of branch to main pipe segment. FEED1 is
the length of the straight part of the first segment; BEND1 is the bending angle of the
branch. FEED2 is the length of the straight part of the second segment. BEND2 is the
second bending angle and FEED3 is the third straight pipe length if there are two
bends. LENGTH is the total length of the branch pipe. If the straight part of branch
segment is shorter, CUT xxx will be printed.

Joint specification, cut length, flange fitting angle, connecting pipe name and fitting
position on board of each end node are listed under the title JOINT
SPECIFICATION AND POSITION. If a * appears after the flange code, the flange
should be set to simplex position in the top view of the piece drawing. If SITE is
printed after the joint type, it means that this joint should be fitted on site. In that
case the length of this segment and the total length of the piece have been extended
100 mm, which allows you to adjust the suitable position for this joint on board.

Flange fiffing angle:

FAGL indicates the flange that the flange should be rotated when it is fitted onto the
pipe in a fitting platform. As shown in Fig. 9.1 1, diagram a shows the pipe position on
board. The second (or the last second) segment of the pipe is slant. These two shaded
bolt holes are in the duplex position, that is, on the top horizontal position. When we
put the pipe plane (the first segment and the second segment forms a plane) on the
fitting platform, as shown in diagram b, these two hole should be rotated an angle A. i
That is the flange hole position on the platform.
I

In the practice, we can draw a line ST on the flange, the included angle between line 1
ST and line PQ is A. When we fit the flange, we should align the line ST in the
vertical position. That position is the correct fitting position. FAGL gives us that
angle. I

a : Flpc ~ o s i t i o no n b o a-
rd -. Posi-tion
-b. ".,-.-
60r f i t t i n q f l a n g e
L

Fig. 9.1 1 Fit a flange on a platform

Bending parameters of main pipe include feed length, grip length, rotating angle,
bending angle and length between two consecutive nodes. Fig. 9.12 shows the CUT, 1
FEED, GRIP length and BEND angle. Among them, the GRIP length is the sum of f
the previous bend part length and the FEED length (that is the straight part length). If
bending elongation of bend part is considered, the GRIP length and the total cutting I
I
length of the pipe have been cut off these elongation values. 1
Fig. 9.12 Pipe fabrication parameters

Bill of material lists the specification, quantity, weight and standard code of each item.
Note: the sum of all items' weight may be bigger than the pipe total weight listed
above because some raw pipes may have been cut off during manufacture.

An isometric drawing shows the shape of that piece in a plotted drawing. In the
printed piece drawing, two views of the piece are printed. the top one is front view and
the below one is top view.

A coordinate table is listed which tells you the exact coordinate of each node for your
reference.

Explanation of Isometric Drawing:

Instead of individual spool piece drawings, isometric production drawings, in which


.
several pieces are drawn in a drawing, are also very popular.

There is a drawing form in the low-right comer, in which Project, Zone or Block name
are printed. In the upper-left corner, there is an icon showing the X,Y,Z axis. The
drawing of all pipes and valves are displayed in the main body. Pipe name, size,
dimension, length of each pipe raw material, non-90' bending angle, symbol of all
pipes and components are drawn. There is a Bill Of Material (BOM) in the top-right
corner. All materials are listed there. In the top-left corner, there is a weld diameter
and welding seam number form, from which you know what is the welding quantity.
1 I

Fig. 9.13 An example of isometric drawing


.. .
9.4 Material Lists

Pipe material lists (sometimes called BOM - Bill Of Material) are used for
production management, including costing, material ordering and purchasing,
production scheduling. Usually, pipe material lists are generated by piping
CAD/CAM software. A set of examples of pipe material list is shown below. Fig.
9.14 shows a pipe piece list, in which all information of pipe pieces, including
pipe name, material, specification, length, weight, surface process and water
testing pressure, are listed.

PIPE PIECE LIST


. .
PROJECT NAME: DEMO PAGE: 1
DATE SCOPE: SYSTEMS
SW

nerated at: 11/1/03 11:38

Fig: 9.14 Pipe piece list generated by MS Excel

Fig. 9.1 5 shows a pipe -part list, which summarizes all materials of pipe
components including pipes, flanges, elbows, reducers, tees, sleeves, etc. This list
can be used for material ordering and costing. This list is for the SW piping
system in a project called DEMO.
PIPE PART LlST
PROJECT NAME: DEMO PAGE: 1
DATA SCOPE: SYSTEMS
SW

Generated at: 11/1/03 11:38

Fig. 9.15 Pipe part list generatedby MS Excel

Fig. 9.16 shows a pipe attachment list, which summarizes all valves, bolts, nuts
and gaskets. This list can be used for material ordering and costing.
VALVE AND FITTING LlST
PROJECT NAME: DEMO PAGE: 1
DATA SCOPE: SYSTEMS
SW

Generated at: 11/1/03 11:38

Fig. 9.16 Pipe Attachment List


Fig. 9.17 shows a pipe material nesting list. The nesting operation enables the
maximum utilisation of pipe material. .In the pipe nesting list, under item RAW NO,
NEW means the source pipe is a new material whose length is 7000 mm, R2-001 is
the name of a remnant which was the off-cut generated by last nesting operation. If the
remnant is longer than 300 mm, a new remnant name should be given (as shown in
R3-001) for use next time.

Fig. 9.18 shows a remnant list, which shows how many remnants (off-cuts0 that users
can use next time. A Pipe Raw-Material List (shown in Fig. 9.19) lists how many new
pipe materials will be used in this fabrication. This list can be used for pipe material -
ordering and costing.
PIPE NESTING LIST
PROJECT NAME: DEMO PAGE: 1
DATA SCOPE: SYSTEMS
-.-
SW
RAW NO ( RAW LENGTH 1 PIECE NO 1
PIECE LENGTH I REM LENGTH REM NO
NOMINAL DIANIETER:100 SCHEDULE: 40 MATERIAL: ASTM-A106-GRB1
R02-002 2927 SW20 2670 255
NEW 6000 SW2 2464
SW3 2076
SW12 993 46 1 R03-001
NEW 6000 SW1 526 5472 R03-002
NOMINAL DIAMETER: 80 SCHEDULE: 40 MATERIAL: ASTM-A106-GRBI
R02-003 5584 SW4 2715
SW6 1588
SW2 869 ,
SW3 22 1 183
NEW 6000 SW3 443
SW3 414 5139 R03-003
NOMINAL DIAMETER: 65 SCHEDULE: 40 MATERIAL: ASTM-A106-GRBI
NEW 6000 SW7 2690
SW8 1293
SWlO 1213 798 R03-004
NOMINAL DIAMETER: 50 SCHEDULE: 40 MATERIAL: ASTM-A106-GRBI
R02-005 I 5603 SW2 395 5206 I R03-005
Generated at: 11/1/03 11:47

Fig. 9.16 Pipe nesting list


REMNANT LlST
PROJECT NAME: DEMO
DATA SCOPE: SYSTEMS
SW
NO. SPECIFICATION MATERIAL REMNANT NO. LENGTH
1 100 ( 40) ASTM-A106-GRBI R02-001 334
2 100 (40) ASTM-A106-GRB 1 R03-001 461
3 100 ( 40) ASTM-A106-GRBI R03-002 5472
4 80 (40) ASTM-A106-GRBI R03-003 5139

6 65 ( 40) ASTM-A106-GRBI R03-004 798


7 50 (40) ASTM-A106-GRBI R03-005 5206
Generated at: 11/1/03 11:47

Fig. 9.17 Pipe remnant list

PIPE RAW-MATERIAL LlST


PROJECT NAME: DEMO
DATA SCOPE: SYSTEMS
SW
NO SPECIFICATION MATERIAL LENGTH (mm) QTY
1 100 (40) ASTM-A106-GRBI 6000 2
0 -
3
ASTM-A106-GRBI 6000 1
1
0 65 40
Generated at: 11/1/03 11:47

Fig. 9.18 Pipe raw-materail list

9.5 Drawings to Be Submitted for Classification


According the Classification society's requirement, before proceeding with the
pipe work, drawings, plans are required to be submitted, showing clearly the
diagrammatic details or arrangement of the follows:

General arrangement of pumps and piping


Sanitary system
Bilge and ballast systems
Compressed air systems
Essential control-air systems
Vent, sounding, and overflow pipes
Fuel-oil-filling, transfer, and service systems
Boiler-feed systems .
Steam and exhaust pipings
Lubricating-oil systems
Hydraulic power piping systems
Essential sea-water and fresh-water service systems
Starting-air systems
Fire-main and fire-extinguishing systems
Steering-gear piping systems
Inert gas system arrangement
Crude oil washing arrangement
Systems conveying toxic liquids, low flash point (below 60C) liquids or flammable gas
Exhaust piping for internal combustion engines and boilers
All group I piping systems not covered above.

The plans are to consist of a diagrammatic drawing of each system accompanied


by lists of material giving size, wall thickness, maximum working pressure and
material of all pipes and the type, size, pressure rating and material of valves and
fittings.
.. .
9.6 Guidelines on Pipe Layout
When we roue pipelines, we need to follow the regulation specified by Classification
Society. The following s are the guidelines:

Piping systems must be adequately identified according to their purpose. Valves


are to be permanently and clearly marked - material of valve body, nominal
diameter and nominal pressure
Pipes leading through bulkheads and tank walls must be water and oil tight.
Bolts through bulkheads are not permitted. Holes for set screws may not be
drilled in the tank walls.
Piping systems close to electrical switchboards must be so installed or protected
that possible leakage cannot damage the electrical installation. Pipes over near
switchboards must not be fitted wih flanges or joints.
Piping systems are to be so arranged that they can be completely emptied,
drained and vented. Piping systems in which the accumulation of liquids during
operation could cause damage must be equipped with special drain arrangement.
Pipes, valves and operating rods must be effectively secured by providing
support and restraint to prevent vibrations.
Fresh water pipes handing water to used for boiler feed are not to be run through
oil tanks. Oil pipes are not to be run through boiler feed tanks.
Approved slip-type expansion joint may be used in systems or locations where
possible leakages will not be critical. Non-metallic (moulded ribber) expansion
fittings must be oil-resistant. Maximum working pressure must not be great than
one-fourth of hydrostatic bursting pressure of fitting. Manufacturer's name and
date of manufacture should be clearly marked and easily examnable.
Temperature sensing devices should have instrument wells to allow removal
without impairing the integrity of the pressurised system. Pressure sensing
devices should be provided with valve arrangement to allow for instrument
isolation and removal without impairing the pressurised system integrity.
Ship's side valves shall be easily accessible. Seawater inlet and outlet valves
must be capable of being operated from above the floor plates. Cocks on the
ship's side must be so arranged that the handle can only be removed when the
cock is closed.
10. Various Piping Systems'
10.1 On Board Systems

10.1.1 Bilge piping system

This system is used to discharge the accumulated water overboard, so as to


maintain the dryness of the machinery space and compartment. This water usually
.. . comes from the leakage of machinery, pipe and shell damage, and other sources
such as washing water and rain. Fig. 10.1 shows a typical bilge piping system. -

The system consists of pumps, a main pipeline and several branch pipelines. The
pumps can discharge water from the compartment to bilge holding tank or
overboard. Each suction branch pipeline from each compartment is fitted with a
suction header, which should be located at the lowest position of the
compartment. In the engine room, which is the crucial area, at least two suction
headers should be installed there. Each suction line should be provided with a
non-return valve. At the opening end, a suction strainer or drain sump should be
installed. Sometimes, mud-boxes should be installed in the bilge pipelines for
sedimentation of dirt. Oily-water separator is necessary to separate oil from the
water. After separating the oil, the water is then discharged overboard.

10.1.2 Ballast piping system

A vessel may need to be ballasted, i.e., to be weighted down in draft by filling


with sea water, in order to adjust trim, stability and seakeeping of the vessel.

This system consists of two pumps, necessary valves and pipelines. The pumps
can discharge sea water either to overboard or to other ballast tank. Fig. 10.2 is a
typical ballast piping system.

The pipelines connect all of the ballast tanks. There is a suction manifold at the
end of each pipeline. Usually, these suction manifolds are arranged in a way that
the pumps can take suction either from the sea chest or the ballast tanks. Because
the sea water will be charged in or discharged out of the ballast tanks, non-return
valves are not allowed to be installed in the ballast pipelines.

The ballast pump can be served as an emergency bilge pump.


Fig. 10.1 Bilge system

135
10.1.3 Fire fighting system

a. Fire main system


This system is used.for fire extinguishing service. Normally, the medium used is
sea water. At least two fire pumps are provided and to be located in two different
compartments so that a fire or flooding in one compartment will not put both
pumps inoperative. Fig. 10.3 shows a typical fire main system.

The distribution headers are arranged in a ring main manner with isolation valves.
Each fire pump takes suction from the sea chest and discharge to fire main ring.
Isolation valves are fitted in the supply main for maintenance or in the vent of
damage, fire station can be arranged so that at lease two streams of water can be
directed from each fire pump.

An international shore connection is provided at port and starboard so that water


can be supplied to the ring from an external service.

b. C 0 2 system
This system is a dry fire protection provided for compartment which has the
potential to cause fire, for instance the engine room, emergency generator room,
paint locker and galley hood.

The system is equipped with audio and visual alarms in the protected spaces to
alert personnel to evacuate from the alarmed space. Prior to release of COz , the
ventilation fans and /or fire damper will be shut down.

c. Sprinkler
This system is a wet fire protection mainly provided for accommodation area.
Normally, the system is filled with fresh water and pressurized by the compressed
air for initial operation. The subsequent water supply is from the fire main header.
Each sprinkler header is fitted with flow switch. Any flow of water through the
header is detected by the flow switch, which activates the alarm in the centre of
control panel.

The sprinkler and fire main systems are separated by an alarm check valve. When
the pressure in the sprinkler system drops below the fire main pressure, the
pressure of the fire main will overcome the internal pressure of the valve lift on
the sprinkler side, thus the alarm check valve will be automatically pushed open
to accommodate the fire main water.
10.1.4 Vent and Sound

Vent pipes are required in all enclosed tanks to allow air or gases to have free
escape to the atmosphere, either during tank filling or suction. Fig. 10.4 shows a
typical vent and sound piping system. Tanks may be hull tanks or freestanding
tanks, e.g. daily service tank. :
The cross sectional area of the vent pipes should normally be 1.25 times the cross
sectional area of the filling line. Vent head should be at least 3 foot above deck
level as per classification requirement.

Sound pipes are provided for manual tank level indication by a measuring tape.
Pipe is routed from the top of enclosed tank or freeboard deck to within 2 inches
of the bottom of the tank where a striking plate is fixed. The pipe is required to
run as straight as possible. For any oil storage tank a quick acting self-closing
valve is to be provided. A small test clock with a container is to be installed
before the self-closing gate valve to ascertain that fuel oil is not present before the
gate valve is open and to prevent further spillage of oil.

10.1.5 Sanitary water system

This system is used for flushing of WCs and urinals. The flushing medium can be
either sea water or fresh water. Fig. 10.5 shows a typical sanitary water piping
system.

The flushing water is stored in a holding tank. The pump takes suction from the
holding tank and discharge the water to a pressure set tank, which is charged up
by compressed air. The water in the system is then pressurized to a preset valve.
A flushing control valve is installed at each unit for closelopen control.

10.1.6 Deck drainage system

This system is provided for gravity draining of waste water from the deck to
either a bilge holding tank or overboard. Fig. 10.6 shows a typical deck drainage
piping system.

As per MARPOL requirement, oily water is collected in a bilge holding tank and
clean water is drained overboard. Check valve is installed where drainages of two
different compartments are linked together by a common header. This is to
prevent cross flooding. Gravity drains, which terminate in spaces where are
protected by fixed gas extinguishing system are to be fitted with isolation valve or
means to prevent the escape of extinguishing medium.
VENT CHECK VALE

Fig. 10.4 Vent and sound system

140
Fig. 10.5 Sanitary water system

141
Fig. 10.6 Deck drainage system

142
10.1.7 Sanitary drainage system

This system is for discharging all used water to either a sewage holding tank or
overboard. Fig. 10.7 is a typical sanitary drainage piping system.

The waste from the water closet, unnal and hospital drain is drained to the sewage
holding tank to prevent contamination. The clean drain from basins, room
scuppers, washing machines and drinking fountains is routed to overboard. A
sewage treatment unit is installed to process the waste and then discharged
overboard. Untreated waste can also be discharged to another vessel through the
port and starboard MARPOL discharge station. Normally, a grease interceptor is
fitted to filter the grease from the galley.

10.1.8 Draft and tank gauge system

This system is used for remotely monitoring the ship's draft and tank level by
pneumatic, electro-pneumatic or electric means. Fig. 10.8 shows a typical draft
and tank gauging piping system.

The pneumatic or electro-pneumatic system is based on the measurement of the


hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the tank or side of the shell by injection of
air through a bubbling probe.
Fig. 10.7 Sanitary drainage system
144
Fig. 10.8 Draft and tank gauging system
145
10.2 Marine Systems
10.2.1 Engine cooling system

This system is to provide the cooling water to maintain the engine operating
temperature. Fig. 10.9 shows a typical engine cooling system.

a. Sea water cooling

.- This part of engine cooling system is low temperature and of the open loop type.
The sea water cooling pump takes suction from the sea chest header and
discharges to the engine heat exchanger. The low temperature sea water will then
exchange heat with the high temperature fresh water cooling system. The heated
water is discharged overboard.

b. Fresh water cooling system

This part of the engine cooling system is high temperature and of the closed loop
type. The built-in engine fresh water cooling pump takes suction from the
expansion tank. Fresh water is circulated to an oil cooler, an after cooler, a
cylinder block and cylinder head. The high temperature fresh water is cooled
down by the low temperature sea water through a heat exchanger.

Waste heat from the engine can be used to produce fresh water from a distiller
(water maker) by heating the fresh water close loop of the distiller through a plate
heat exchanger.

10.2.2 Fuel oil system

This system is used primarily as a fuel supply for the main engine and auxiliary
engines and any diesel fuel running equipment. Fig. 10.10 shows a typical fuel oil
system.

Fuel oil may also be mixed with drilling mud for drilling purpose.

Diesel fuel is taken on board fiom the port and starboard filling station and is
discharged to storage tanks through the filling manifold. Suction is taken by fuel
oil transfer pumps and delivered to the fuel oil setting tank, daily service tank and
various services.
Fig. 10.9 Engine cooling system
Fig. 10.10 Fuel oil system

148
10.2.3 Lubrication oil system

This system can be divided into lubrication oil supply and dirty oil drain system.
Fig. 10.11 shows a typical lubrication oil system.

Lubrication oil is the lubricating fluid used for the main engine, generator, mud
pump gear and other mechanical equipment. Lubrication oil is stored in an
independent tank. The supply to various equipment is by either gravity flow or a
transfer pump.
. .
The dirty lubrication oil is normally gravity drained from the equipment to a dirty
oil storage. The dirty oil will then be transferred to a loading vessel through a
MARPOL discharge connection at port and starboard. .

10.2.4 Engine exhaust system

This system is to ventilate the exhaust gases from an internal combustion engine
to atmosphere.

The exhaust gases should be kept away from the ventilation intake duct, drilling
area and any walkway area. The main component of the exhaust system consists
of a spark arresting silencer and expansion fitting. Special pipe support
consideration should be given to allow for exhaust pipe expansion and contraction
stresses due to temperature change. Fig. 10.12 shows a typical engine exhaust
piping system.
Fig. 10.11 Lubrication oil system
150
GJNE EXHAUST PIPING SYSTEM
.:.. ' ...~. . .

Fig. 10.12 Engine exhaust system

15 1
10.2.5 Compressed air system

This system can be classified into three groups:

- Service air
- Control air
- Starting air

Fig. 10.13 shows a typical compressed air piping system.

The service air which belongs to non-essential group is for the-service outlet and
equipment operation.

The control air is for the fire damper, tank gauging system and instrument control.

The starting air is mainly provided for main engine starting.

The air compressor delivers the compressed air which then passes through an air
filter and an air dryer before being stored in an air receiver. From the discharge
manifold the compressed air is branched out into above three main groups.

Independent compressor and air receiver should be provided for starting air of
emergency generator. Normally, this system is designed in such a way that the
emergency air receiver can be constantly charged up by the central compressed air
system when the emergency compressor is not in use.

10.2.6 Potable water system

Potable water is used onboard for drinking, cooking, washing and machinery
services. Fig. 10.14 shows a typical potable water piping system.

Potable water is stored in the storage tank and pumped to a pressure set tank.
From the pressurized tank, water is distributed through a U. V. sterilizer and then
to the quarters utility, hot water system and various equipment services.

The fresh water is supplied externally from the filling station or it can also be
generated from the water maker (distiller).
Fig. 10.13 Compressed air piping system

153
Fig. 10.14 Potable water system

154
10.2.7 Hydraulic piping system

This system is used to transmit power through hydraulic fluid to do mechanical


work. Fig. 10.15 shows a typical hydraulic piping system.

The pump takes suction from the reservoirs and converts mechanical power to
hydraulic power. The pressure is controlled by a pressure control valve in the
circuit. The direction of the flow is controlled by a flow control valve. The
actuators convert the hydraulic power to useful mechanical power.

10.2.8 Refrigerant system

This system is to provide cold air for the compartment such as freezer room and
air-conditional accommodation. Fig. 10.16 shows a typical refrigerant piping
system.

The refrigeration plant circulates refrigerant through the air-cooled units to absorb
heat from the cold room and reject heat into air at the condenser.

10.2.9 Steam heating system

This system is for heating of the oil tank, heat tracing for winterization and
warming up the machinery and accommodation spaces. Fig. 2 17 shows a typical
steam heating piping system.

Steam is produced by a boiler and circulated through a space heater or an


equipment steam coil to reject heat into air. The steam condensate flows back to
the boiler heating coil.
Fig. 10.15 Hydraulic system

156
Fig. 2 17 Steam heating system

158
10.3 Drilling Process Systems
10.3.1 Bulk mud and cement piping system

Bulk mud is in a form of power which is usually a mixture of bentonite and barite
material. It is mixed with drill water to make drilling mud (low pressure mud, see
10.3.3) which is used as circulation fluid during drilling operation. Fig. 10.18
shows a typical bulk mud and cement piping system.

Bulk mud is loaded from the main deck side shell port and starboard filling station
to the storage tank ( " P tank). It is purged down by using low air, known
as bulk air. When the bulk mud is required for mixing mud, it is purged from the
" P tank to the surge tank and fed into a mixing hopper. The mixture is then
transferred to the mud pit by circulating of mud fluid.

Bulk cement on a rig is similar to the cement used in other types of construction.
The filling, storing and transferring is similzt-to the bulk mud system. The cement
is purged from the storage tank to the surge tank and discharged to mixing
hopper. It is then mixed with fluid and pump via the cementing unit to the well.

10.3.2 Drill water system

Drill water is used mainly to mix with bulk mud to make a drilling fluid. The
mixture is processed in the mud pits. Fig. 10.19 shows a typical drill water piping
system.

Drill water does not have to be potable water. It can be river or industrial water.
Drill water is stored in designated double bottom tanks in the rig. Drill pump is
fitted for transferring the water from the storage tank to the mud pits. This system
may also be modified to work as a washdown, machinery cooling, and equipment
services or bilge system.
I I
Fig. 10.18 Bulk mud and cement system
Fig. 10.19 Drill water system
10.3.3 Low pressure mud system

Low pressure mud is the fluid (mixture of bulk mud and drill water, see 10.3.2)
used as circulation fluid when drilling an oil well. Fig. 2 20 shows a typical low
pressure mud piping system.

The low pressure mud is mixed in the mud hopper by mixing drill water with bulk
mud. The mud mixing pump circulates the mixture from the mud pits through the
mud hoppers and back to the pits until the required mud density is achieved. Mud
agitators in each pit keep the liquid mud from settling down prior to use.

The low pressure mud is sucked by the supercharging pump which discharges the
mud into the suction header of the mud pump to maintain a constant inlet volume.

Overboard discharge line is provided for clean mud discharge. If oil based mud is
used for drilling operation, used mud will be stored in a waste oil mud holding
tank before being loaded to another vessel through the port/starboard discharge
station or a waste oil mud tank.

The low pressure mud can also be piped to the cementing unit for high pressure
pumping requirement for the cement manifold.
10.3.4 High pressure mud and cement

The high pressure mud is created after well mixed low pressure mud as stated in
10.3.3. It is being sucked to the slush pump. There is a piston type pump which
creates a discharge pressure up to 5,000 psi (pound per square inch) working
pressure. ~ e l i e fvalves are installed on each pump so that normal working
pressure cannot exceed the system design pressure. Fig. 10.21 shows a typical
high pressure mud and cement piping system.

The high pressure mud is discharged via the discharge manifold to the drill floor .. .
stand pipe manifold, from stand pipe to'the Kelly connector down the drill string
for mud circulation and returns via the mud return system.

The high pressure cement is pumped to the drill floor using the cementing unit.
There is also a high pressure piston pump, which is capable of developing 10,000
psi - 15,000 psi.

High pressure cement is used to stabilize the outside of the drill string by forming
a concrete jacket- between the bore hole and the casing. The cement unit can also
be used to pump high pressure mud or cement down the well to sta%ilizing the
blow out.
10.3 5 Mud processing system

This system is designed to clean the drilling mud, which has been pumped down
the well with the high pressure mud pumps to aid in circulation. This mud is
returned from the mud return line as stated in 10.3.4 and must be cleaned of other
particles, which are mixed with the mud during the-drilling process. Fig. 10.22
shows a typical mud processing piping system.

The mud returning from the well through the casing flows into the flow line to the
shale shaker. The mud passing through the shale shaker mud will be reprocessed
and the cuttings will be discharged overboard.

10.3.6 Preload filling and dumping system

The preload (ballast) filling is the use of sea water through the raw water tower
pump to fill the preload (ballast) tanks of a rig (typically jack-up rig). Fig. 10.23
shows a typical preload filling and dumping piping system.

Normally, the jack-up is preloaded before elevating the hull. After elevating with
the preload, the ballast water is discharged over board through the preload dump
valve.
Fig. 10.22 Mud processing system

167
Fig. 10.23 Preload filling and dumping system

168
11. Procedure
Manufacturing of piping system consists of the following steps :

- Calculation
- Fabrication
- Non Destructive Testing
- Cleaning
- Installation
- Insulation -
- Testing
- Painting

11.1 Calculation

Calculation is the starting point of the engineering process for manufacturing


piping system, It includes mainly flow hydraulic calculation and geometric
calculation.

Hydraulic calculation concerns mainly the pressure, velocity and temperature.


Based on which the sizing of the pipe is done.

Geometric calculation addresses the issue of mainly the pipe routing and layout.

Based on the calculations and rules and regulations the piping systems are
designed.

Please refer to Chapter 11 for details on calculation.

11.2 Fabrication
The term "FABRICATION" is meant to encompass all those operations
necessary to produce a finished pipe product, which include mainly the
following :

- Preparation
- Cutting
- Bending
Fit up
- Welding
A simple flow chart for fabrication is shown below:

Marking

v
Cutting

Bending
v
Fit up

Welding

v
Inspection

Chapter 12 gives details on fabrication.

11.2.1 Preparation

Before fabrication, some preparation work should be done. The preparation work
includes:

Drawing preparation

Drawing is the basis for fabrication and installation. Drawing must be prepared
before fabrication starts.
Pipe material preparation

Based on the drawings, pipes and pipe fittings of required specification have to be
purchased or collected from the store.

Tool preparation

Fabrication tools must be prepared. These tools include oxygen flame, cutting
machine, bending machine, bending mould and clamp, welding machine, test
instrument etc.

11.2.2 Cutting
From the raw materials pipes are cut to suitable lengths for further processing such
as bending and welding. The cutting is normally done by oxygen flame or cutting
machine.

11.2.3 Bending
Bending is an important process in pipe fabrication. There are two ways to achieve a
bend.

- Pipe bending
- Elbow welding

Usually, the small pipes whose nominal bore is less than 100 rnm can be bent by
bending machine. While the pipes with bigger diameter must be welded with elbow.

Generally, pipe bending is carried out by means of cold bending machine with
bending radius of approximately two to three times the pipe diameter.

11.2.4 Welding

Welding is used for joining a pipe with elbow, flanges and other fittings or the hull.

Welding is preferred for those piping systems that involve infrequent dismantling
and require strong leak proof connection.

Chapter 13 gives details of welding.


11.3 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
In order to ascertain that the piping system satisfies required specification and has
certain quality level, the fabricated parts of the'piping system is subjected to non-
destructive testing. They mainly include the following :

- Radiographic Examination
- Ultrasonic Examination
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

Chapter 14 gives details of NDT.

'11.4 Cleaning

After finishing bending and welding, pipes and pipe fittings should be cleaned if
required.

Following methods can be used for cleaning:

- Caustic soda or sulphuric acid pickling for greasy pipe


Water cleaning by fresh water, sometimes hot water may be used.
- Sand or shot blasting

Chapter 15 gives details of cleaning.

11.5 Installation

Installation is the process of fixing up all the pipes .and fittings at the right place
according to the arrangement drawings.

It mainly involves (i) connecting the pipes together after bringing them to the
right place and (ii) fixing the supports to hold the pipes in place.

Details of Installation is given in chapter 16.

11.6 Insulation

Insulation is necessary to those piping systems which need to keep the heat of the
transfening media. The following materials are used for insulation :

- Rockwool
- Wire
Glass fibre cloth
- Rockwool mattress
- Asbestos
11.7 Testing

After all the pipes, fittings and valves are installed onboard, hydrostatic pressure
testing or oil testing is usually necessary to detect any leakage in the pipe line. This
test is conducted to find any source of leakage at the pipe connections and valves.

Chapter 17 gives detail of such tests.

11.8 Painting
. .

Painting should be done after installation to rectify damaged surfaces. Paint marking
of different colours should be used for distinguishing different piping systems.

The recommended colour representations are as follows:

Steam - Silver
Condensate - Orange
Heavy fuel oil - Dark brown
Diesel-oil - Light brown
Lubricating oil - Canary yellow
Feed water - Orange
Cooling sea water - Green
Ballast sea water - r lass green
Fresh water - Oxford blue
Compressed air - Salmon pink
Bilge - Black
C& fire fighting - Red
Refrigeration - White
Fire fighting - Full red
Deck wash - Full red
Hydraulic line - Brown
Air and sounding - Brown

Chapter 18 gives details of painting.


12. Fabrication
12.1 Processes of Fabrication
The fabrication of pipes represents one of the largest outfit tasks in shipbuilding. Pipe
pieces are manufactured in pipe workshop and then delivered to the assembly site for
installation.

The specific processes involved in pipe piece fabrication include:


.. . - Cutting
- bending
- Edge preparation for welding
- Flange fitting and welding
- Hole and contour cutting
- Branch fitting and welding
- Cleaning
- Coating
- Testing
- Material handling

Fig. 12.1 shows the flowchart of pipe fabrication.

12.2 Cutting

From the raw materials (normally 6 metre), pipes are cut to suitable lengths for
further processing. Pipe cutting can be mechanical or thermal. Mechanical cutting
is performed using stationary band saws or rotating machine tools. Portable or
stationary propane torch or plasma arc cutting are common thermal processes.
Thermal processes are generally used to make contour or hole for fabricating
branches.
Engineering On-site
Drawing Drawing

Bending
I
1
Marking

Edge Preparation b Cutting

Flange, Elbow, Joint etc


1
Bevelling1 Bending
Grinding
4
Fit-up

P"7Tack Welding

ri Finish Welding

I Installing
I
Testing

77- Commissioning

Fig. 12.1 Flowchart of fabrication


r--lColour Coding
A - A

Fig. 12.3 Ellipticity and reduction in thickness

The bending quality is measured by the following factors:

Ellipticity
After bending, the circular pipe becomes elliptical. The ellipticity is measured by:

Dl - DS
E =---------------X loo(%)
D
Where:
D - Original diameter
. Dl - Long diameter
Ds - Short diameter
Usually, E should be less than 10% (see Fig. 12.3).

Reduction in thickness
After bending, the wall thickness of outer side will be reduced. The reduced ratio is
measured by:

t-tr
T = ----------- x 1W(0/0)
t

Where:
t - Original thickness
tr - Reduced thickness
12.3 Bending

The pipe bending phase can be the most expensive phase of work in the pipe piece
fabrication process. The two basic processes of bending are cold bending and hot
bending. Cold and hot bending can be further subdivided into bending with or
without internal support. As wall thickness and bend radius decrease relative to pipe
diameter, internal suljport may be needed to retain roundness or to prevent collapse.
.Machines for the cold bending of pipe come in a wide variety of sizes and control
type. Fig. 12.2 shows a pipe cold-bending machine. During bending operation, a pipe
is fitted on the machine. The pipe is clamped by two dies, named clamping die and
pressure die, and the bending form (sometimes called bending mould). The pressure
die is fixed on the machine, while the clamping die can rotate along with the rotation
of rotating head, so that the pipe is bent to some angle. There is a mandrel, which is
inserted into the pipe. The mandrel is attached as the internal support for better
bending quality. Computer Numerical Control (CNC) bending machines are widely
used now.

Fig. 12.2 Pipe bending machine

There is a wide range of hot bending caiabilities. In general, hot bending is an


expensive, inefficient, and time-consuming process and therefore is avoided if at all
possible. Hot bending is most commonly used for pipe over 6 inches (150 mm) in
diameter.

Standard elbows are commonly used to replace bending process, especially for larger
diameter pipes.
Usually, T should be less than 16% (see Fig. 12.3).

Wrinkle
After bending, some wrinkles are generated in the inner side of pipe bend. Usually, ..

the value of h (see Fig. 12.3) should be less than 11100 of D.

12.4 Edge Preparation

End preparation, when not performed as part of a thermal cutting process, is done
using portable grinders, either manually or semi-automatically, on tracked guides.
Boring millei-s or pipe lathes are also used for mechanical end preparation. The
pipe lathe is preferred, since it can easily be adjusted to hand.le straight pipe of
almost any material, length, and diaineter.

12.5 Welding
Pipe piece welding, including welding of flanges and branches or tees, is usually
done using submerged arc or gas metal arc (GMA) processes. Occasionally, gas
tungsten arc (GTA) may be used for a root pass followed by GMA, especially for
larger-diameter pipe. Automatic flange fitting and welding machines are
becoming more common in the world.

12.6 Cleaning
After finishing bending and welding, pipes and pipe fittings should be cleaned .
Following methods can be used for cleaning:

- Caustic soda or sulphuric acid pickling for greasy pipe


- Water cleaning by fresh water, sometimes hot water may be used
- Sand or shot blasting

12.7 Coating

After successful welding, surface of pipes and pipe fittings have to be coated
as specified in drawings. Coating methods include:

Galvanizing
As per specification, some pipes are required to be galvanized. The processes
include:

- De-greasing
- Acid pickling
- Galvanizing

Pipes should be dipped in the galvanizing tank of temperature 440°C - 450°C.

As far as possible, galvanizing should be carried out after fabrication of


pipes. But if welding is carried out after galvanizing, the damaged parts
should be touched up with suitable paint.

Paint
Painting is applied to some pipes according to the.requirement. The surface pre-
.
processing for painting is similar to those for galvanizing.

12.8 Marking
After fabrication, pipe piece should be marked or tagged for recognition purpose for storing and
installation.

12.9 Manufacturing Branch Pipes


Branch pipes are often fitted on main pipes to make diversion of the fluid. In addition
to the-utilizationof three-way tee joints, welded branches are commonly used.

In the processes of manufacturing branches, making the saddles is the important


work. Saddle making is the process of cutting a saddle-shaped hole on the main
pipe and cutting a saddle-shaped end at the end of branch pipe. With these two
saddles, branch pipe can be fitted on the main pipe intimately.

To make an accurate saddle, a stencil should be made through the developing-


process. The dqveloping of the intersection curves between main pipe and branch
pipe can be done manually or using computer. Fig. 12.4 shows a manual
development drawing.
1 DEVELOPED L OF MAIN PIPE

Fig. 12.4 Developing branch manually

The procedures of making development of intersection are as follows:


- Draw front view of main pipe and branch pipe with given intersection angle
- Draw a circle of main pipe above the front view
- Draw a circle of branch pipe at right side of the circle of main pipe
- Divide the circles of main pipe and branch into 12 parts
- Draw a semi-circle of branch at the front view
- Divide the semi-circle into 6 parts
- Draw projection lines to get points a, b, c, d, e, f, g
- Make a smooth curve for a-b-c-d-e-f-g, which is the intersection curve
- Develop the main pipe and show the view at right side of front view
- Connect points a-b-c-d-e-f-g and make a smooth curve in the view
- Draw the symmetric curve, the closed curve in the developed drawing of hole
on main pipe
- Develop the branch and show the view below the front view
- Connect points a0"-bl"-c2"-d3"-e4"-f5"-g6"-f5"-e~-d3~~-~2"-bl"-aO, make
a smooth curve, which is the developed curve of branch saddle

After the two curves are obtained through development, make the stencils and cut
hole and branch sadd.les based on the stencils. Then the branch is welded onto the
main pipe.
Manual development is a difficult job. Computer application is necessary to get
rid of the manual work. Fig. 12.5 shows a developing drawing generated by
computer.

PIPE-PIPE INTERSECTION
DIAMETER OF P I P E 1: 219.1
DIAMETER OF P I P E 2: 355.6
. . ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PIPES: 60.0
MATERIAL LENGTH: 6 8 8 . 3

Fig. 12.5 Developing drawing generated by computer

On the top-left area, we can know that the diameters of main pipe and branch pipe
are 355.6 and 219.1 mrn. Their intersection angle is 60'. The developing length of
branch pipe is 688.3mm.

The drawing at left side is the connection between main pipe and branch pipe.
The drawing on top-right is the developed drawing of the saddle-hole on main
pipe. The drawing on lower-right side is the developed drawing of the branch.
The width and height of each part is displayed from which the curve can be made.
13. Welding
Welding is the process by which two pieces of metal are fused together by the
current through the electrode and the deposition of molten electrodes along a line :
or a surface between them or at a certain point.

Welding is used for joining components of piping system together, and then
attach the system to the structures of the hull.

Welding is preferred to those piping systems that involve infrequent dismantling


. -
and require strong leak proof connections. Welded piping systems, compared to
pipes joined by any other methods, are stronger, require less maintenance, last
longer, allow smoother flow, and weigh-less.

13.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is a welding process that uses a flux
covered metal electrode to carry an electric current, Fig. 13.1. The current forms
an arc across the gap between the end of the electrode and the work. Molten metal
from the electrode travels across the arc to the molten pool on the base metal,
where they mix together. The end of the electrode and molten pool of metal are
surrounded, purified, and protected, by a gaseous cloud and a covering of slag
produced as the flux coating of the electrode bums or vaporizes. As the arc moves
away, the mixture of the molten electrode and base metal solidifies and becomes
one piece.

FUME COVEReta
ELECTRODE

Fig. 13.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Shielded metal arc welding is the most widely used welding process because of
its low cost, flexibility, portability, and versatility. The machine and the
electrodes are low cost. The machine itself can be as simple as a 110 volt, step
down transformer. The electrodes are available fr,om a large number of
manufacturers.

The shielded metal arc welding process is vary flexible in terms of metal
thickness that can be welded and the variety of positions it can be used in.

Shielded metal arc welding has some limitations when compared with other arc
welding processes. These limitations relate primarily t a metal-deposition rate and
deposition efficiency. For example, electrodes used in shielded metal arc welding
usually are 460 mrn or less in length and, therefore, welding must be stopped
after each electrode is consumed. Also, deslagging is required after each pass to
remove the slag covering that forms on the weld.

The shielded metal arc welding process is very well suited to the fabrication and
repair of piping systems.

13.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), also called Tungsten Inert Gas or TIG, uses
an electric arc between a tungsten electrode (non consumable) and the work.
Shielding is obtained from an inert gas or inert gas mixture. Filler metal may be
added as needed. The welding torch and tip of the tungsten electrode, the arc, the
gas shielded envelope, the weld pool and solidified weld metal, and a filler wire
or rod being fed into the arc and weld pool are shown in Fig. 13.2.
Fig. 13.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas tungsten arc welding of a pipe is used when welded joint must have a high
degree of integrity.

Gas tungsten arc welding gives the industry the type of joint it needs. Welders
who are skilled in the GTA welding process have the ability to make consistently
high quality welds with low rejection rate. GTA welded joints can produce 100%
root penetration successfully. GTA welding process is much slower as compared
to other types of welding.

13.3 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Flux-cored arc welding is similar to shielded metal arc welding in that it is self-
shielding. However, the gas and gas-generating flux is contained in the core of a
roll-formed and/or drawn tubular wire, rather than on the outside of a core wire as
a coating. The cored wire serves as a continuous consumable electrode, with the
filler in the core fulfilling the same function as SMAW - providing self-shielding
gases, slagging ingredients, arc stabilisers, and allow additions and deposition rate
enhancers. The self-shielding provided by the generation of gases from the core
through the arc is more effective than when gas is generated from an external
coating. By the time the gas that is generated reaches the air to be swept away, it
has fulfilled its shielding function. For this reason FCAW is an excellent choice
for welding in the field.
The main advantages of FCAW are high deposition rates, larger & better
contoured welds than SMAW, portability, and excellent suitability for use in the
field.

Coupled with a positioner, it can become a semi-auto welding process where the
deposition rate can be controlled and has an even, smooth finished surface.

Fig. 13.3 shows the self-shielding and gas-shielding forms of FCAW.

Fig. 13.3 Self-shielding and Gas-shielding forms of FCAW

13.4 Welding Procedures

Typically, welding procedures consist of the following

- Cleaning
- Bevelling
- Welding
- Post processing
- Heat treatment- for certain type of material
Inspection

Cleaning
Before welding, it is necessary to remove oil, grease, oxide, rust, and other
foreign matter from the surface. Cleaning can be done by wire brushing, grinding.
Beveling
For welding thick-walled pipe, it is necessary to prepare the edge, which is called
bevelling. The type of bevelling depends upon the thickness of the pipe and the
type of welding. Fig. 13.4 shows some shapes of bevels.

(a) Shielded Metal Arc Welding

(b) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

(c) Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Fig. 13.4 Some Shapes of Beveling

Welding
After cleaning and necessary bevelling the pipes are welded.

Post processing
After welding, cleaning work should be done to remove the sediments by
grinding.

Post weld heat treatment


For some high tensile materials, post weld heat treatment is necessary for
removing the stress caused by welding.
Inspection
Inspection is to be carried out to ensure there is no defects such as Overlap,
Undercut, Lack of penetration or fusion, Distortion, and Crack. Detailed of
various inspection method is given in chapter 14.

14. Non Destructive Tests

14.1 Types of Inspection

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is extremely important in piping fabrication and


installation process. Nondestructive testing methods are capable of detecting
material discontinuities, which, at some later time might lead to failure of an
entire piping system while under operating conditions.

Most nondestructive test indications are qualitative. Interpretation of NDT results


involves judgment based on experience. Because of the reliance on human
experience factor, the nondestructive tests are often expressed as nondestructive
inspection or examination.

Various nondestructive inspections used in piping fabrication and installation


system are as follows:

- Dye penetrant inspection


- Magnetic particle inspection
- Ultrasonic inspection
- Eddy current inspection
- Radiographic inspection

14.2 Dye Penetrant Inspection

Dye penetrant inspection is a method of detecting and indicating surface


discontinuities in relatively nonporous ferrous and- nonferrous metals. It is the
oldest NDT method.

Dye penetrant inspection is performed by painting the weld area with a liquid dye
or searching liquid first that penetrates any surface openings. After permitting
time for penetration, the excess liquid is removed by a special cleaner. Then the
area under inspection is painted again, this time with a coating of developer.
Application of the developer is crucial since either too much or not enough might
give poor results. If there are any cracks, they are shown as visible lines through
the action of the developer.
Dye penetrant method is being used mostly to detect cracks or porosities and
other surface defects in pipe welds. While grinding the weld area is not a
prerequisite for this type of inspection, it helps removing weld spatter and surface
irregularities and other extraneous materials that might lead to an incorrect
interpretation of results. Dye penetrant inspection is one of the least costly
nondestructive testing methods and requires only a short training period for the
operator.

14.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection 'is used for locating surface or near surface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. This method involves establishing a
magnetic field within the material to be tested. Discontinuities at or near the
surface of welds set up a leakage in the magnetic field. The patterns of
discontinuities is revealed by applying magnetic particles to the surface, either as
a dry powder or suspension in a liquid. The leakage field attracts the magnetic
particles, and thus the discontinuities are located and evaluated by observing the
areas of particle build up. These magnetically held particles form an indication of
the location, size and shape of the discontinuity. Some of the factors that
determine the detectability of discontinuities are magnetising current, direction
and density of magnetic flux, method of magnetisation, and properties of the -
weldment material.

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection

The magnetic particle inspection reveals discontinuities that are not open cracks.
For example, cracks filled with carbon, slag or other contaminants, and therefore
not easily detectable by dye penetrant method. Magnetic particle inspection is
generally faster and more economical than dye penetrant inspection, and less
cleaning is required.

This method may be used to inspect welds and plate edges prior to welding, and
forthe inspection of welded repairs.

Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is applicable only to ferromagnetic materials.


This method should not be relied on for deep-seated discontinuities.

14.4 Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic inspection is one of the most widely used methods of nondestructive


inspections. Its primary application is the detection and characterisation of internal
flaws. It is also used to detect surface flaws, to determine bond characteristics, to
measure thickness and extent of corrosion.
In this method high-frequency sound waves are introduced into the material being
inspected to detect surface and subsurface flaws. The sound waves travel through
material with loss of some energy(attenuati0n) and are reflected at interfaces. The
reflected beam is detected and analysed to define the presence and location of
flaws.

Most ultrasonic inspection instruments detect flaws by monitoring one or


more of the following : (a) reflection of energy from discontinuities within
the metal itself (b) time of transit of a sound wave through the test piece
from the entrance point at the transmitting transducer to the exit point at the
receiving transducer and (c) attenuation of the sound waves by absorption
and scattering within the test piece.

Ultrasonic inspection can easily detect cracks, laminations, shrinkage cavities,


bursts, flakes, pores bonding faults and other discontinuities. Inclusions and other
inhomogeneities in the metal being inspected can also be detected by causing
partial reflection or scattering of the ultrasonic waves, or by producing some other
detectable effect on the ultrasonic waves.

Ultrasonic inspection is to be performed by qualified personnel (NDT level 11)


and according to specified procedure. A sample of test report is given in Fig 14.1.

Advantages of Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic inspection has the following advantages :

1. Its superior penetrating power enables detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. Detection of extremely small flaws are also possible because of high
sensitivity.
3. Greater accuracy in determining the position of the internal flaws,
estimating their size and characterising their orientation, shape and nature.
4. Only one surface needs to be accessible.
5. Its electronic operation provides almost instantaneous indications of flaws.
6. Scanning ability enables inspection of a volume of metal extending from
front surface to back surface of a part.
7. It is not hazardous .
8. The equipment is portable.

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Inspection

1. Its manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technician.


2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or inhomogeneous
are difficult to inspect.
4. Discontinuities that are present in a shallow layer immediately beneath the
surface may not be detectable.
5. Couplants aie required to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic-wave energy
- between transducers and parts being inspected.
6.' Reference standards are needed, both for calibrating the equipment and for
characterising the flaws.

14.5 Eddy Current Inspection

Electric impulses generated in close proximity of the area to be inspected are


affected by the properties of the material being inspected. Thus this inspection
method uses the application of electricity to investigate electrical and physical
characteristics of the test object.

Eddy current method is used mainly to detect surface cracks but can also be used
to detect variations in material buildup and thickness. For eddy current method
well trained operators are required.

14.6 Radiographic Inspection

Radiography is extensively used in the inspection of both shop as well as field-


fabricated pipe welds. This is one type of examination that also produces a
permanent record of its findings. Additional interpretations of any inspection can be
undertaken when necessity arises.

A radiograph is photographic record of a test specimen that is exposed to the


passage of X-rays or gamma rays, with the result .captured on film. The
nomenclature X-rays and gamma rays refer mostly to the methodology or
technique that is being used to inspect certain weldments. Otherwise, X-rays and
gamma rays of the same wave length are physically identical. X-ray inspection is
more often used in manufacturing facilities where an X-ray machine may be -
permanently installed. For inspection of field welds, however, portable
radioactive isotopes such as Cobalt-60 or Iridium-192 provide an ideal source of
radiation. In either case, radiation from either source proceeds in straight lines to
the test object. Some rays are absorbed and others pass through the material being
inspected. Less density of the test object, which may result from slag inclusion,
gas bubbles, porosity, or other internal defects, absorbs less radiation and thus
results in a darker spot on the film, indicating the size and exact location of any
inclusion.

Radiography requires extensive training of the operator for both operating the
equipment and interpretation of the result films. Not only is the operator required
to be skilled in the various techniques of radiography, but he or she must also
follow strict regulations that require time records of the exposure to radiation
sources and limit personal exposure during prescribed periods.

Weld areas to be radiographed should be smooth, and any weld ripples must be
removed through grinding so that a smooth weld crown can be inspected. The
actual performance of one type of radiography of a pipe butt weld requires
attaching or placing the film on'the outside of the pipe and having the radiation
source at the opposite side of the pipe. The X-rays or gamma rays then pass
through both pipe walls to provide film exposure that only encompasses a
segment of the weld. Depending on pipe size and wall thickness, an average of
three exposures is required, each encompassing one-third or 120 degrees of a pipe
circumference:- .

An alternative method provides placing the radiation source inside the pipe,
permitting exposure of the total weld at one time. This mostly requires an access
hole through which the radiation source is inserted into the pipe. With the help of
a mechanical device, it is placed in the exact centre of the pipe. After satisfactory
completion of such radiographs, the access hole is then closed, which most often
does not lend itself to radiography.
Quality Assurance Department
Ultrasonic Testing Report

I :~eferenceNO. I UTICNTICAJO1I Date 15 Nov 1998

Project No. A200 1


Client XYZ International

Subject Cantilever Web plate attached to vertical beam & face plate, Beam B.
Location Fr. 29 - Fr. 39 Port Side
Drawing No. A49
WPS No. HW 048
Weld Nos. NA '

Welder Nos. A011 A012 A013 A014 A015

Material Steel
Couplant Wall paper paste
Equipment Krautkramer pulse echo A-Scan type, USK - 7B
Surface Condition Ground Smooth
Calibration Block No. Block No. 5
Test Procedure B243lNDTPlOo1 Rev. 02
Acceptance Criteria ABS Rules for Nondestructive Inspection (86)
Technique No. No. 113
Examination Stage After 72 Hours
Sensitivity Setting P.R.E Set at 80% of Full Screen Height
Ref. Hole Diameter 1.2 mm
Range Setting 200 mm
Date of Inspection 15 Nov 1998
NDT Inspector SHI YAN
Qualification Level I1

II Probe Type

Brand
.

Size Frequency True Angle Type Sensitivity Transfer Loss


I
Krautkramer 10 mm 4 MHz 0 deg MBS-N4 30 dB 0 dB
Krautkramer 8x9 mm 4 MHz 70 deg MWB-N4 50 dB +4 dB
Krautkramer 8x9 mm 4 MHz 60 deg MWB-N4 48dB +4 dB
Krautkramer 8x9 mm 4 MHz 45 deg MWB-N4 40 dB +2 dB

Findings No lamination or laminar tearing were detected in base metal adjacent to the
weld.
Inspection Result Acceptable

NDT Inspector Client Classification


Fig. 14.1 Sample Ultrasonic Test Report
15. Cleaning
After the fabrication and installation, the piping is required to be cleaned.
The procedure of cleaning depends upon the system for which the piping is
used. Table 15.1 gives a schedule for cleaning of various piping systems.

Cleaning of Hydraulic Oil System

Following steps are to be followed for cleaning hydraulic oil system using
carbon steel or stainless steel pipes :

(i> Mechanical Cleaning


(ii) Degreasing
(iii) Descaling (Pickling)
(iv) Passivation and Neutralisation
(v) Oil Flushing
(vi) Inspection
(vii) Blow Off

Mechanical Cleaning
All carbon steel pipes are to be flushed with fresh water using a pump and
filter(70 microns). Stainless steel pipes and tubings are to be blown with
dry filtered air until no traces of debris is found.

All joints are to be hammered to enable the removal of debris, especially


weld slags. Filter is to be cleaned or changed as required. Flushing shall
continue until filter is clean. Flushing speed shall not be less than 7 m/s
(23 ftls).

(ii) Degreasing
(not required for stainless steel pipe)
It is done by circulating a degreaser for 2-3 hours to remove oil and grease
and subsequently, flushing out the system with fresh water until no traces
of degreaser is found.

(iii) Descaling (Pickling)


(not required for stainless steel pipe, if required, nitric acid is used instead
of hydrochloric acid) )
Descaling is required for removing all iron oxides and mill scales from the
surface of pipes. It is done by circulating a solution containing 6-8%
inhabited hydrochloric acid or other equivalent compound at ambient
temperature for 4-6 hours. Subsequently, the system is to be thoroughly
flushed out with fresh water until neutral PH (6-7PH) is achieved).

Passivation and Neutralisation


(not required for stainless steel pipe)
Passivation and neutralisation is to be done within one hour of the
completion of descaling process. A solution containing 1% citric acid and
ammonia or other equivalent compound is circulated for 1-2 hours until
PH value is 3.5-4.Then a solution of 0.5% sodium nitrate or other
equivalent compound is circulated for minimum 2 hours until PH value is
9.5-10. Finally, blow out the system with dry filtered air to remove all
traces of liquid.

(v) Oil Flushing


(for carbon steel pipe and stainless steel tubing only).
Pipes are flushed with flushing oil(Shel1, BP or equivalent) using a gear
pump and 5 micron filter for not less than 4 hours. The filters are to be
cleaned or changed in every hour or less. 'All joints are to be hammered to
enable the cleaning. Flushing speed shall not be less than 7 m/s (23
ft/s).Flushing requires cleanliness to achieve NAS class 7 and
demonstration of particle count for record on hydraulic system only.

Hot Oil Flushing


(for stainless steel pipe only)
Pipes are to be flushed with hot oil of type same as that the system is
meant for. Flushing must be carried for minimum 6-8 hours. During the
flushing operation, oil samples have to be taken every 4 hours or as
required. 100 rnl of hydraulic oil shall be running through out oil sample
filter. The sample filter shall be compared-with a master slide. When the
sample is similar or better than the master slide, hot oil flushing shall be
stopped.

Following points are to be noted for hot oil flushing :


a. The approximate range of temperature of hot oil is between 60°C
and 70°C.
b. The lowest flow rate (Q) of hot oil through pipe should be
calculated as follows :

Where,
Q = Flow rate in litrelmin
Re = Reynolds number, minimum 4000 is required to
ensure turbulent flow
v -
- Viscosity (Centistoke)
D -
- Internal diameter of the pipe(rnm)

c. Flushing requires cleanliness to achieve NAS class 7 and


demonstration of particle count for record on hydraulic system
only.
(vi) Inspection
Inspection shall be visually done on site to ensure all pipes are reinstated,
sealed, properly secured and supported.

(vii) Blow Off


Upon completion of flushing operation pipes are to be blown with dry filtered
air to remove all flushing dil. The pipes are to. be filled with the system
hydraulic oil immediately (not longer than one week with all outlets sealed).
However, if the hydraulic oil can not be filled immediately, the pipes shall not
be blown dry yet. The pipes must be properly sealed off-to prevent water
from entering. The layer of flushing oil can act as a rust deterrent for not more
than 45 days. Air blowing shall then be done only prior to filling up of the
hydraulic oil.

15.2 Cleaning of Lube Oil System

All the pipes fkom filling station to service tank and fkom service tank to main
generator of the lube oil system using carbon steel pipes should be cleaned following
the procedure stated in section 15.1 . However, oil flushing does not need to achieve
cleanliness NAS class 7.

15.3 Fuel Oil System


All the pipes from purifier discharge to service tank and emergency day tank, fkom
service tank to main generators and boiler, and emergency day tank to and fkom
emergency generator using carbon steel pipe are to be cleaned using the procedure
stated iin 15.1.However, oil flushing does not need to achieve cleanliness NAS class

15.4 Breathing Air System


All stainless steel tubings fkom compressor discharge to cascade storage cylinder and
cascade storage cylinder discharge to breathing outlet station are to be blown off dry
and contaminant free after hydro testing. Inspection is to be done as per (vi) of 15.1.

15.5 Other Systems


All the other systems are to be blown with compressed air and all the joints are
hammered until no traces of debris is found.
PIPES CLEANING FOR VARIOUS SYSTEM
I
NO W . N O SYSTEM SERVICE LOCATlON PROCEDURE REMARK
1 1
PI29 ariIl~or.Cantilever
and Main Service Entire System I

i 2
/ PI04
BOP Skidding

Fuel Oil
i
Main Service
i
1 After Purifier discharge Ill other part of system
see procedure IV.
1 BOP n Diverter Conlrol ) 1
v

3 f Pi30 BOP Accumufator Entire system except I


1 [ piping within equipment
4 PT49 Rack Chock Drive Main Service Entire System 1
f
5 PI05 Lube Oil Main Service Entire System except Il
1 Lube and Dirty Oil Drain
6 P131 Rig Floor Equipment Main Senice Entire System I
I

7 1 PI32 ConductarTensioner 1 Main Service Entire System I


t
I
8 P I 18 Helicopter Refueling 1 Main Service Entire System I
i
. 9
,
Pf 35 BOP Handling Crane Main Service Entire System I

10 PI28 Breathing Air Main Service f Entire System IV


1
71 1 PI33
1

Preload Fig / Dump Valve Main Service Entire System I


f
12 1 PI34 Quick Closing Valve Main Service Entire System I

Table 15.1
16. Installation
16.1 Methods of Installation
Installation is the process of fixing up all pipes and fittings at the right places on
board according to the arrangement drawings.

There are three methods of installation:

Unit pre-installation
Unit is a self-contained, self-supporting collection of outfit pieces assembled prior to
combining with structural blocks or to land on board during erection. Using this
method, designers should define an arrangement of pipes and fittings to be assembled
in-house, independent of hull structure. This method enhances safety and reduces
both required man-hours and duration, which would otherwise be allocated to
outfitting on-block and on-board.

There are mainly two kinds of unit:


- Machinery unit - machinery combined with all adjacent components, including
foundation, pipe pieces, valves, supports, walkways, ladders, etc.
- Pipe unit - no machinery, just pipe pieces combined with valves, supports,
walkways, etc.

To use unit pre-installation method, some considerations should taken during design
stage:
- Machinery and equipment which are functionally affiliated are, when practical,
arranged close together, to facilitate packaging in units.
- Common foundations are used for such machinery, and immediately adjacent
walkways and piping share common supports
- As far as practical, pipe bends are restricted to 90 and 45 degrees, as a means for
achieving accuracy in joints between pipe pieces, units, and between pipes and
machinery.
- Even pipes which simply pass through a zone for contemplated outfit unit are
designed as part of the unit for outfitting on-unit
- As far as practical, small tanks and foundations for machinery and equipment are
designed to be independent of hull structure.

Machinerylequipment are fixed to the foundations. Pipes and fittings are fixed with
these equipment. All of these form a working unit, which perfonns one specific
function. After finishing the pre-outfitting of the unit, the unit is installed into hull
block or ship.

The advantage of this method is that most work will be finished in the workshop
rather than at work site. Fig. 16.1 shows an example of a pre-outfitting unit.
Fig. 16.1 Pre-outfitting unit

Block pre-installation
Block is a section of a ship structure which is a three dimensional entity. Blocks are
combined to form a ship during erection, and are normally the largest sections to be
assembled away from the erection site. Block pre-installation is the assembly of pipes
and fittings, or pipe unit onto the hull block at work site.

Both on-unit and on-block pre-fabrications shift the installation work from on the sea
to in workshop or on the land. Besides, the following benefits can be obtained:

- Installation work is equally apportioned to work packages grouped by product


aspects at the most efficient manufacturing levels
- Uniform and coordinated work flows are maintained
- Shifting fitting work, especially welding, from difficult positions to easier down-
hand positions, thus reducing both the man-hours needed and the duration
required
- Transfemng work from enclosed, narrow, high, or otherwise unsafe locations to
open, spacious, and low places, thus maximizing safety and access for material
handling
In some advanced shipyards, the pre-outfitting rate can reach more than 90%.

On board installation
This method is to fix up pipes and fittings on board during hull erection or after
launching. Naturally, it is lower efficient than the above two pre-outfitting methods.
This method should be restricted as little as possible. On-board installation is often
used when the detailed drawings are not available and site routing is required.

Pipe pieces which are to be installed on-board are limited in both length and weight,
for ease of handling by one worker.

16.2 Procedures of Installation

No matter which installation method is used, the main steps of installation are as
follows:

Cleaning the pipes and fittings


Before being installed, all pipes and fittings should be cleaned ensuring that there is
no dirty oil and sediments exist, especially inside the pipes. At present, in some cases
this step is skipped due to the tight production schedule. This should be discouraged.

Installing support
It is important from an economical point of view to install supports and hangers that
form part of piping system earlier so the necessity to install temporary supports will
not arise. Supports are used to secure pipes on the hull structures or other objects. Fig.
16.2 shows some standard pipe supports and hangers.
"
Mi W Saddle S m Mi. W k r HWQOI s p i l c w m Ron -slopon
Type38 w l w o S*mel T W O -TIPS
Trps-43 *Y

UqW-Onp -4.- SIwICbrl. Si% C b l m CUp


-2 Rbu.rCLMp *I4 of ChunMCllmP 'lW2IJ
Sd Pipe Ccnrinp
t Pipe RDll Ccmplele Tvpba VPQ
Proloctim SaMlO T W 4
k=-39

s i b tip0 Ron ~ q . ~ ~ p o ~ o l l ~ ~ u s
Trps-41 VF-+'4

c a m Or M J y S6Wl nnga 9.m W/VO Sne! WoIess CQmP -1W.F. a*P Pip S.ddb S W
R b r Clamp
TIP12
rrps rumda~. €ye NQ -n wfilel~ T Y P ~
7lP.l' TYF+l7 m@g
Connecting pipes
Large piping, hangers and supports require lifting equipment for the operation for
which sufficient clear space must be available. After pipe spools have been lifted and
are aligned, preferably starting from a fixed position such as a pump outlet or vessel
nozzle, necessary connections between various pipe spools, valves, and vessels or
pumps can be accomplished.

When flanged joints are involved, the necessary gaskets are inserted and the bolts will
be lightly tightened. Final tightening of bolts in flanged joints should only proceed
when a piping system is completely installed between two fixed-end positions.

If a pipe passes through bulkhead, deck or hull structure, a hole should be made. If
. the structure part is watertight, penetration piece should be used and welding is
necessary to maintain the watertight.

Testing
After a piping system is completely installed and required inspection of its
component parts (i.e. X-ray of butt welds) has been satisfactorily completed, a
- hydrostatic test can be performed. A system do tested should then be described on a
data sheet, indicating the exact boundaries of the tested area. Such a data sheet will
then represented a record that gives all available data, including testing media and
applied pressure.

Flushing
Flushing should be carried out for specified pipes according to the procedure,
stipulated in the specification.

Usually, the following piping systems should be flushed, using the mentioned
method:

Fuel oil -
To be circulated by flushing oil.

Lubrication oil -
To be circulated by flushing oil or system oil.

Compressed air -
To be blown out by compressed air.

Hydraulic oil -
To be circulated by flushing oil or system oil.

Insulation
Insulation is normally applied to piping systems to prevent any heat exchange to take
place between the fluid carried in the pipe and the exterior surroundings. It is thus
applicable-to prevent heat loss from a pipe carrying a warm or hot fluid. Alternately,
insulation may be designed to keep a low-temperature fluid from increasing its
temperature.

In the process of insulation, the following materials are used to cover on the outside
of pipes and fittings:

- ~ a l c i silicate
u~
- Diatomaceous earth
- Polyurethane form
- Assortment of various felts, glass fibers and plastic
- Cellular glass for cold insulation

Piping insulation is mostly available as a preshaped product where two halves are
slipped over the straight lengths of pipe while fittings, flanged joints, and valves
require a craftman's skill to cover their divergent contours unless preshaped materials
are available. Pipe insulation are often covered with metallic (aluminum, stainless-
steel) covering that provides additional protection and beauty.

Painting
Painting should be done after the installation to rectify damaged surfaces.

Painting with different colors should be used for distinguishing different piping
systems.

17. Testing
17.1 Hydrostatic Testing on Board

All Class I and I1 pipes and the associated fittings are to be tested by hydrostatic
pressure to the Surveyor's satisfaction. Further, all steam, feed, compressed air
and fuel oil pipes, together with their fittings, are to be similarly tested where the
design pressure is greater than 0 . 3 5 ~ 1 m m ~The
. test is to be carried out after
completion of manufacture and installation on board and, where applicable,
. before insulating and coating.

Where the design temperature does not exceed 300°C, the test pressure is to be 1.5
times the design pressure.

Fig. 17.1 shows a diagram of hydrostatic pressure testing

Notesl

.Recarder Is requlred In
s ~ e c l o lc a s e .
Stctna'ardl \ hour holdfng t i n e
Hedlunl W a t e ~

Fig. 17.1 Hydrostatic Pressure Testing Arrangement

For hydrostatic testing, the piping or vessel is filled with the testing medium,
which is normally water, and all openings are closed with the exception of a
connection to a test pump and other openings that may be required for fitting
valves for testing or for venting air out so that air pockets do not impede the
pressure test.

It is standard practice that during hydrostatic testing all expansion joints are being
restrained or isolated and all safety or relief valves are gagged. After completing
the filling operation, the test pump will start operating until the required pressure
has been reached. A minimum time limit of ten minutes pressure holding is
required .
The actual test itself consists two distinct parts. First, observing the pressure-
measuring instrument to see that pressure remains constant. Second, if a pressure
drop is observed, one must visually check if and where a leak can be detected.

17.2 Testing after Assembly on Board

Heating coils in tanks and fuel oil piping are to be tested by hydrostatic testing,
after installation on board, to 1.5 times the design pressure but in no case to less
than 0.35 ~ / m m ~ .
. -
Where pipes are butt welded together during assembly on board, they are to be
tested by hydrostatic pressure. The pipe lengths may be insulated, except in way
of joints made during installation and before hydrostatic test is canied out.

Hydrostatic test may be omitted provided non-destructive tests by ultrasonic or


radiographic methods are canied out on the entire circumference of all butt welds
with satisfactory results. Where bilge pipes are running in way of double bottom
tanks or deep tanks, the pipes after fitting are to be tested by hydrostatic pressure
to the same pressure as the tanks through the they pass.

18. Painting
Pipes need to be painted for protection of surface. In some cases they need to be
galvanised. The painting requirements are normally specified in the painting
scheme.

18.1 General Requirements

For piping system which is exposed to the atmosphere, paint should be chosen in
such a way that it is highly corrosion resistant and resistant to ultraviolet
radiation.
For piping subjected to high temperature, paint should be heat resistant, corrosion
resistant, weather resistant and resistant to intermittent condensation.

Pipelines on deck should be treated according to their operating temperature. It


may be necessary to use more or less heat resistant paints.

For ease of identification, the pipes are to be coloured as follows :

. .

System Color
Steam Silver
Condensate
Heavy fuel oil Dark brown
Diesel oil

Feed water Orange


Cooling sea water Green
Ballast sea water Glass green
Fresh water Oxford blue
Compressed air

C02 fire fighting Red


Refrigeration White
Fire fighting Full red
Deck wash Full red
Hydraulic line Brown
Air and sounding Brown

18.2 Galvanising

As per specification, some pipes are required to be galvanised.

The processes includes:

- De-greasing
- Acid pickling
Galvanising

Pipes should be dipped in the molten zinc galvanising tank of temperature 440°C -
45O0C .

As far as possible, galvanising should be carried out after fabrication of pipes. But if
weldlng is carried out after galvanising, the damaged parts should be touched up
with suitable cold galvanising paint. .
19. Material Handling

In the processes of fabrication and installation, various operations are performed on


pipes. There is a need to lift and move pipes within shops, between shops and storage
areas, and to a d onto the erection site. This chapter will consider general categories
of material handling equipment applicable to pipe fabrication and installation.

19.1 Material Handling Equipment

Material handling equipment can- be subdivided into four general categories:


conveyors, cranes and hoists and container (pallet).

Conveyors
Conveyors are commonly used to move pipes in workshop, especial workshop which
equips with semi-automatic fabrication line. Pipe conveyor systems are
predominantly rollers type equipment. Pipes may be moved on conveyors to perform
saw cumng or plasma cutting, flange welding, bending, surface preparation, weld
testing and coating.

-Conveyor systems can improve the pipe work flow, but occupy more workshop
space.

Cranes
Cranes are one of the most common types of material handling equipment employed
in shipyard. There are four main categories: bridge cranes, jib cranes, gantry cranes,
and mobile cranes.

Bridge cranes require support on both sides along their full length of run. Gantry
cranes are similar to bridge cranes, except that they are self-supporting and travel in
railways on the ground. Jib cranes are also self-supporting and run on railway. They
commonly are the revolving type to pennit outreach over open work area, including
erection sites and storage areas. Mobile cranes come in many types and sizes. They
may be lowcapacity wheeled vehicles, crawler type vehicles, or floating cranes.
Those heavy cranes such as bridge cranes and gantry cranes are used to lift pre-
installed pipe unit or pipe pallet onto ship for on-board installation.

Hoists
Various types of hand-operated hoists are available and may be used for special
situations in shipyards. Chain falls, blocks and tackle, hydraulic jacks, and similar
portable lifting devices are available. These are commonly of a 15 to 20 tons lifting
capacity.

Container (pallet)
Pallets are special-type of boxes for holding pipes, valves and fittings. They provide
the capacity for improving material flow. Pallets are used for moving pipe materials
t Effective lenath I

Thimble Thimble

UlechanGl splice

Thimble Reeving
thimble

Soft eye Soft eye

Endless

Brother
slings

Fig. 19.4 Wire rope slings


19.3 Lifting Operations

Slinging with two soft eyes


To make a choke hitch:
- Pass the sling round the load.
- Place packing as:necessary to protect the sling.
- Pass one soft eye through the other end soft eye.
- Fit the free eye on to the lifting hook.
- Before starting the lift take up the slack and check that the load is properly
balanced. (see Fig. 19.5).

Fig. 19.5 Lift a load by soft eye

Make sure the bight angle is less than 120"; more than this will weaken the sling
by overstraining it when the load is applied. (see Fig. 19.6).

Bight
rnax.
(5 of

Fig. 19.6 Bight angle is less than 120"


Using endless slings
- Pass the sling round the load and back through its own loop.
- Fit the free end loop directly onto the lifting hook.
- Check that the load is central before commencing the lift. (See Fig. 19.7)

Fig. 19.7 Using endless sling

Using brother chain slings


- Pass the legs of the sling under the load - twice if the chain is long enough.
- Fit (snickle) the hooks to the leg chains placing packing as necessary to protect
the chain and prevent slipping.
-- ~

- Make sure both hook points face outwards.


- Before starting the lift, take up the slack and check that the load is properly
balanced.
Fig. 19.8 shown the operation.

Fig. 19.8 Brother chain sling

Unbalanced loads
- Position the crane hook vertically over the centre of gravity of the load. This will
have been already marked by the manufacturers or engineers.
- Attach slings of equal length at the equal distance from the centre of gravity.
Or
- Use slings of unequal length with the crane hook placed vertically above the
approximate centre of gravity, as shown in Fig. 19.9.

Fig. 19.9 Loading unbalanced load

Mousing a hook
Where there is no safety catch fitted to the hook and there is a danger of the load
slipping off the hook, the throat of the hook must be moused (trapped). Fig. 19.10
shows three types of mousing.

Throat - 61
Clove
. ,

hitch

Fig. 19.10 Mousing a hook


Loading crane hooks with slings
Load crane hooks with slings within an angle of 90". Increasing angles of more
than 90" will rapidly reduce the efficiency of the sling. (See Fig. 19.11).

Fig. 19.11 Sling angle Fig. 19.12 Using shackle

Use a Dee or Bow shackle to collect more than two thimbles. (See Fig. 19.12).

Use a shackle or ring and a pair of shackles when fitting slings to a hook. This
will prevent the hook being stained as the slings spread and take up the load. (See.
Fig. 19.13).

Shackle ,
, h

Fig. 19.13 Using a pairs of shackle

19.4 Handling Pipe for Fabrication

In pipe workshop, there are some facilities, which handle pipe for
fabrication.

Fig. 19.14 shows the method of aligning two straight pipes using alignment
clamp.
Fig. 19.14 Alignlfit pipe to pipe

Fig. 19.15 shows the handling methods of aligninglfitting elbow to pipe.

/yHook

Adjustable turnbuckle

. .

t e r Level

Fig. 19.15 Alignffit elbow to pipe


Fig. 19.16 shows a roller device for welding.

/ Pipe

Roller

Fig. 19.16 Roller for welding

References:
1. J. Crawford , C.Eng., F.I.Mar.E., Marine and Offshore Pumpingand Piping Systems, Butterworths,
1981
2. H. D. McGeorge, Marine Auxiliary Machinery Yhedition, Butterworths-Heinemamm, 1995
3. Louis Gary Lamit, Piping Systems DraBing and Design, Prentice-Hall, inc, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
07632,1981
4. Otto Mendel, Practical Piping Handbook, PemWell Publishing Company, 1981
5. R.H. Warring, Handbbok of Valves, Piping and Pipelines, 1'' Edition, Trade & Technical Press Ltd.,
1982
6. Ron Culley, Fitring and Machining, TAFF Publications Unit RMIT Ltd., 1988
7. Roy A. Parisher, Robert A. Rhea, Pipe DraBing and Design - Using Manual, AutoCAD, and Pro-
Pipe Applications, Gulf Publishing Company, 1996
8. Waher, Uno, Practical Introduction to Pumping Technology: A Basic Guide to Pumps,from
Specification to Installation and Operation, Houston, Tex., Gulf Pub., 1997
9. E. Smith and B. E. Vivian - Suffolk,An Introduction Guide to Valve Selection: Isolation, Check and :

Diverter Valvesfor Energy, Process, Oil & Gas Industries, Mechanical Engineering Publicatmns,
1995
10. A. M. Berendsen, Marine Painting Manual, Graham & Trotman, 1989
11. Larry Jeffus, Welding Principles and Applications, Delmar Publishers, 1999
12. Robert W. Messler, Jr., Principles of Welding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999
13. D A Taylor, Merchant Ship Construction, The Institute of Marine Engineer, 1992
14. R L Storch, C P Harnmon, H M Bunch & R C Moore, Ship Production, The Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers, 1995
SI Bass Units:
-- ---.- -
r- QUANTITY f UNIT /-- SYMBOL

r..-- .
............
.
............................... . --.:
]AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE ]Moles : - :. . mol 1

Derived Units:
Force - Newton (N)
N = Mass x Acceleration = Kg x m/s2

Pressure - Pascal (Pa)


Pascal = ForceIArea = N/m2
1 bar = lo5 Pa
1 ~ ~ f / c =r 98.1
n ~ KN/m2
= 9.81 N/cmZ
= 0.981 bar

Work - Joule (J)


Work = Force x Distance
J=Nm

Energy - Joule (J)


Stored ability to do work.

Heat - Joule (J)


Energy in motion between a system

Power Watt (W)


Power = WorWTime
W = Nmls
RULES FOR THE MANUFACTURE,
TESTING AND CERTIFICATION
OF MATERIALS,
J U ~ Y2002

Steel Pipes and Tubes Chapter 6


.. -
Sections 7 & 2

7.72.2 It is recommended that hard stamping be restricted


0 0 0
to the end face, but it may be accepted in other positions in N N N
q 0- 9 0-
accordance with National Standards and practices. B G R
N

1.13 Cetiiication
m
0
I I I
N
7.73.7 The manufacturer is to provide the Surveyor with c"
0
copies of the test certificate or shipping statement for all
material which has been accepted.
(0
c gd gd gd
o E o E o E
2
7.73.2 Each test certificate is to contain the following
particulars: s
3
'
o m 0 0
rnN---m
f
0
k 6 Z dE E
2-8
0 E
(a) Purchaser's name and order number, -m3 0 0 0 0 0
0 0

(b) If known, the contract number for which ihe material is


intended.
0
(r
zbro P
0 3 -
-
m
m z g

(c) Address to which material is despatched. s


O
2
X
In .; q
(d) Specification or the grade of material.
(0
- 2 8o o8
(e) Description and dimensions. E
(fj Identification number andlor initials. zm 0
,
'
".
N
0
'4
O
(g) Cast number and chemical composition of ladle
samples. -
7
- b z
b-
I
O-
N
I
m-
(h) Mechanical test results, and results of the intercrystalline
corrosion tests where applicable. -
C
.-
.-
(0
0

(1) Condition of supply. a 2 4


O3E z-4
O E g-
o

7.73.3 The chemical composition stated on the certificate - k o m m m m


is to include the content of all the elements detailed in the
m
." m * * w w 9 9- I9
S
specific requirements. Where rimming steel is supplied, this is E a g 0- 0.
0 0
0- 0-
0 0
9
0
0-
0 0

to be stated on the certificate. 6 o m m m m 0 0 0


m e - t w w * * b

7.73.4 When steel is not produced at the pipe or tube mill, "Fxsggg 9
0 9
0
9
0

a certificate is to be supplied by the steelmaker stating the 0


process of manufacture, the cast number and the ladle
~
fi-
0
c9 cu
0
--
0
ln
0 0

0
b-
0
'?
0

0
analysis.
In

.-alPP 5 7777-l 0 0 0 0 0
I
0'
I
0 0
I
t b
0 0
*
0
. m cq
0 0
b
0
-t-
0
b
0
7.73.5 The steel manufacturer's works is to be approved &!
3 m o m
by LR. m m
0 m m m m
ln
" ,
.- m - m m m 0 0 0

G G ~ G 4 4
0- 0-
5
I
0-

' Section 2 $ 2 :
Seamless pressure pipes " d
VI
d o
v? VI
&
o
VI
2-
o
vl
0-
I
2
0-
I
0-
I
g-
.-s
0-
2.1 Scope .-
+a
0- 0

8 c
:s-2 :
.+- U
2.7.7 Provision is made in this Section for seamless P gr P73 u D U U
m -
m -
u *-
pressure pipes in catbon, carbon-manganeseand low alloy steels. E, .I. -
E P E P
-m 28 E
$
b
2.1.2 Where pipes are used for the manufacture of .5!
pressure vessel shells and headers, the requirements for $ O
0 0 ~ 0
m
0
=: ?
* 8* 8
forgings in Ch 5,7 are applicable where the wall thickness 5 $ ,,***
N ( D (D
*
exceeds 40 mm.
-
>
(U u ( "0
m
<
-
?

,- C
a k 2 9 9
2.2 Manufacture and chemical composition .+- C 0 0) g r
al
m
a
2-0 5 = "
< &
0
7
S $ E
2.2.7 Pipes are to be manufactured by a seamless 5 @ 0 g h y
process and may be hot or cold finished. $

2.2.2 The method of deoxidation and the chemical


composition of ladle samples are to comply with the
appropriate requirements given in Table 6.2.1.
RULESFOR THE M A N U P A ~ UTESTING
RE, AND CERTIFICATION
OF MATERIALS, 2002

Steel Pipes and Tubes Chapter 6


Section 2

2.3 Heat treatment Table 6.2.3 Heat treatment

2.3.1 Pipes are to be supplied in the condition given in Type of steel Condition of supply
Table 6.2.3.
Carbon and
carbon-manganese

2.4 Mechanical tests Hot finished Hot finished (see Note 1 )


Normalized (see Note 2)
2.4.1 All pipes are to be presented in batches as defined Cold finished Normalized(see Note 2)
in Section 1. Alloy steel

2.4.2 Each pressure pipe selected for test is to be 1 CrlhMo Normalized and tempered
subjected to tensile and flattening or bend tests. 2l/4CrlMo Grade 410 Fully annealed
Grade 490 Normalized and tempered
2.4.3 The results of all mechanical tests are to comply 650-780°C
with the appropriate requirements given in Table 6.2.2. Grade 490 Normalized and tempered
650- 750°C
~/zc~~/zMo~/~v ~ormaJizedand tempered
2.5 Mechanical propertiesfor design
NOTES
1 . Provided that the finishing temperature is sufficiently high
2.5.7 Values for nominal minimum lower yield or 0,2 per to soften the material.
cent proof stress at temperatures of 50°C and higher are 2. Normalized and tempered at the option of the manufacturer.
given in Table 6.2.4 and are intended for design purposes
only. Verification of these values is not required, except for
materials complying with National or proprietary specification 2.5.3 As an alternative to 2.5.2, a manufacturer may carry
where the elevated temperature properties used for design out an agreed comprehensive test program for a stated grade
are higher than those given in Table 6.2.4. of steel to demonstrate that the specified minimum
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures can be
2.5.2 In such cases, at least one tensile test at the consistently obtained. This test program is to be carried out
proposed design or other agreed temperature is to be made under the supervision of the Surveyors, and the results
on each cast. The test specimen is to be taken from material submitted for assessment and approval. When a
adjacent to that used for tests at ambient temperature and manufacturer is approved on this basis, tensile tests at
tested in accordance with the procedures given in Chapter 2. elevated temperatures are not required for acceptance
If tubes or pipes of more than one thickness are supplied from purposes, but at the discretion of the Surveyors occasional
one cast, the test is to be made on the thickest tube or pipe. check tests of this type may be requested.

2.5.4 Values for the estimated average stress to rupture


in 100 000 hours are given in Table 6.2.5 and may be used for
design purposes.

Table 6.2.2 Mechanical properties for acceptance purposes: seamless pressure pipes (maximum wall thickness
40 mm), see 2.1.2

Elongation Flattening Bend test


Yield stress Tensile strength
Type of steel Grade
N/mm2 N/mm2
on 5,65 6 test constant diameter of former
% minimum C (t = thickness)

320 195 320-440 25 0.10


360 215 360-480 24 0,lO
Carbon and 41 0 235 410-530 22 0.08 4t
carbon-manganese 460 265 460-580 21 0,07
490 285 490-610 21 0.07
1 Crll2Mo 440 275 440-590 22 0.07 4t
41 0 135 41 0-560 20
(see Note 1 ) 0,07
21/4CrlMo 490 275 490-640 16 4t
(see Note 2)
1/z~rlhMo1/4~ 460 275 460-610 15 0,07 4t
NOTES
1. Annealed condition.
2. Normalizedand tempered condition.
RULESFOR THE MANUFACTURE,
TESTINGAND CERTIFICATION
O J U ~ Y2002
F MATERIALS,

Steel Pipes and Tubes Chapter 6


Section 2
- -

Table 6.2.4 Mechanical properties for design purposes: seamless pressure pipes

Type of steel Grade Temperature "C


50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
. 320 172 168 158 147 125 100 91 88 87 -
Carbon and 360 192 187 176 165 145 122 111 109 107 -
. carbon- 41 0 217 210 199 188 170 149 137 134 132 -
. manganese 460 241 234 223 212 195 177 162 159 156 -
490 256 249 237 226 210 193 177 174 171 -
1CrlhMo 440 254 240 230 220 210 183 169 164 161 156 151 -
41 0 121 108 99 92 85 80 76 72 69 66 64 62
(see Note 1)
2l/zcrl MO
490 _ 268 261 253 245 236 230 224 218 205 189 167 .I45
(see Note 2)
266 259 248 235 218 192 184 177 168 155 148 -

NOTES
1. Annealed condition.
2. Normalized and tempered cond~tion.

Table 6.2.5 Mechanical properties for design purposes: seamless pressure pipes - Estimated values for stress
to rupture in 100 000 hours (units Nlmm2)

Carbon and carbon-manganese lCrlhMo 2114CrlMo 1/2Crl/2~01/4~


Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
Temperature 320 460 440 41 0 490 460
"C 360 490 Annealed Normalized
41 0 and
tempered
(see Note)
380 171 227 - - - -
390 155 203 - - - -
400 141 179 - - - -
410 127 157 - - - -
420 114 . 136 - - - -
430 102 117 - - - -
440 90 100 - - - -
450 78 85 - 196 221 -
460 67 73 - 182 204 -
470 57 63 - 168 186 -
480 47 55 210 154 170 218
490 36 47 177 141 153 191
500 - 41 146 127 137 170
510 - - 121 115 122 150
520 - - 99 102 107 131
530 - 81 90 93 116
540 - - 67 78 79 100
550 - - 54 69 69 85
560 - - 43 59 59 72
570 - - 35 51 51 59
580 - - - 44 44 46
NOTE
When the tempering temperature exceeds 750°C thevalues for Grade 410 are to be used.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
A pump. is a device which adds energy to a liquid or gas causing an increase in its pressure
and perhaps. a movement of the fluid.

Types of Pumps:
1. Displacement pumps
2. Dynamic pressure pumps

Displacement Pumps:
I n displacement pumps, the liquid o r gas is displaced from the suction side to the
discharge side of the pump by .the.mechanical variation of the volume of a chamber or
chambers. They can be further subdivided into two classes :

1.Reciprocating Piston or Plunger Pumps


2. Rotary Pumps

You will do calculations on displacement pumps.

Question 1

A single acting reciprocating pump has a bore of 300 m m diameter and piston stroke of
200 mm. I f the crankshaft speed of the pump is 30 rpm, and it delivers 6.5 litres/sec of
fresh water, find the theoretical discharge, coefficient of discharge and percentage of slip.

Solution:
Diameter = 300 mm
Stroke = 200 mm
n = 30 rpm
Qactua~ = 6.5 f 1s

Area = n (0.3m)~/4=0.0707 m2

Coeff of discharge = Qactual/


Qtheor
= 6.5 I 7.1 = 91.55 %

Percentage of slip = (Qth- Qac)/Qth


= (7.1 - 6.5)17.1 = 0.617.1 = 8.45 %

Question 2
A double-acting reciprocating pump has a bore of 150 m m diameter and has a crank throw
of 150 mm. The piston rod diameter is 30 mm diameter. When the crankshaft rotates at
40 rpm, the discharge rate is 200 litres/min. Neglecting losses, find:

a) theoretical discharge rate in litreslmin,


b) coefficient of discharge, and
c) slip of the pump.

What would be the theoretical discharge rate,


1) when the speed of the crankshaft is now speed up to 80 rpm ?
2) when two pistons are used (i.e. as in a duplex pump) ?

Solution:
This is a double acting pump, we should consider both volumes of upper and down areas.

Bore = 150 mm
Cramkthrow = 150 mm = 0.150 m
Piston rod = 30 mm
n = 40 rpm
Q = 200 fitre Imin

Cramkthrow = 150 mm = 0.150 m


Stroke = 2 x 0.150 m = 0.30 m

For upper side of piston,

Vol. = 17.67 x m2 x 0.30 m= 5.30 x 1 0 ' ~m3

For lower side of piston,

A = n (0.1 502- 0.0302)/4= 16.97 x 1o - m2


~
Vol. = 16.97 x 10" rn2 x 0.30 m = 5.09 x m3

Total vol per stroke = (5.30 -t 5.09) x 1o - m3


~
= 10.39 x 1o - m3
~
Qtheor =Q per stroke x no of stroke per sec
= 10.39 x m3 x 40/60= 6.927 x m3/s
Coeff of discharge = QaGtual/
Qtheor
= 3.333 x 10" m3/s 16.927 x 10" rn3/s= 0.48 1= 48.1 %

Percentage of slip = (Qth- Qac)/Qth= (6.927 - 3.333) x 1 0 ' ~/ 6.927 x = 5 1.9%

Question 3

A general cargo liner uses a reciprocating displacement pump. as the main bilge pump.
Using the classification rules on bilge pumping, calculate:

1) the nominal bore diameter (mm) of the main bilge pipe.


2) the nominal bore diameter (mm) of the branch pipe to a cargo compartment if the
distance between the bulkhead is 20.0m.
3) the capacity of the bilge pump i n (m3/hr).
4) I f the vessel has an engine room of length 12.0 m, calculate the nominal bore diameter
of the aft bilge suction pipe.

The following are information of the vessel:


a) Length of vessel is 122.80 m
b) Breadth of vessel is 17.50 in
c) Depth of ship to bulkhead deck is 8.00 m.

Solution:
1). Main bilge pipe:
From the Classificaction Society's Rule, ,the internal diameter of the main bilge line is
not to be less than stipulated by the following formula, to the nearest 5 mm:
dl = 1.68 4 L(B+D) + 25 mm
L - length of ship in meters, here is 122.8 m
B - breadth of ship in meters, here is 17.5 m
D - depth of ship to bulkhead deck in meters, here is 8.0 m

So, d = 1.68 4 122.8(17.5+8.0) + 25 mm = 1 19.01

Take: d l = 125 mm (to nearest nominal bore size)

2). Branch pipe


From the Classificaction Society's Rule, the internal diameter of branch bilge suctions
is not to be less than stipulated by the following formula, to the nearest 5 mni:
dl = 2 . 1 5 m ) + 25 mm
1 - length of compartment in meters, here is 20.0 m
--
dZ= 2.154 .&(B+D)+ 25 mm
= 2.154 20.0(17.5+8.0) + 25 mm
= 73.55 mm
= 75 mm (to nearest nominal bore size)
3). Pump capacity, Q
From the Classificaction Society's Rule, the capacity of bilge pump is determined by
the following formula:

here, Q = 5.75(125)2/103

4). Branch pipe at engine room


Using the formula:

where I= 12.0m
= 2.15d 12.0(17.5+8.0) + 25 mm
= 62.6 mm= 65 mrn (to nearest nominal bore size)
A centrifugal pump has the following characteristics:

. ..... r^

b e a d (m) 1 17

I t is used to transfer water from one tank to another, in which the


water level is 8.0 m higher, through 100 m of 150 mm diameter
pipe with friction factor f = 0.020 and fittings with total k value of
10.0. ~ e t k r m i n ethe pump discharge and the power input.

Solution:

Step 1: To draw the H-Q curve according the data given. You may also draw the
efficiency curve according to the data given.
1
I
I Step 2: To calculate system head at each discharge point by using:
i
Hsystem = Hs + Hm + Hf

Where: HsYstem -- System Head (Unit: m)


HS -- Static Head (m), here is 8m
Hm -- Minor Losses (m)
Hf -- Friction Losses (m)
, .
i

v2
H, = 2 K ---- here C K=10
2g

L v2
H~= f -- --- here f=0.020, L=100m
D 2g
I

Area of the pipe,


a=(3.14/4) d2= (3.1414)~0.150~=0.01767m~
I
I
I
Since Q=av, wecan calculate different v at different Q. Using the above equations, we can
get different system head, as listed in the table below.
1
?
Based on the system head a t different Q point, we can draw a system curve.

In the drawing, the intersection point between H-Q curve and system curve is the
OPERATING POINT of the pump.

At the operating point, we can get:


The discharge of the pump, Q = 21.5 Us
Output pressure head, H=9.6 m
Efficiency = 62%

The power of the pump can be calculated by:

Power = pgQH
= 1025 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s x 21.5 x 10" m3/s x 9.6 m
= 2075 w = 2.075 kw
Some useful formulae
Density
m
P
- density

nz - mass
v -
- volume

Pump power

P=p.g.Q.H - P - pump power


P - density of fluid
-
- 9.81
g
O = flow quantity
H = fluid head

Static pressure due to height of fluid column

-
p =p.h P - pressure
- density o f fluid
P
h - fluid head

P
- pressure
g
- 9.81
P
-
- density o f fluid
h - fluid head

Force due to static pressure

F =p.A F -
- force (n)
P
- pressure w/m2)
A - cross-sectional area (m2)

Relative Density

'7
- relative density ( )

P
-
- density of substance 0
P'
- density o f fresh water (kglm3)
Flow rate

Q = v.A flow rate


flow velocity
flow area

Flow branching

total flow rate (m3/sec)


branch flow rate .. - (m3/sec)

Bernoulli's Equation

(m) ignoring other losses

Torricelli's Equation

- flow velocity at orifice


- 9.8 1
- height of fluid

Drainage Time of equal-section tank

Table method

i
x.d2 volume I
a=- time = 1

4 Qmvrw

1
i

j
Form~rlnMethod

t = drainage time
A -
- area of surface
a - flow area of orifice
-
- 9.81
g . .

dK = height of level 1
= height of level 2

Pipe wall thickness

t - minimum wall thickness (ml)


P
- internal fluid pressure (Wntn23

d = nominal diameter of pipe (mm)


0 -
- allowable stress 0
C -
- corrosion allowance (mm)
n -
- negative manufacturing allowance
on pipe wall thickness (mm)

Positive displacement pump capacity

QIheo = N . 1.a.n
-
Qtheo - theoretical volume flow rate (m3/sec)
-
N numeral for single- and double acting,
number for cylinders ( )
I = length of piston stroke h?)
n -
- area of piston 64
n - number of cycles per sec ( .:set)
Pump and system heads calculations

Reynolds Number, Re (dimensionless)

17. d
Re = -- v -
- flow velocity in pipe -
tm)
v
d .-- diameter of pipe (m)
1- kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/sec)
v

If Re < 2,000 flow is laminar.


64
Use friction factor f = --
Re
wheref is the friction factor.

If Re > 2,800 flow is turbulent.


Find friction factor from Moody's chart.

E
Relative rorrghness, -
d
E - surface roughness (m, mm)
d - diameter of pipe (m, mm)

Head loss due to wall friction in pipes, Hf

ZI = total length of pipe fiom suction point


to discharge point (m)

Head Ioss due toflttings (also termed a s minor losses), Hk

ZK = total numeral of fitting coefficients ( )

System head
-
Hsystem - . Hstaric + Hprexs + Hf +Hk (mj

P ~ i m ppotver.
Power required = p.g. Q-Hsystem Pf-7
Bilge main and branch pipe sizes, bilge pump capacity

Main bilge pipe size, dm,, (empirical fomula)

L - lengthof ship in(m) .


-
B - breadth of ship in (m)
D = depth of ship to bulkhead deck in (m)

Branch bilge pipe size, dbrmCh


(empiricalfomrrla)

-
C length of cargo hold in (m)
I

Bilge pump capacity, Q (empiricalformla)


i
I
2
Q = 5.75 d-,

Q = pump capacity in (m3hr)

Heat insulation

Heat transfer through w d in plain surfaces

kw
Q = -. A. (T, - T, ) for a single-layered wall
Yw

-
Q heat transferred 0
kw - thermal conductivity of wall (W/m OK)
- wall thickness (m)
Yw
A -
- area of heat transfer (m2)
T - surface temperature of walI ("C, OK)

A-(G - T I
Q= for a two-layered wall
Y1 A -Y2
-
-. .

Heal fratt+fer fhrotcgh cylirru'ricai wailed surfaces

k, .2z.L
Q= .(q- <> for a single-layered wall

0 = heat quantity transferred


k, = thermal conductivity of wall (W'm OK)
r2
- outer wall radius (m)
r1
- inner wall radius : . (m)
L - length of cylinder (my
T -
- surface temperature of wall ("C, OK)

for double-layered wall

Heat loss from surface

Q = heat quantity transferred @3


u . = overall heat transfer coefficient (w/nzl' "C)
T - temperature of bulk ("c)

Heat it1 heating and coolitlg

Q = m.c,.(& --T,)

Q = quantity ofheat
m -
- mass of bulk Fd
- specific heat capacity (J/kg. T)
CP
T -
- temperature of bulk ("c)
Fuel tank sizing

-
1 nautical mile (nm) = 1,853 m - 1.853 km

I knot -
-
1 nautical mile per hour (r~n?,,'h)

Range is the distance (in nautical miles) that a ship can sail without reheling.

Specific h e 1 consumption (SFC, g'kKh) is the measure of he1 amount that


an engine would bum to produce 1 kW over 1 hour
.. .

Amount of &el oil burned (kg) - SCF@kW. h) x x (kW) x y (h)


where x -
- power developed by engine
At maximum continuous rating (kW)
Y -
-
number of running hours (h)

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