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Answer:
Justice has been described as the first virtue of a society, by Rawls. It is the most
fundamental basis on which is the edifice of the every state is built. A State can
continue so long as people consider it just.
The importance of theory of justice in Plato’s work can be seen as even the
subtitle of the masterpiece. ‘The Republic’ is ‘Concerning Justice’. Justice is the
main ideal that Plato aspires for, because it signifies stability and has external
character, and goes about incorporating it in his Republic.
• Show how Plato gives his theory of justice and his concern behind it.
The main concern of Plato was to create Athens as an ideal State. For Plato, the
State was the ideal, of which justice was the reality.
The methodology used by Plato to arrive at this was dialectics. Through his book
Republic written in the form of a dialogue. Plato arrived at some observations.
Justice was not simply doing your duty, but also a source of virtue. Moreover, it
was better to be just than to be unjust. Plato believed that it was important to
understand. God’s idea of justice to arrive at the perfect idea of justice. He
explained through the myth of souls, in which reason was the most important, as
how to structure the society and generate a just order. This would distribute
functions in society so that each individual contributes his own part to making a
just society.
Moreover, since state is individual writ large. The principle of justice would also
be embodied by the State.
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Thus, just a State, for Plato, was based on division of labour and functional
specialization. It exhibited non-interference and regarded temperance as a virtue.
Such a state would not only create excellence but also lead to harmony.
Answer:
Aristotle being the greatest disciple of Plato has also dwelled on the idea of
Justice. Both Plato and Aristotle believed that the primary task of the state was to
ensure justice.
Distributive Justice, as per Aristotle, meant that offices and wealth, rewards and
dues were distributed among different social classes according to their
contributions based on merit, defined in accordance with the spirit of the
Constitution. It meant proportional inequality and was linked to a theory of just
rewards or equal shares according to the merit of the recipients and one’s just
deserts.
• Link all three: His theory of Justice, Equality & revolution together.
Application of this theory can also be seen in the theory of slavery. It would be
unjust if treat the masters having reason and courage and slaves lacking it, as
equals.
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3. “Machiavelli has been called the first realist in politics.” Explain with
particular reference to his concept of relationship between ethics and
politics.
Answer :
Realism is the power view of politics. For Realists, power is an end and power
is a means. Realism attempts to look at things as they are, rather than as they
ought to be.
His main concern was that Italy was vulnerable to internal and external threats.
He wanted to Italy emerged as a strong nation State. Survival and preservation
of the State was his fundamental concern. Machiavelli’s book “The Prince” was
written to achieve this end, and considered as the best book in the field of
statecraft. It contains a set of advices to the Prince, which project Machiavelli
as a Realist.
According to him, Politics was ultimately and finally, a constant struggle for
power and domination, which had to be judged by its own rules and norms so
that States survived. Machiavelli sanctioned the use of deception, cruelty,
force, violence, and the like for achieving the desired political ends. Thus, the
basic principle was, ends justifies the means, which is the essence of Realism.
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The term Machiavellianism signifies this very separation of ethics and politics
as he projects politics as uninspiring.
Machiavelli also advice the Prince to look at things as they are, rather than as
they ought to be. One who sacrifices “is” for “ought” is bound to ruin himself
and bring destruction of his people.
Moreover, he invented the concept of Dual Morality and separated private from
public sphere of morality. The State or Prince had a morality of its own the
morality of the success of State, different from that of common man.
No one before Machiavelli could, in the straight forward manner, talk about
politics. Plato was known as father of Idealism and his Philosopher King was
only concerned about what ought to be. Some realism came to Aristotle in the
theory of Revolution. But only with Machiavelli could talk about politics in an
unapologetic manner. It is the pardon that Machiavelli is criticized most for his
views, yet he is practiced more in sphere of politics.
4. “These dictators of reason men use to call by the name of laws but
improperly for they are but conclusions or theorems concerning
conduct to the conservation and defence of themselves.” Comment.
Answer :
He recognized the existence of natural law in the state of nature. Natural Law
can result in piece if followed. However, since passion dominates over reason
in man, natural exists merely as ‘counsels of prudence’ or ‘ articles of piece’.
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“Law” in true sense, as per Hobbes is one which originates from a definite
common authority and comes with power of enforcement. Thus, the law made
by the state is sovereign as it has police power, making fear as a motivation for
obedience. Through this theory of Law, Hobbes justifies absolute authority of
the state to ensure peace.
Hobbes, take on law, has, henceforth, inspired the realist view on international
politics. It believes that even though international law exists, but in the
absence of a law enforcement agency, it is difficult to enforce. Thus, in
international politics power remains the end and power remains the means.
5. “The measure of property nature well set, by the extent of men’s labour
and the conveniency of life.”Comment.
Answer :
In Locke’s political theory, the term property has a special meaning. He uses it
in two senses- in the broad sense it includes right to life, liberty and estate. In
the narrow sense, it is used only for the right to possess and retain one’s
estate.
Hence, State does not have any right to limit man’s control over property. It is
necessary of man’s well being.
However, Locke does put certain restrictions. According to him, only that
property justified which is a product of man’s labour, horse and the product of
his slave. Thus, he gives the labour limitations and spoilage limitations, should
not deprive others.
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6. “From this liberty to each individual follows the liberty within the same
limits of combination among individuals; freedom to write for any
purposes not involving harm to others.” (J.S.Mill) Comment.
Answer :
It is said that if anyone is liberal, in true sense, it is Mill. His Essay on Liberty
is one of the finest discourses on the definition of freedom where he has given
the detailed view of his Theory of Liberty. Even Locke has talked about Liberty,
but no other scholar before Mill had given such a detailed view.
Mill belongs to the age of transition. The period is witnessing a transition from
classical liberalism to welfare state. Thus, there is inconsistency in his
thoughts as even though he wants maximum liberty, he fails to justify absolute
liberty.
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This theory ultimately also brought criticism. BARKER calls him a “prophet of
empty liberty”. Mill makes an artificial and non scientific separation in human
actions. In this process, he creates a lot of scope for state’s intervention.
Despite that, we cannot overlook the huge contribution made by Mill. He is the
one of the great champions of freedom of speech and expression. Mill’s idea of
liberty has also influenced the Indian Constitution.
Answer :
The key note to Bentham’s theory of utility is that state is useful only so long
as it caters to the “greatest happiness to the greatest number”. He considers it
as a yardstick for the state policy. As SABINE has put it, “This principle the
utilitarian held to be the only rational guide, both to private morals, and to
public policy.”
Answer :
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Rousseau is known as the Intellectual Father of the French revolution, and also
of popular sovereignty. He has given the theory of General will in his famous
book “The Social Contract”. According to him, state represents the General Will.
With the works of Rousseau, emerges the idea of positive liberty. Liberty is a
very significant concern for Rousseau and his main purpose was how to
reconcile authority with liberty. He achieved this through an institutional
innovation called General Will.
Rousseau suggests that man has two types of will- real will, which is motivated
by his ultimate collective interest; and actual will- which is shaped by social
circumstances and immediate self interest.
General will is the sum of all the real will of the people. It is a collectively held
will that aims at common good.
Since General Will is represented in state, state laws are made in the interest of
all. But he also puts the condition that people should be participants in the
process, as only then will it represent popular sovereignty.
That is why Mac Intyre clarifies that general Will is not will of the state but will
of the people for the state.
Answer :
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Hegel was an idealist thinker, like Plato. He believed that idea is the ultimate
reality and wanted to establish state as the supreme institution. He also
wanted to establish the superiority of the German race.
The statement is about Hegel’s conception of reality. The first part of the
statement represents his epistipomology which is the theory of knowledge.
According to him, reality is what we understand by the use of the reason what
is the ultimate reality cannot be understood by mere empirical observations.
The second part of the statement tells his political purpose that is Hegel’s
ontology what is understood by the use of the reason is real. State is a march
of God on Earth can be understood by only when one applies reason.
However, this may end up in justification of absolute state. This idea of Hegel
was utilized by many philosophies and people like Hitler and Mussolini which
led to the creation of totalitarian state, as threat to world peace.
Answer :
• You must give introduction of T.H.Green and mention the name of the
book from which the statement was taken.
T.H.Green suggest that the reason for the continuation of the state.
The basis of state’s legitimacy has been a matter of debate among various
political philosophers. T.H.Green suggests that the reason for continuation of
the state is the will of the people. According to him, State is continuing and
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there has been no revolution (western world) against state because people do
not consider it as an instrument of force.
State draws its legitimacy out of the beneficial functions that state performs.
State also enhances liberty and rights by its welfare functions.
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