Mechanic Diesel 1st Sem

MECHANIC DIESEL
NSQF LEVEL - 4
1st Semester
TRADE THEORY
SECTOR: Automobile
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
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Sector : Production & Manufacturing
Duration : 2 - Years
Trade : Mechanic Diesel 1st Semester - Trade Theory
Copyright © 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition : October 2018 Copies : 1,000
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All rights reserved.

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No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the National
Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.
Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
Phone : 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421
Fax : 91 - 44 - 2250 0791
email : nimichennai@vsnl.net , nimi_bsnl@dataone.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, an autonomous body under Ministry of Skill
Development & Entrepreneurship is entrusted with developing producing and disseminating Instructional
Media Packages (IMPs) required for ITIs and other related institutions.
The institute has now come up with instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Mechanic
Diesel 1st semester Trade Theory NSQF Level - 4 in Automobile Sector under Semester Pattern.
The NSQF Level - 4 Trade Theory will help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard where
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their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also increase
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the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 4 trainees will also get the opportunities to promote
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life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level - 4 the trainers and trainees
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of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a
long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.
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The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
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for their contribution in bringing out this publication.

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RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General/ Addl.Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
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PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Ministry
of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical assistance from the Govt.
of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to develop and provide instructional
materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman and Apprenticeship Training
Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
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assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
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The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
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topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
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plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
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In order to perform the skills in a productive manner instructional videos are embedded in QR code of the
exercise in this instructional material so as to integrate the skill learning with the procedural practical steps
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given in the exercise. The instructional videos will improve the quality of standard on practical training and
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will motivate the trainees to focus and perform the skill seamlessly.
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IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
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The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Mechanic Diesel under Automobile Sector for ITIs.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. S. Devakumar _ Principal (Retd)

ATI, Chennai - 32 G.I.T.I. Nettapakkam -Pdy.
Shri. K. Thaniyarasu _ Principal

G.I.T.I. Viralimalai
Shri. W. Nirmal Kumar _ Training Officer

G.I.T.I. Manikandan
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Shri. A. Thangavelu _ Asst. Training Officer (Retd)
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Shri. A. Duraichamy
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Govt. I.T.I. Coonoor

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Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assitant Manager,

Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32
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NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in
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the process of development of this Instructional Material.

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NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed
towards the development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the Fourth Semester Course of the Fitter Trade.
The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in NSQF LEVEL - 4 syllabus on Trade
Practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise to
the extent possible. This correlation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities
for performing the skills.
The trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual on
trade practical. The indications about the corresponding practical exercises are given in every sheet of this
manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn trade theory connected to each exercise at least one class before performing
the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each exercise.
The material is not for the purpose of self-learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
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TRADE PRACTICAL
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The trade practical manual is intended to be used in practical workshop. It consists of a series of practical
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exercises to be completed by the trainees during the Fourth Semester Course of Fitter Trade supplemented and
supported by instructions / informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed
to ensure that all the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 4 syllabus are covered.
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The manual is divided into six modules. The distribution of time for the practical in the six modules are given below:
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Module 1 Safety workshop practice 25 Hrs

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Module 2 Measuring, marking & workshop tools 100 Hrs

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Module 3 Fastening and fitting 125 Hrs

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Module 4 Electrical and electronics 100 Hrs
Module 5 Arc & Gas welding 75 Hrs
Module 6 Hydraulics and pneumatics 50 Hrs
Module 7 Specification and service equipments 25 Hrs
Total 525 Hrs
The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centered around some
practical project. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual, a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy to
understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there is a
scope for further improvement. NIMI looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty for
improving the manual.
(vi)
CONTENTS
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
Module 1 : Safety workshop practices
1.1.01 Organization of ITI’s and scope of the mechanic diesel trade 1

Scope of the mechanic diesel trade 2
1.1.02 Knowledge of personal safety and safety precautions in handling diesel machines. 3
1.1.03 Concept of house keeping & 5S method 7
1.1.04 Safe handling and periodic testing of lifting equipments 9
Safety disposal of used engine oil 9
Safe handling of fuel spillage 10
Safe disposal of toxic dust 10
1.1.05 Elementary first-aid 12
Occupational health and safety 13
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1.1.06 Safety practice - fire extinguishers 15
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Electrical safety tips 17
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1.1.07 Used for different types of fire extinguishers 19
1.1.08 Energy conservation process 21
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Module 2 : Measuring, marking & workshop tools

1.2.09 Marking material 22
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Cleaning tools 22
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Scrapper 24
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Surface plates 25
Try Square 26
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Types of calipers 27
Jenny calipers 28
Dividers 29
Surface Gauges 29
Scriber 31
1.2.10 Wheelbase, wheeltrack and measuring tape 32
1.2.11 Length measurement 33
Engineer’s steel rule 33
1.2.12 Air impact wrench, air ratchet 34
1.2.13 Hand tools 35
Chisel 37
Angles of chisels 38
Hammers 39
Wooden mallet 41
Screwdrivers 42
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Allen keys 46
Bench vice 47
Types of vices 47
C - Clamps and toolmaker’s clamps 48
Spanners and their uses 49
Pliers 54
SNIPS (Straight & Bent) 56
Wrenches 57
Flaring, flare fittings and testing the joints 59
Puller 61
1.2.14 Least count calculation, care and use of micrometer 64
Precision measuring instruments - Outside metric micrometer 67
1.2.15 Depth micrometer 69
1.2.16 Description least count, calculation, care and use of vernier caliper 71
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The universal vernier caliper and its application 73
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1.2.17 Telescope gauge 75
1.2.18 Dial bore gauge
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1.2.19 Dial test indicators 78

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1.2.20 Straight edges 80

1.2.21 Feeler gauge & uses 81
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1.2.22 Vacuum gauge 82

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1.2.23 Tyre pressure gauge 83

Module 3 : Fastening and fitting
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1.3.25 Rivets - types & uses 84

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Rivet proportions 84
Riveted joints 86
Tools for hand riveting 87
Spacing of rivets in joints 88
Defects in riveted joints 89
Caulking and fullering 89
Special sheet metal rivets and their applications 91
Bolts, studs and nuts 92
Locking Devices 93
Keys and splines 98
Circlips 100
Washers - Types and uses 101
Different types of screws, nuts, studs and bolts 103
Thumb screws 105
Types of Nuts 106
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1.3.26 Methods of removing broken studs 109

Screw pitch gauge 110
1.3.27 - 1.3.28 Hacksaw frame and blade 111
Elements of a file 112
Cut of files 113
File specifications and grades 114
File - Applications 115
Shapes of files 115
Off - hand grinding with bench and pedestal grinders 116
Safe working on off - hand grinders 118
Indian standard system of limits & fits - terminology 118
Fits and their classification as per the indian standard 122
1.3.29 Soldering 125
Brazing 127
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1.3.30 Gasket 128
Oil seal
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Drilling machine (portable type) 130
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Drilling machines (Bench and pillar type) 131

Cutting speed and RPM 133
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Work - holding devices 133

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Drill - holding devices 134

Drill bits 136
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Drill Angles 137

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1.3.32 Hand taps and dies 140

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Tap drill size 141

Die and die stock 143
1.3.33 Hand Reamers 145
Hole size for reaming 146
Lapping 147
Lap materials and lapping compounds 148
1.3.34 Types of sheet metals and their application 149
Properties of an auto body sheet metal 149
Notches in sheet metal 150
Edge stiffening 151
Sheet metal joints 152
Folding and joining allowances 153
Groovers 154
Standard wire gauge 155
Sheet metal shearing, drawing, squeezing 156
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Bending sheet metal 158

Manual bending 159
Bending metals to an angle 161
1.3.35 Pipe bending machines 163
Pipes and pipe fittings 164
1.3.36 Blow lamp 167
Brazing techniques 168
Module 4 : Electrical and electronics
1.4.37 Electricity principles 171
Earthing and its importance 173
1.4.38 Ohm’s Law 174
1.4.39 Basic types of electrical meters 177
Multimeter 179
1.4.40 Fuse 181
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1.4.41 Cable colour codes and size 183
1.4.42 - 1.4.43 Law of Resistances
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Resistors and capacitots
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Capacitors 188
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Grouping of capacitors 189

DC series - parallel - series and parallel combination circuits 191
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Potential difference and polarity of IR voltage drops 193

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DC parallel circuit 195

Series parallel combination 197
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1.4.44 - 1.4.47 Battery 200

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Electricity effects 204

Electromagetic induction, self-induced emf - inductors 206
1.4.48 Tracing auto electrical components in circuit - solenoid & relay 207
Primary and secondary winding, transformers, stator and rotor coil 208
1.4.49 - 1.4.50 Diodes 210
Transistors and classification 212
Uni -junction transistor (UJT) 215
Field effect Transistors 215
Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET) 217
1.4.51 Basic logic gates 219
Module 5 : Arc & Gas Welding
1.5.52 Principles of arc welding brief description classification and applications 221
Arc -welding machines 223
A.C. Arc - welding machine 224
D.C. Arc - welding machine 225
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Edge preparation 226

1.5.53 Tools and equipment used in oxy - acetylene gas welding 227
Systems of oxy - acetylene welding 230
TIG welding process and equipment 230
GMAW equipment and accessories 233
GMAW (MIG/MAG) torches 234
Cutting processes - plasma arc cutting 237
Heat Treatment 240
Module 6 : Hydraulics and pneumatics
1.6.54 Non - destructive testing methods 243
1.6.55 Introduction to the hydraulics and pneumatics 245
Pascal’s law - pressure viscosity 246
1.6.56 - 1.6.57 Hydraulics 249
Hydraulic actuators and valves 251
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Pneumatic System 255
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Module 7 : Specifications and service equipments
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1.7.58
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Resent trends and developments 259
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1.7.59 Classification of vehicles 261

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1.7.60 Ministry of road transport & high ways 263

1.7.61 Uses of hoists, jacks and stands 265
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LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
• Check & perform measuring & marking by using various

measuring & marking tools. ( Vernier callipers, micrometre, tele-
scope gauges, dial bore gauges, dial indicators, straightedge,
feeler gauge, thread pitch gauge, vaccum gauge, tire pressure
gauge.)
• Plan & perform basic fastening & fitting operation by using correct
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hand tools, machine tools & equipment.
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• Trace and test all electrical & electronic components & circuits and
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assemble circuit to ensure functionality of system.

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• Join components by using Arc & Gas welding.

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• Trace & test hydraulic and pneumatic components

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• Check & interpret vehicle specification data and VIN, select &
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opearte various service station equipment.

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(x)
(xii)
Automobile Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01
Mechanic Diesel - Safety workshop practices
Organization of ITI’s and scope of the mechanic diesel trade
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state brief introduction about Industrial Training Institutes (ITI)
• state about the organized structure of the Institute.
Brief Introduction of Industrial Training Institute (ITIs) After passing, National trade certificates (NTC), will be
Industrial Training Institute plays a vital role in economy of issued by DGT which is authorized and recognized
the country, especially interms of providing skilled internationally. In 2017, for some trades they have
manpower. introduced and implemented National Skill Qualification
Frame work (NSQF) with Level 4.
The Directorate General of Training (DGT) comes under
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship After finishing instructional training with 'NTC' certificate,
(MSDE) offers a range of vocational training trades in they have to undergo Apprenticeship training (ATS) for one
different sectors based on economy /labour market. The or two year with respect to trades under the Apprentice
vocational training programmes are delivered under the ACT 1961, in various government and private
aegis of National Council of Vocational Training establishments with stipend. At the end of the
(NCVT). Craftsmen Training scheme (CTS) and Apprenticeship training, All India Apprentice Test will be
Apprenticeship Training Scheme (ATS) and two pioneer conducted and apprentice certificate will be issued. They
programmes of NCVT for Propagatory Vocational Training. can get job opportunities in private or government
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establishment in India/Abroad or they can start small scale
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Total number of ITIs in India as on April 2016 is about industries in manufacturing or in service sector with
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13105 (Govt. it is 2293 + 10812 Private affiliated ITIs). subsidiary government loan.
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They are giving training about 132 trades including
Engineering and Non-engineering trades with the duration Organizational Structure of ITIs
of 1 or 2 years. The minimum eligibility for admission in The head of the institute is the Principal /DDT/HDT under
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ITIs 8th, 10th and 12th pass with respect to the trades him one vice-principal (VP). then Training Officers (TO),
and admission process will be held in every year in July. Group Instructors (GI) who are the management and
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supervisory staff. Then deputy training officer (DTO)

From 2013, semester pattern was introduced with 6 Assistant Training Officers (ATO)/junior training officer (JTO)
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months/Semester and revised the syllabus for each technical assistants are under Training officers for each
semester. Then in 2014, they introduced and implemented trade and for Workshop calculations, Engineering Drawing,
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"Sector Mentor council (SMC)" re-revised syllabus under Employability skills etc. Administrative office staff
11 sectors of about 87 trades. superintendent , UDC, LDC, office assistant, employees.
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Hostel Superintendent (H.S.) physical Education Trainer

At the end of each semester, All India Trade Test (AITT) (PET), Library incharge, Pharmacist,store keeper etc. will
will be conducted in every July and January, with OMR be under the one umbrellas of the institute.
answer sheet pattern and multiple choice type questions.
Scope of the mechanic diesel trade

• importance and scope of the diesel mechanic trade training
• general discipline in the institute.
Scope of the diesel mechanic trade training : Me- • Practice to indent and repairing various type of diesel
chanic diesel trade under craftsmen training scheme (CTS) engines,
is one of the most popular trade delivered nation wide
Carrier Progress Pathways: Can join the apprenticeship
through the network of ITI. This trade one year (2 semes-
training in different types of industries and often National
ter) duration.
Apprenticeship Certificate (NAC)
• Identify the various types of tools equipment, raw
Can join Craftsman Instructor Training Scheme (CITS) to
materials, spares used in mechanic diesel trade,
become an instructor in ITIs
• Practice to measuring, fitting, welding, sheet metal
works, mechanical and electrical and hydraulic system
fault diagnosis and rectification
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Job Opportunities Do very attentive and listen to the lecture carefully during
the theory classes and practical demonstration given by
• Mechanic diesel can join in central and state
the training staff.
government establishments, like railway, airport,
marine, military, joins as a service technician in dealer Give respect to your trainer and all other training staff,
of agricultural machinery minining, trucks, bus, car, office staff and co-trainees.
stationary engines, compressors, diesel generators,
Be interested in all the training activities.
construction equipments, etc.
Do not make noise or be playful while undergoing training.
• employment. opportunities in overseas.
Keep the institute premises neat and clean avoid poluting
Self-employment opportunities the environment.
• Service centre in rural and urban areas. Do not take away any material from the institute which
does not belong to you.
• Maintenance contractor
Always attend the institute well dressed and good physical
• Manufacturer of sub-assembly
appearance.
• Dealership/agency for automobile spare parts
Be regular to attend the training without fail and avoid absent
• Own repair shop or garrage. from the theory or practical classes for simple reasons.
General discipline in the institute : Always be polite, Prepare well before writing a test/examination.
courteous while in institue
Avoid any malpractice during the test/examination.
Do not arguments with others, on matters of related to
Write your theory and practical records regularly and
your training or with the office while seeking clarifications
submit them on time for correction
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Do not bring bad name to your institute by your improper
Take care of your safety as well as other’s safety while
habitude.
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Do not waste your precious time in gossips with your
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friends and on activities other than training.
Do not be late to the theory practical and other classes.
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Do not unnecessarily interfere in other’s activities.

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2 Automobile : Mechanic Diesel (NSQF LEVEL - 4) Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01
Knowledge of personal safety and safety precautions in handling diesel

machines.
• state the is personal protective equipment and its purpose
• name the two categories of personal protective equipment
• list the most common type of personal protective equipment
• list the conditions for selection of personal protective equipment
• state the safety precaution in handling diesel machines.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Categories of PPEs

Devices, equipment, clothing are used by the employees, Depending upon the nature of hazard, the PPE is broadly
as a last resort, to protect against hazards in the divided into the following two categories:
workplace. The primary approach in any safety effort is
1 Non-respiratory: Those used for protection against
that the hazard to the workmen should be eliminated or
injury from outside the body, i.e. for protecting the head,
controlled by engineering methods rather than protecting
eye, face, hand, arm, foot, leg and other body parts
the workmen through the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE). Engineering methods could include 2 Respiratory: Those used for protection from harm due
design change, substitution, ventilation, mechanical to inhalation of contaminated air.
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handling, automation, etc. In situations where it is not They are to meet the applicable BIS (Bureau of Indian
possible to introduce any effective engineering methods
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for controlling hazards, the workmen shall use appropriate
types of PPE. The guidelines on 'Personal Protective Equipment' is issued
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to facilitate the plant management in maintaining an

As changing times have modernized the workplace, effective programme with respect to protection of persons
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government and advocacy groups have brought more safety against hazards, which cannot be eliminated or controlled
standards to all sorts of work environments. The Factories by engineering methods listed in table1.
Act, 1948 and several other labour legislations 1996 have
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provisions for effective use of appropriate types of PPE. Table1

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Ways to ensure workplace safety and use personal No. Title

protective equipment (PPE) effectively.
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PPE1 Helmet
• Workers to get up-to-date safety information from the
regulatory agencies that workplace safety in their
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PPE2 Safety footwear

specific area.
• To use all available text resources that may be in work PPE3 Respiratory protective
area and for applicable safety information on how to equipment
use PPE best. PPE4 Arms and hands protection
• When it comes to the most common types of personal
PPE5 Eyes and face protection
protective equipment, like goggles, gloves or bodysuits,
these items are much less effective if they are not worn PPE6 Protective clothing and coverall
at all times, or whenever a specific danger exists in a
work process. Using PPE consistent will help to avoid PPE7 Ears protection
some common kinds of industrial accidents.
PPE8 Safety belt and harnesses
• Personal protective gear is not always enough to protect
workers against workplace dangers. Knowing more
about the overall context of your work activity can help
to fully protect from anything that might threaten health
and safety on the job.
• Inspection of gear thoroughly to make sure that it has
the standard of quality and adequately protect the user
should be continuously carried out.
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Common type of personal protective equipments and their uses and hazards are as follows:
Types of protection Hazards PPE to be used
Head protection (Fig 1) 1. Falling objects Helmets

2. Striking against objects
3. Spatter
Foot protection (Fig 2) 1. Hot spatter Leather leg guards

2. Falling objects Safety shoes
3. Working wet area Gum boots
Nose (Fig 3) 1. Dust particles Nose mask

2. Fumes/ gases/ vapours
Hand protecion (Fig 4) 1. Heat burn due to direct contact Hand gloves
2. Blows sparks moderate heat
3. Electric shock
Eye protection (Fig 5, Fig 6) 1. Flying dust particles Goggles
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2. UV rays, IR rays heat and Face shield
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High amount of visible Hand shield
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radiation Head shield
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Face Protection (Fig 6, Fig 7) 1. Spark generated during Face shield

Welding, grinding Head shield with or
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2. Welding spatter striking without ear muff

3. Face protection from Helmets with welders
UV rays screen for welders
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Ear protection (Fig 7) 1. High noise level Ear plug

Ear muff
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Body protection (Fig 8, Fig 9) 1. Hot particles Leather aprons

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Automobile : Mechanic Diesel (NSQF LEVEL - 4) Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.02 5
Quality of PPE’s • Keep all flammable material away from the diesel
machine.
PPE must meet the following criteria with regard to its
quality-provide absolute and full protection against possible • Always keep clean hand and tools while work on
hazard and PPE’s be so designed and manufactured out machine
of materials that it can withstand the hazards against which
• Keep the diesel machines operating area free from any
it is intended to be used.
form of fire.
Selection of PPE’s requires certain conditions • Safety operation of diesel machine:
• Nature and severity of the hazard • Don't operate the machine with loose engine mounting
• Type of contaminant, its concentration and location of • Don't operate the machine without lubricant
contaminated area with respect to the source of
• Don't spill diesel during fill in to the fuel tank
respirable air
• Keep the empty diesel /lubricant can away from the
• Expected activity of workmen and duration of work,
machine.
comfort of workmen when using PPE
• Ensure stationary engine exhaust gas outlet should
• Operating characteristics and limitations of PPE
be far away from work place otherwise it will be harm
• Easy of maintenance and cleaning and full to human health
• Conformity to Indian/ International standards and • Use preheat before start the diesel engine
availability of test certificate.
• Use safe guard around rotating part of the engine
Proper use of PPEs • Maintains the coolant and lubricant level in the engine.
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Having selected the proper type of PPE, it is essential • Always keep engine in an upright places for easy
that the workmen wears it. Often the workmen avoids using handling and safety.
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PPE. The following factors influence the solution to this
problem.
ish • use specified grade lubricant and coolant in an engine
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• The extent to which the workmen understands the safety of rubber hose and pipes:
necessity of using PPE • Inspect the rubber hose periodically and replace the
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• The ease and comfort with which PPE can be worn damaged parts
with least interference in normal work procedures
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• Inspect the fuel leaks in fuel system and rectify the

• The available economic, social and disciplinary leakages
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sanctions which can be used to influence the attitude • Inspect the exhaust gas leaks and rectify the leakages
of the workmen
• Check the engine performance if any air lock in fuel
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• The best solution to this problem is to make 'wearing system, bleed the fuel system.
of PPE' mandatory for every employee.
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• In other places, education and supervision need to be • Safety of engine operation:

intensified. When a group of workmen are issued PPE • Check the coolant circulation and pressure cap function
for the first time.
• Check the oil pressure
Safety precaution in handling diesel machine: • Check the tappet noise and rectify the noise/adjust
• Diesel mechanic must know the safety rules first and the defective tappet
then practice to handling diesel machine as well as we • Check the abnormal noise in the engine
known, when accident starts means safety rules are
not followed during the handling of diesel machine. So • Check leakages of lubricant and coolant in the engine
safety precautions are always based on good sense. and rectify the leakages.
• The following precautions are to be observed to keep a • Ensure free air circulation in engine operating place
diesel mechanic/personal accident free.
General safety:
• Do not spill the fuel and lubricant on work place, the
spills may cause for the risk of slipping.
Concept of house keeping & 5S method

• elements of house keeping and cleanliness at work place
• state the concept of 5‘S’ techniques.
Concept of house keeping

in the workplace. Area such as entranceways which
House keeping is the systematic process of making home/ cannot be cleaned continously are to have mats or
work place neat and clean. House keeper is responsible for some type of anti-slip flooring. It is also important to
administering housekeeping maintenance and for assuring replace worn, ripped or damaged flooring that poses a
that every thing is in order and he is responsible for trip hazard.
systematic administration of activities that provide
• Lighting: Adequate lighting reduces the potential for
segregation, storage, transfer, processing treatment and
accidents. It is to be ensured that inoperative light
disposal of solid waste (which is collected during cleaning)
fixtures are repaired and dirty light fixtures are cleaned
regularly so that the light intensity levels are maintained
Scope of house keeping maintenance
at the workplace.
The scope of work hieghly depend on where the house
• Aisles and stairways: Aisles and stairways are to be
keeping activity is performed in general, maintains clean
kept clear and not to be used for storage. Warning
liness and orderliness, Furnishes the room, office,
signs and mirrors can improve sight lines in blind
ed
workplace, house keeping supervisor assisted by an
corners and help prevent accidents. It is also important
assistant house keeper.
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- eye appeal
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for adequate grip.
- safety
• Spill control: The best method to control spills is to
- maintenance
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prevent them from happening. Regular cleaning and

Elements of housekeeping and cleanliness at maintenance on machines and equipment is an
essential practice. Also, the use of drip pans where
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workplace
spills might occur is a good preventative measure. When
The major elements which are normally included in the spills do occur, it is important to clean them up
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housekeeping and cleanliness practices at the workplace immediately. When cleaning a spill, it is required to
are described below. use the proper cleaning agents or absorbent materials.
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• Dust and dirt removal: Working in dusty and dirty It is also to be ensured that the waste products are
area is unhygienic as well as unhealthy for the disposed of properly.
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employees since there can be respiratory type • Waste disposal: The regular collection of the waste
irritations. Also, If dust and dirt are allowed to materials contribute to good housekeeping and
accumulate on surfaces, there is a potential for a slip cleanliness practices. It also makes it possible to
hazard. Hence, regular sweeping the workplace for the separate materials that can be recycled from those
removal of dust and dirt is an essential housekeeping going to waste disposal facilities. Allowing material to
and cleanliness practice. Further, compressed air is build up on the floor wastes time and energy since
not to be used for removing dust or dirt off employees additional time is required for cleaning it up. Placing
or equipment. Compressed air can caused dirt and dust containers for wastes near the place where the waste
paticles to be embedded under the skin or in the eye. is produced encourages orderly waste disposal and
• Employees facilities: Adequate employees facilities makes collection easier. All recyclable wastes after
such as drinking water, wash rooms, toilet blocks, and their collection are to be transferred to their designated
rest rooms etc. are to be provided for the employees at places so that the waste materials can be dispatched
the workplace so that employees can use them when to the point of use or sold.
there is a need. Cleanliness at the place of these • Tools and equipment: Tools and equipment are
facilities is an important aspect of the facilities. required to be inspected prior to their use. Damaged or
• Flooring: Floors are to be cleaned regularly and worn tools are to be taken out of service immediately.
immediately if liquids or other materials are spilled. Tools are to be cleaned and returned to their storage
Poor floor conditions are a leading cause of accidents place after use.
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• Maintenance: One of the most important elements of The terms (5s) 5 steps are
good housekeeping and cleanliness practices is the
Step 1: SEIRI (Sorting out)
maintenance of the equipment and the buildings housing
them. This means keeping buildings, equipment and Step 2: SEITON (Systematic arrangement)
machinery in safe and efficient working condition. When
Step 3: SEISO (Shine cleanliness)
a workplace looks neglected means there are broken
windows, defective plumbing, broken floor surfaces and Step 4: SEIKTSU (Stanardization)
dirty walls etc. These conditions can cause accidents Step 5: SHITSURE (Self discipline)
and affect work practices. It is important to have a
replacement program for replacing or fixing broken and Fig 1 shows the 5s concept wheel.
damaged items as quickly as possible. The list describes how to organize a work space for
• Storage: Proper storage of materials is essential in a efficiency and effectiveness by identifying and storing the
good housekeeping and cleanliness practice. All items used, maintaining the area and items and sustaining
storage areas need to be clearly marked. Flammable, the new order.
combustible, toxic and other hazardous materials are
to be stored in approved containers in designated areas
which are appropriate for the different hazards that they
pose. The stored materials are not to be obstruct aisles,
stairs, exits, fire equipment, emergency eyewash
fountains, emergency showers, or first aid stations.
Also it is important that all containers be labeled
properly. If materials are being stored correctly, then
the incidents of strain injuries, chemical exposures and
fires get reduced drastically.
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•
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Clutter control: Cluttered workplaces typically happen
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because of poor housekeeping practices. This type of
workplace can lead to a number of issues which include
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ergonomic as well as injuries. It is important to develop

practices where items like tools, chemicals, cords, and
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containers are returned to their appropriate storage

location when not in use. Clutter is not only unattractive
but, in a work area, it is also a serious threat to safety.
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Danger to the employees increases if the established

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exit routes and doors are blocked. For this reason, as

well as to prevent slips and trips, assorted waste Benefits of 5s
materials need to be disposed of promptly in the
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appropriate waste containers. Aisles are to be kept • Work place becomes clear and better organised.
clear of obstructions for obvious reasons. • Working in working place becomes easier.
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• Individual workspace: Individual workspace need to • Reduction in cost.

be kept neat, cleared of everything not needed for work.
• People tend to be more disciplined.
Many workplace injuries occur right in the employee’s
workspace. This space is often overlooked when • Delay is avoided.
conducting general housekeeping and cleanliness
• Less absenteeism.
inspections. It is necessary to make a checklistwhich
is to be used by the employees to evalute their • Better use of floor space.
workspace.
• Less accidents.
It can be said that a clean work area demonstrate the
• High productivity with quality etc.
pride employees have with the job and the culture of safety
at the workplace.
5 Steps (5s) - Concept (Fig 1)

5s is a people-oriented and practice-oriented approach. 5s
expects every one to participate in it. It becomes a basic
for continuous improvement in the organisation.
Safe handling and periodic testing of lifting equipments

• state the periodic testing of lifting equipments
• state the handling of lifting equipments
Safe and successful lifting operations depends on periodical • Never improvise lifting tackle.
testing of lifting equipment, maintenance and handling of
operation, failure of this equipment may result in significant Periodic testing of lifting equipment
loss and fatal accident.
• Visually inspect the component of the lifting equipment
Lifts and cranes such as lifting chain, slings chain hoist before operating
the equipment.
Safety precautions for handling of lifts and cranes.
• In Hydraulic function of lift (or) cranes cheek the oil level
• Never exceed the safe working load (SWL) of the and top up the oil level periodically.
equipment you are using.
• The Hydraulic oil used in the lifts or cranes should be
• Always support vehicles with axle stands before working replaced periodically.
underneath them.
• The lifting equipment should be over hauled once (or)
• There is always a danger when loads are lifted or twice a year.
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suspended. Never work under an unsupported,
Suspended or raised load such as a suspended engine. • Cheek the electrical connections of the lifting equipment
bl I periodically.
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•
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Always ensure that lifting equipment such as jacks,
hoists, axle stands, slings, etc, are adequate and • The calibration of the lifting equipment should be done
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suitable for the job, In good condition and regularly once in a year and calibration certificate must to
maintained. obtained from the authorized testing center.
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Safety disposal of used engine oil

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state the purpose of disposal used oil

state the method of safety disposal of used oil
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Waste oil This procedure applies to the disposal of any used oil that
is collected during normal work functions at work place.
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The waste oils, derived from fuels or lubricants, originally

Used oil may include:
come from petroleum oil, sometimes known as mineral
oils. Many lubricants may also contain synthetic 1 Gasoline. Volatile, flammable, it can be ignited by
components. sparks and flames even at cold temperatures. Vapors can
migrate to distant ignition sources and in poorly ventilated
Waste oil is harmful to the environment and some, for spaces, can accumulate to explosive levels. Typical
example used engine oils, may cause cancer. so it needs gasoline contains about 150 different chemicals including
to be managed carefully. You may need to account for benzence, toluene and xylene.
Health and Safety guidance as well as the environment.
Used Oil Disposal
Purpose
2 Fuel oils. Fuel oils such as diesel fuel are petroleum
Oils are defined as greasy, viscous substances from plant, based fluids which are some what volatile and flammable
animal, mineral sources (petroleum), and synthetics that and can be ignited only when heated above 100°F. Vapors
are not soluble in water, and are usually flammable. These can travel and flash from ignition sources and can accumlate
oils which have been used could be contaminated by to explosive levels in poorly ventilated areas. All fuel oils
physical or chemical impurities such as dirt, metal scrapings, consist of complex mixtures of aliphatic and aromatic
and water. Oils that enter storm drains or waterways are a hydrocarbons such as kerosene, benzene, and styrene.
serious environmental hazard. used oil can pollute fresh
water. The purpose of this procedure is to describe the 3 Lubricating oils. Lubricating oils such as motor oil
proper means for handling and disposing of used oil from and hydraulic fluids are not volatile but are combustible. For
equipment maintenance operations, process procedures, lubricating oil to catch fire some other intense heat source
and any other activities where used oils are generated. (i.e., other materials on fire, hot engine manifold, etc.) must
be present. Mineral-based lube oils are refined from
9
petroleum or crude oil and contain additives such as lead 1 Wear gloves because oil contains chemicals and
or metal sulphide and other polymers. contaminants that are not good for skin contact.
2 Put used oil in a clean plastic or metal container in
4 Transformer oil. Tranformer oil conducts heat away
good condition and with a tight lid.
from and insulates equipment used to convert electricity
from high amperage to low amperage lines. Transformer oil 3 If the oil is hot, avoid sudden contact with other
is a liquid by product of the distillation of petrolem to substances because mixing may cause ignition or the
produce gasoline. receiving container to fracture due to thermal shock.
4 Do not allow used fuel and used oils to mix with any
Cooking oils and grease: Cooking oils and grease are
other substances because unknown and dangerous
not volatile but they are combustible. With a 400°F flash
chemical reactions may occur.
point, another heat source must be present for cooking oils
or grease to catch fire. Vegetable oils contain chemical 5 Keep used oils away from gas cylinders and gasoline.
solvents that are strong enough to dissolve engine seals 6 Do not fill container to the top but allow a couple inches
and gaskets. below the rim.
Note: for all other waste chemicals, please 7 Label the container with contents,and department.
refer SOP regarding Used Chemical Disposal.
Procedures
Products saturated with petroleum products require special
handling and disposal by licensed transporters. During the
collection of used oils for disposal, some basic principles
should be followed:
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Safe handling of fuel spillage
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• state the safe handling of fuel spillage
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• state the effect of fuel spillage in workplace.

5 Don't spill the fuel during refilling the fuel in fuel tank or
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Diesel fuel is a flammable liquid and fuel spillage or leaks

in work place maybe cause for slippage or fire hazard. fuel container.
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Safe handling of fuel: 6 Use funnel during filling the fuel in fuel tank to avoid
fuel spillage
1 Improper handling of fuel may cause for fuel spillage
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and explosion, so fuel handling should be use 7 Use tray during air bleeding from the fuel system to
appropriate method. avoid fuel spillage
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2 Fuel should not be stored near the working hot engine 8 Fuel leaks and spills near the engine may cause for
accident so it should be clean and mopped up quickly
3 Don't refueling, when it is hot, fuel tank vapor may
as soon as the spillage.
cause for fire.
9 Stationary engine fuel tank should be position away
4 No smoking is allowed when refueling to the engine.
from any source of direct heat to the fuel tank
Safe disposal of toxic dust

• list the waste material in a work shop
• explain the methods of disposal of waste material.
Introduction
The Automobiles produces fumes containing unburnt gases Brake and clutch components produces dust, when used
such as carbon-monoxide, nitrogen oxide and other gases compressed air jet to clean them. While cleaning
which are harmful to human health. Hence a systematic conforming the PPE to safety regulation & policies. This
and scientifically designed methods are adopted for safe includes overall coat, Face mask, safety goggles for eyes
disposal of such toxic waste. earmuffs & earplug for ear protection, rubber gloves &barrier
Dust from vehicle components to be blown into the air, cream for hand and valved respirator for breathing.
since such dust floating in air for many hours, may cause
harm to people who breath unknowingly.
Some auto parts having asbestos, is a toxic material, which waste water must be caught in a sledge pit and not into
cause lung cancer. Airborne dust in workshop leads to the storm water drain. Vacuum cleaner is a best device
asthma and throat infections. Do not use compressed air control toxic waste. Providing high speed exhaust
to clean dust from various components & parts of the ventillation can solve toxic diet.
Vehicle. Solvent used for cleaning can also form a toxic
Use grease which can not re-used is stored in a separate
waste. Wash work cloths separately from other cloths so
container and stored with unique identification. In a similar
that toxic dust does not get transfer to other clothes. After
manner waste oil is stored in separate container, labeled
cleaning a vehicle, there are certain chemicals present in
‘Waste oil’ and stored in different location, meant for
this vehicle diet which turns toxic. To eliminate the toxic
disposal used diesel oil and kerosene are also stored in
waste, create small diet piles and dispose them
separate containers and kept at disposal area.
spontaneous rather than waiting for big diet pile till the
end of the day. Workshop diet is best cleaned using a
water hose, which does not allow diet to fully. But the
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Elementary first-aid
• define first aid
• list out the first aid key points
• describe the responsiveness
First aid is defined as the immediate care and support - Airway: Attention must first be brought to the airway
given to an acutely injured or ill person, primarily to save to ensure it is clear. Obstruction (choking) is a life-
life, prevent further deterioration or injury, plan to shift the threatening emergency.
victims to safer places, provide best possible comfort and
- Breathing: Breathing if stops, the victim may die soon.
finally help them to reach the medical centre/ hospital
Hence means of providing support for breathing is an
through all available means. It is an immediate life-saving
important next steps. There are several methods
procedure using all resources available within reach.
practiced in first aid.
Imparting knowledge and skill through institutional teaching
- Circulation: Blood circulation is vital to keep person
at younger age group in schools, colleges, entry point at
alive. The first aiders now trained to go straight to chest
industry level is now given much importance. Inculcating
compressions through CPR methods.
such habits at early age, helps to build good healthcare
habits among people. When providing first aid one needs to follow some rule.
There are certain basic norms in teaching and training
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First aid procedure often consists of simple and basic life
students in the approach and administration of first aid to
saving techniques that an individual performs with proper
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training and knowledge.
Important guideline for first aiders
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The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three
key points: Evaluate the situation
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- Preserve life: If the patient was breathing, a first aider Are there things that might put the first aider at risk. When
would normally place them in the recovery position, faced with accidents like fire, toxic smoke, gasses, an
with the patient leant over on their side, which also unstable building, live electrical wires or other dangerous
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has the effect of clearing the tongue from the pharynx. scenario, the first aider should be very careful not to rush
It also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious into a situation, which may prove to be fatal.
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patients, which is choking on regurgitated stomach

Avoid moving the victim
contents. The airway can also become blocked through
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a foreign object becoming lodged in the pharynx or Avoid moving the victim unless they are immediate danger.
larynx, commonly called choking. The first aider will Moving a victim will often make injuries worse, especially
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be taught to deal with this through a combination of in the case of spinal cord injuries.
'back slaps' and 'abdominal thrusts'. Once the airway
Call emergency services
has been opened, the first aider would assess to see if
the patient is breathing. Call for help or tell someone else to call for help as soon
as possible. If alone at the accident scene, try to establish
- Prevent further harm: Also sometimes called prevent
breathing before calling for help, and do not leave the victim
the condition from worsening, or danger of further injury,
alone unattended.
this covers both external factors, such as moving a
patient away from any cause of harm, and applying Determine responsiveness
first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, If a person is unconscious, try to rouse them by gently
such as applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming shaking and speaking to them.
dangerous.
If the person remains unresponsive, carefully roll
- Promote recovery: First aid also involves trying to them on the side (recovery position) and open his
start the recovery process from the illness or injury, airway.
and in some cases might involve completing a
treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to - Keep head and neck aligned.
a small wound. - Carefully roll them onto their back while holding hishead.
ABC of first aid
ABC stands for airway, breathing and circulation.
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First aid - If you see a person fainting, try to prevent a fall. Lay
the person flat on the floor and raise the level of feet
- Call EMERGENCY number. above and support.
- Check the person's airway, breathing, and pulse - If fainting is likely due to low blood sugar, give the person
frequently. If necessary, begin rescue breathing and something sweet to eat or drink when they become
CPR. conscious.
- If the person is breathing and lying on the back and
after ruling out spinal injury, carefully roll the person DO NOT
onto the side, preferably left side. Bend the top leg so
- Do not give an unconscious person any food or drink.
both hip and knee are at right angles. Gently tilt the
head back to keep the airway open. If breathing or - Do not leave the person alone.
pulse stops at any time, roll the person on to his back
- Do not place a pillow under the head of an unconscious
and begin CPR.
person.
- If there is a spinal injury, the victims position may have
- Do not slap an unconscious person's face or splash
to be carefully assessed. If the person vomits, roll the
water on the face to try to revive him.
entire body at one time to the side. Support the neck
and back to keep the head and body in the same
position while you roll.
- Keep the person warm until medical help arrives.
Occupational health and safety
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• define safety
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• state the goal of occupational health and safety
• explain need of occupational health and safety
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• state what is occupational hygiene?

• list types of occupational hazards.
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Safety • Improving employees morale

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Safety means freedom or protection from harm, danger, • Reducing absenteeism

hazard, risk, accident, injury or damage.
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• Enhancing productivity
Occupational health and safety
• Minimizing potential of work-related injuries and
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• Occupational health and safety is concerned with illnesses

protecting the safety, health and welfare of people
• Increasing the quality of manufactured products and/
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engaged in work or employment.

or rendered services.
• The goal is to provide a safe work environment and to
Occupational (Industrial) Hygiene
prevent hazards.
• Occupational hygiene is anticipation, recognition,
• It may also protect co-workers, family members,
evaluation and control of work place hazards (or)
employers, customers, suppliers, nearby communities,
environmental factors (or) stresses
and other members of the public who are impacted by
the workplace environment. • This is arising in (or) from the workplace.
• It involves interactions among many related areas, • Which may cause sickness, impaired health and well
including occupational medicine, occupational (or being (or) significant discomfort and inefficiency among
industrial) hygiene, public health, and safety workers.
engineering, chemistry, and health physics. Anticipation (Identification): Methods of identification
Need of occupational health and safety of possible hazards and their effects on health
• Health and safety of the employees is an important Recognition (Acceptance): Acceptance of ill-effects of
aspect of a company's smooth and successful the identified hazards
functioning. Evaluation (Measurement & Assessment): Measuring
• It is a decisive factor in organizational effectiveness. It or calculating the hazard by Instruments, Air sampling
ensures an accident-free industrial environment. and Analysis, comparison with standards and taking
judgment whether measured or calculated hazard is more
• Proper attention to the safety and welfare of the
or less than the permissible standard
employees can yield valuable returns.
Control of Workplace Hazards: Measures like 5 Psychological
Engineering and Administrative controls, medical
• Wrong attitude
examination, use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE),
education, training and supervision • Smoking
Occupational Hazards • Alcoholism

• Unskilled
"Source or situation with a potential for harm in terms of
• Poor discipline
injury or ill health, damage to property, damage to the
workplace environment, or a combination of these" - absentism
- disobedience
Types of occupational health hazards
- aggressive behaviours
• Physical Hazards
• Accident proneness etc,
• Chemical Hazards
• Emotional disturbances
• Biological Hazards
- voilence
• Physiological Hazards
- bullying
• Psychological Hazards
- sexual harassment
• Mechanical Hazards
6 Mechanical
• Electrical Hazards
• Unguarded machinery
• Ergonomic Hazards.
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• No fencing
1 Physical Hazards
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• Noise
• Heat and cold stress
ish • No control device etc.,
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7 Electrical
• Vibration
• No earthing
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• Radiation (ionising & Nonionising)

• Short circuit
• Illumination etc.,
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• Current leakage
2 Chemical Hazards
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• Open wire
• Inflammable
• No fuse or cut off device etc,
• Explosive
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8 Ergonomic
• Toxic
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• Poor manual handling technique

• Corrosive
• Wrong layout of machinery
• Radioactive
• Wrong design
3 Biological Hazards
• Poor housekeeping
• Bacteria
• Awkward position
• Virus
• Wrong tools etc,
• Fungi
• Plant pest Safety Slogan
• Infection. A Safety rule breaker , is an accident maker
4 Physiological
• Old age
• Sex
• Ill health
• Sickness
• Fatigue.
Mechanic diesel - Safety workshop practices
Safety practice - fire extinguishers

• state the effects of a fire break out.
• state the causes for fire in a workshop
• state the general precautionary measures to be taken for prevention of fire.
• state the types of fire and different extinguishing agent
Fire is the burning of combustible material. A fire in an Preventing fires: The majority of fires begin with small
unwanted place and on an unwanted occasion and in outbreaks which burn unnoticed until they have a secure
uncontrollable quantity can cause damage or destroy hold. Most fires could be prevented with more care and by
property and materials. It might injure people, and some- following some simple common sense rules.
times cause loss of life as well. Hence, every effort must be
made to prevent fire. When a fire outbreak is discovered, Accumulation of combustible refuse (cotton waste soaked
it must be controlled and extinguished by immediate with oil, scrap wood, paper, etc.) in odd corners are a fire
corrective action. risk. Refuse should be removed to collection points.
Is it possible to prevent fire? Yes, fire can be prevented by The cause of fire in electrical equipment is misuse or
eliminating anyone of the three factors that causes fire. neglect. Loose connections, wrongly rated fuses, overloaded
The following are the three factors that must be present in circuits cause overheating which may in turn lead to a fire.
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combination for a fire to continue to burn. (Fig 1) Damage to insulation between conductors in cables causes
fire.
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ish Clothing and anything else which might catch fire should be
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kept well away from heaters. Make sure that the heater is
shut off at the end of the working day.
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Highly flammable liquids and petroleum mixtures (thinner,

adhesive solutions, solvents, kerosene, spirit, LPG gas
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etc.) should be stored in the flammable material storage

area.
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Fuel: Any substance, liquid, solid or gas will burn, if there

Blowlamps and torches must not be left burning when they
is oxygen and high enough temperatures.
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are not in use.

Heat: Every fuel will begin to burn at a certain temperature.
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It varies and depends on the fuel. Solids and liquids give off Extinguishing fires: Fires are classified into four types in
vapour when heated, and it is this vapour which ignites. terms of the nature of fuel.(Fig 2,3,4 & 5)
Some liquids do not have to be heated as they give off
Different types of fire have to be dealt with in different ways
vapour at normal room temperature say 150C, eg. petrol.
and with different extinguishing agents.
Oxygen: Usually exists in sufficient quantity in air to keep
An extinguishing agent is the material or substance used
a fire burning.
to put out the fire, and is usually (but not always) contained
in a fire extinguisher with a release mechanism for spraying
Extinguishing of fire: Isolating or removing any of these
into the fire.
factors from the combination will extinguish the fire. There
are three basic ways of achieving this.
It is important to know the right type of agent for extinguishing
– Starving the fire of fuel removes this element. a particular type of fire; using a wrong agent can make
things worse.There is no classification for ‘electrical fires’
– Smothering - ie. isolate the fire from the supply of
as such, since these are only fires in materials where
oxygen by blanketing it with foam, sand etc.
electricity is present.
– Cooling - use water to lower the temperature.
Removing any one of these factors will

extinguish the fire.
15
Fuel Extinguishing
Most effective ie. cooling with water. Jets of

water should be sprayed on the base of the fire
and then gradually upwards.
Should be smothered. The aim is to cover the

entire surface of the burning liquid. This has the
effect of cutting off the supply of oxygen to the
fire.
Water should never be used on burning liquids.
Foam, dry powder or CO2 may be used on this
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type of fire.
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Extreme caution is necessary in dealing with

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liquefied gases. There is a risk of explosion and

sudden outbreak of fire in the entire vicinity. If an
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appliance fed from a cylinder catches fire - shut

off the supply of gas. The safest course is to
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raise an alarm and leave the fire to be dealt with

by trained personnel.
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Dry powder extinguishers are used on this type

of fire.
Special powders have now been developed

which are capable of controlling and/or
extinguishing this type of fire.
The standard range of fire extinguishing agents

is inadequate or dangerous when dealing with
metal fires.
Fire on electrical equipment.
Halon, Carbon dioxide, dry powder and
vapourising liquid (CTC) extinguishers can be
used to deal with fires in electrical equipment.
Foam or liquid (eg. water) extinguishers must
not be used on electrical equipment under any
circumstances.
Electrical safety tips
• rescue a person who is in contact with a live wire
• treat a person for electric shock/injury.
The severity of an electric shock will depend on the level of

current which passes through the body and the length of
time of contact. Do not delay, act at once. Make sure that
the electric current has been disconnected.
If the casualty is still in contact with the supply - break the

contact either by switching off the power, removing the plug
or wrenching the cable free. If not, stand on some insulating
material such as dry wood, rubber or plastic, or using Keep the casualty warm and comfortable. (Fig 4)
whatever is at hand to insulate yourself and break the
contact by pushing or pulling the person free. (Figs 1 & 2)
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ish Do not give an unconscious person anything by
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mouth.
Do not leave an unconscious person unattended
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If the casualty is not breathing - Act at once - don’t wate

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time!
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Safety practice frist - aid

Electric shock: The severity of an electric shock will
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depend on the level of the current which passes through the

body and the length of time of the contact.
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Other factors that contribute to the severity of shock are:

• age of the person
• not wearing insulating footware or wearing wet foot wear
In bare foot, do not touch the victim with your bare hands
until the circuit is made dead or he is moved away from the • weather condition
equipment.
• floor is wet or dry
If the victim is aloft, measures must be taken to prevent him • mains voltage etc.
from falling or atleast make him fall safe.
Effects of electric shock: The effect of current at very low
Electric burns on the victim may not cover a big area but levels may only be an unpleasant tingling sensation, but
may be deep seated. All you can do is to cover the area with this in itself may be sufficient to cause one to lose his
a clean, sterile dressing and treat for shock. Get expert balance and fall.
help as quickly as possible.
At higher levels of current, the person receiving the shock
If the victim is unconscious but is breathing, loosen the may be throen off his feet and will experience sever pain,
clothing about the neck, chest and waist and place the and possibly minor burns at the point of contact.
casualty in the recovery position.(Fig 3)
Keep a constant check on the breathing and pulse rate.
At an excessive level of current flow, the muscles may Immediate action: Always in cases of severe bleeding
contract and the person unable to release his grip on the
• make the patient lie down and rest
conductor. He becomes conscious and the muscles of the
heart may contract spasmodically (fibrillation). This may • if possible, raise the injured part above the level of the
be fatal. body (Fig 6)
Electric shock can also cause burning of the skin at the • apply pressure to the wound
point of contact. • summon assistance.
Treatment of electric shock
Prompt treatment is essential.
If assistance is close at hand, send for medical aid, then

carry on with emergency treatment.
If you are alone, proceed with treatment at once.

Switch off the current, if this can be done without undue To control severe bleeding: Squeeze together the sides of
delay. Otherwise, remove the victim from contact with the the wound. Apply pressure as long as it is necessary to
live conductor, using dry non-conducting materials such as stop the bleeding. When the bleeding has stopped, put a
a wooden bar, rope, a scarf, the victim’s coat-tails, any dry dressing over the wound, and cover it with a pad of soft
article of clothing, a belt, rolled-up newspaper, non-metallic material. (Fig 7)
hose, PVC tubing, bakelised paper, tube etc. (Fig 5)
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For an abdominal stab wound, such as may be caused by

falling on a sharp tool, keep the patient bending over the
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wound to stop internal bleeding.

Avoid direct contact with the victim. Wrap your hands in dry
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Large wound: Apply a clean pad (preferably an individual

material if rubber gloves are not available.
dressing) and bandage firmly in place. If bleeding is very
severe apply more than one dressing. (Fig 8)
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Electrical buns: A person receiving an electric shock may

also sustain burns when the current passes through his
body. Do not waste time by applying first aid to the burns
until breathing has been restored and the patient can
breathe normally - unaided.
Burns and scalds: Burns are very painful. If a large area of

the body is burnt, give no treatment, except to exclude the
air, eg.by covering with water, clean paper, or a clean shirt.
This relieves the pain.
Severe bleeding: Any wound which is bleeding profusely, Follow the right methods of artificial respiration.
especially in the wrist, hand or fingers must be considered
serious and must receive professional attention. As an
immediate first aid measure, pressure on the wound itself
is the best means of stopping the bleeding and avoiding
infection.
Used for different types of fire extinguishers

• determine the correct type of fire extinguisher to be used based on the class of fire
Many types of fire extinguishers are available with different Most suitable for
extinguishing ‘agents’ to deal with different classes of
fires. (Fig 1) • flammable liquid fires
• running liquid fires.
Must not be used on fires where electrical equipment is
involved.
Dry powder extinguishers (Fig 4): Extinguishers fitted
with dry powder may be of the gas cartridge or stored
pressure type. Appearance and method of operation is the
same as that of the water-filled one. The main distinguishing
feature is the fork shaped nozzle. Powders have been
developed to deal with class D fires.
Water-filled extinguishers:There are two methods of
operation. (Fig 2)
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Carbon dioxide (CO2): This type is easily distinguished

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by the distinctively shaped discharge horn. (Fig 5).

• Gas cartridge type
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• Stored pressure type

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With both methods of operation the discharge can be

interrupted as required, conserving the contents and
preventing unnecessary water damage.
Foam extinguishers (Fig 3):These may be of stored
pressure or gas cartridge types. Always check the
operating instructions on the extinguisher before use.
Suitable for Class B fires. Best suited where contamination

by deposits must be avoided. Not generally effective in
open air.
Always check the operating instructions on the container
before use. Available with different gadgets of operation
such as - plunger, lever, trigger etc.
19
Halon extinguishers (Fig 6): These extinguishers may be The general procedure in the event of a fire:
filled with carbon-tetrachloride and Bromochlorodifluoro
• Raise an alarm.
methene (BCF). They may be either gas cartridge or stored
pressure type. • Turn off all machinery and power (gas and electricity).
• Close the doors and windows, but do not lock or bolt
They are more effective in extinguishing small fires involving
them. This will limit the oxygen feed to the fire and
pouring liquids. These extinguishers are particularly suitable
prevent its spreading.
and safe to use on electrical equipment as the chemicals
are electrically non-conductive. • Try to deal with the fire if you can do so safely. Do not
risk getting trapped.
• Anybody not involved in fighting the fire should leave
calmly using the emergency exits and go to the
designated assembly point. Failure to do this may
mean that some person being unaccounted for and
others may have to put themselves to the trouble of
searching for him or her at risk to themselves.
The fumes given off by these extinguishers are

dangerous, especially in confined space.
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Mechanic diesel - Safety workshop practices
Energy conservation process

• define energy conservation
• classify energy conservation opportunities
Energy Conservation i) Minor ECOs

To achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement and These are simple, easy to implement, and require less
utilization, throughout the organization investment implementation time. These may correspond
to stopping of leakage points, avoiding careless waste,
To minimize energy costs / waste without affecting lapses in housekeeping and maintenance etc.
production, comfort and quality.
ii) Medium ECOs
To reduce environmental pollution per unit of industrial
These are more complex, and required additional
output - as carbon dioxide, smoke, sulphur dioxide.
investment and moderate implementation time. For
example, replacement of existing household appliances
Definetion of Energy Conservation
by new energy efficient ones.
Energy conservation is achieved when growth of energy
consumption is reduced, measured in physical terms. iii) Major ECOs
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These provide significant energy saving. They are complex
Energy conservation can, therefore, be the result of several
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processes or developments, such as productivity increase
or technological progress.
ish periods. For example, replacement or major renovation of
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old buildings, machineries etc.
For example, replacing traditional light bulbs with Compact
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Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) (which use only 1/4th of the

energy to same light output). Light Emitting Diode (LED)
lamps are also used for the same purpose.
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Energy Conservation Opportunities (ECOs)

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Opportunities to conserve energy are broadly classified

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into three categories:

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21
Mechanic Diesel - Measuring, marking & workshop tools
Marking material
• name the common types of marking material
• select the correct marking material for different applications.
Common types of Marking Materials

The common marking materials are Whitewash, Cellulose
Lacquer, Prussian Blue and Copper Sulphate.
Whitewash
Whitewash is prepared in many ways.
Chalk powder mixed with water
Chalk mixed with methylated spirit
White lead powder mixed with turpentine
Whitewash is applied to rough forgings and castings with
oxidised surfaces. (Fig 1)
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Copper Sulphate
ish The solution is prepared by mixing copper sulphate in

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water and a few drops of nitric acid. The copper sulphate

is used on filed or machine-finished surfaces. Copper
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sulphate sticks to the finished surfaces well.

Copper sulphate needs to be handled carefully as it is
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poisonous. Copper sulphate coating should be dried well

Whitewash is not recommended for workpieces of high before commencing marking as, otherwise, the solution
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accuracy. may stick on the instruments used for marking.

Cellulose Lacquer The selection of marking medium for a particular job
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This is a commercially available marking medium. It is depends on the surface finish and the accuracy of the
made in different colours, and dries very quickly. workpiece.
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Prussian Blue
This is used on filed or machine-finished surfaces. This
will give very clear lines but takes more time for drying
than the other marking media. (Fig 2)
Cleaning tools
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the different types of Cleaning Tools and their use
• state the precautions to be observed in the use of Cleaning Tools.
Mechanical Cleaning Involves, brushing and abrasive Wire Brushes

Cleaning. It should be used very carefully on soft metals.
Wire brushes are generally used for cleaning the work
Heavy deposits that exists even after chemical Cleaning
surfaces.
can be removed by mechanical cleaning.
It is made of steel wires (or) Nylon bristles fitted on a
The General Cleaning Tools are
wooden piece.
1) Wire brushes
The steel wires are hardened and tempered for long life to
2) Emery sheets. ensure good cleaning action. Different types of wire
brushes is shown in Fig 1.
22
Applications
1 Wire brushes can be used for cleaning uneven Surfaces
2 A hand wire brush can be used on exterior of the block
and on the head.
3 A round wire brush fixed with a hand drill motor spindle
can be used for cleaning of combustion chamber and
parts of the head.
4 A wire wheel can be used to clean the valves.
5 Nylon bristles with impregnated abrasive brush can
be used for Engine boring
6 A washing brush can be used to clean the cylinders
by using Soap and Water.
7 Oil passages of cylinder block can be cleaned by
running a long bottle type brush through all holes in
the cylinder block.
8 It is used to clean work surface before and after welding
Safety precautions
Steel wire brushes should be used carefully on soft metals.
It should not make any scratches on the finished surface.
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EMERY Sheet (Fig 2)
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This is a type of paper used for sanding down hard and
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rough surfaces and also used for resistant technology
purposes to give a smooth, shiny finish to manufactured
products.
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Emery paper is defined as a paper coated with abrasive

particles in one side and used to produce smooth, shiny
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finish to manufactured products.

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Description
The each and every abrasive particle act as a cutting edge.
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The emery is considered for a suitable abrasive for

workshop practices and the final adjustment of steel parts
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for a perfect fit. The emery paper is also used for cleaning,
to remove rust from polished metal components.
The emery is graded by numbers and the Common sizes
are from coarse to fine: 40, 46, 54, 60, 70, 80, 90. 100.
120, F and FF.
Safety Precautions
After cleaning with emery paper, component
should be rinsed properly.
Scrapper
• name the different type of scrappers
• state the features of each type of scrapper
• state the precaution to be observed while uses scrapper.
Scraper is a hand tool which is used to scrap the workpiece

surface by removing the smallest metal particles.
Application
It is used to obtain a smooth non scored and uniformly
bearing surface which is required for sealing, sliding and
guiding surface.
In automobiles it is used to remove carbon particles from

cylinder head, piston head and manifold pipes The curvature at the cutting edge helps to make point
contact while scraping, and also helps to remove small
It is also used to scrap the bearings of cranks halt and spots. (Fig 3)
sometimes the cylinder liner.
Type of scrapers
1. Flat scraper
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2. Special scraper
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Flat scraper
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The cross section of this scraper is Flat. The cutting edge
has Flat surface. Three- square scraper (Fig 4)
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This scraper is used for scraping small diameter holes

Use and deburring the edges of holes.
It is used to scrap the high spots of a flat Surface
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The cross-section of this is triangular. This has more

number of cutting edges and the hollow portion between
Special Scrapper
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the cutting edges helps in re-sharpening easily.

Special scraper is available for scraping and finishing curved
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surfaces.
They are :
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- half round scraper

- three-square scraper
- bull nose scraper
Half round scraper

The cross- section of this scraper is a segment and it Bull nose scraper (Fig 5)
tapers to a rounded point (Fig 1) This scraper has the cutting edge shaped into a flat circular
disc. The cutting edge forms about two thirds of the circle.
The round bottom face is curved and is hollow in the middle.

The bottom facet and the flat surfaces are ground along
the edge to form the cutting edge. (Fig 2)
The cutting angle is between 450 and 650.
It is useful for scraping large bearings. (Fig 6) This scraper
can be used in a longitudinal direction lika a flat scraper
or with a circumferential movement like a half round
scraper. This dual action helps to prevent ridges on the
scraped surfaces.
Always use scrapers with firmly fitted handles.

Protect the cutting edges with a rubber cover
when not in use.
Apply oil or grease on the cutting edges when
not is use.
Surface plates
• state the constructional features of surface plates
• state the application of different grades of surface plates
• specify surface plates and state the uses of marking tables.
Surface plates - their necessity For the purpose of steadiness and convenience in leveling.
When accurate dimensional features are to be marked or a three point suspension is given.
to be checked it is essential to have a datum plane with a Smaller surface plates are placed on benches while the
perfectly flat surface. Marking using datum surfaces which larger surface plates are placed on stands.
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are not perfectly flat will result in dimensional
Other materials used
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inaccuracies. (Fig 1) The most widely used datum
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and marking tables.
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surfaces in machine shop work are the surface plates Granite is also used for manufacturing surface plates.
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Granite is a dense and stable material. Surface plates
made of granite retain their accuracy, even if the surface
is scratched. Burrs are not formed on these surfaces.
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Classification and uses

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Surface plates used for machine shop work are available

in three grades - Grades 1, 2 and 3. The grade 1 surface
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plate is more acceptable than the other two grades.

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Specifications
Cast iron surface plates are designated by their length,
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breadth, grade and the Indian Standard number.
Example
Materials and construction Cast iron surface plate 2000 x 1000 Gr1. I.S.2285.
Surface plates are generally made of good quality cast Marking-off tables (Fig 3)
iron which are stress-relieved to prevent distortion. The
work-surface is machined and scraped. The underside is
heavily ribbed to provide rigidity. (Fig 2)
These are heavily ribbed cast iron tables fitted with strong These lines serve as guides for positioning components
rigid legs. The top surface is accurately machined flat, while setting and marking.
and the sides square.
These are used for carrying out marking on heavy
components. On certain types-parallel lines are engraved
in both directions at a set distance.
Try square
• name the parts of a try square
• state the uses of a try square.
The try square (Fig. 1) is a precision instrument which is • check flatness of surfaces (Fig. 3)
used to check squareness (angles of 900) of a surface.
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• mark lines at 900 to the edges of workpieces (Fig. 4)
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The accuracy of measurement by a try square is about

0.002 mm per 10 mm length, which is accurate enough
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for most workshop purposes. The try square has a blade

with parallel surfaces. The blade is fixed to the stock at
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900.
• set workpieces at right angles on work. holding devices.
Uses (Fig. 5)
The try squareness is used (Figs 2 & 3)
Try squares are made of hardened steel.

Try squares are specified according to the lengths of the
blade, i.e 100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm.
Use of a try square and steel rule.
Fig 6 shows the method of using a try square and a steel
rule for accurate measurements.
For maintaining accuracy it is important to see

it, that the edges and surfaces of instruments
are protected from damage and rust.
An experienced person can transfer measurements from

a steel rule very accurately.
The steel rule graduations are accurately engraved, with
the line thickness ranging from 0.12 to 0.18 mm.
Do not place a steel rule with any cutting tools. Apply a
thin layer of oil when not in use.
For Accurate reading it is necessary to read vertically to
avoid errors due to parallax
Types of calipers
• name the commonly used calipers
• compare the features of firm joint and spring joint calipers
• state the advantage of spring joint calipers.
• state the uses of inside and outside calipers
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Calipers are simple measuring instruments used to The size of a caliper is specified by its length - which is
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transfer measurements from a steel rule to objects, and the distance between the pivot centre and the tip of the
vice versa. leg.
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Calipers are of different types depending on the type of The accuracy of the measurement taken depends very
joint and the shape of leg. much on the sense of feel an touch. While measuring the
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Types of joint job, you should get the feel when the legs are just touching
the surface.
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The commonly used calipers are:

- firm joint calipers
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- spring joint calipers.

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Firm Joint calipers (Fig. 1)

In the case of firm joint calipers, both legs are pivoted at
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one end. To take measurements of a workpiece. It is

opened roughly to the required size. Fine setting is done
by tapping the caliper lightly on a wooden surface.
Types of legs
Outside and inside calipers are differentiated by the shape
of the legs.
Calipers used for outside measurements are known as
outside calipers. The calipers used be internal measure-
Spring joint calipers (Fig. 2)
ments are known as inside calipers.
For this type of calipers, the legs are assembled by means
of a pivot loaded with a spring. For opening and closing Calipers are use along with steel rules, and the accuracy
the caliper legs, a screw and nut are provided. is limited to 0.5 mm; parallelism of jobs etc. can be
checked with higher accuracy by using a caliper.
Spring joint calipers have the advantage of quick setting.
The setting made will not change unless the nut is turned.
Jenny calipers
• state the constructional features of jenny calipers
• name the types of jenny calipers
• state the uses of jenny calipers.
Jenny calipers are used for marking and layout work.
These calipers are also known as hermaphrodite calipers,
odd leg calipers, and leg and point calipers.
Jenny calipers have one leg with an adjustable divider
point, while the other is a bent leg. The legs are joined
together to make a firm joint.
USES
Jenny calipers are used for marking lines, parallel to inside
and outside edges and for locating the centre of round
bars.
These calipers are available with the usual bent leg or
with a heel. The calipers, with ordinary bent legs, are used
for drawing lines parallel along an inside edge, and the
heel type is used to drawing parallel lines along outer
edges (Figs 1 & 2).
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The jenny calipers should be slightly inclined while scribing
lines.
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While setting dimensions for accurate setting the jenny

caliper point should `click’ into the graduation (Fig. 5).
Jenny calipers can also be used for scribing lines along

curved edges (Figs 3 & 4). While setting dimensions and
scribing lines, both legs should be of equal length.
Dividers
• name the parts of a divider
• state the uses of dividers
• state the specifications of dividers
• state the important aspects of be considered in respect of divider points.
Dividers are used for scribing circles, arcs and transferring The sizes of dividers range between 50 mm to 200 mm.
and stepping of distances. (Figs 1, 2 and 3) The distance from the point to the centre of the fulcrum
roller (pivot) is the size of the divider. (Fig 5)
For the correct location and seating of the divider legs,
prick punch marks of 30o are used. (Fig 6)
Dividers are available with firm joints and spring joints.
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The measurements are set on the dividers with a steel
rule. (Fig 4)
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ish Both the legs of the divider should always be of equal
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length.
Dividers are specified by the type of their joints and length.
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The divider point should be kept sharp in order to produce

timelines. Frequent sharpening with an oil stone is better
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than sharpening by grinding. Sharpening by grinding will

make the points soft.
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Do not sharpen the divider points on grinding

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wheels.
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Surface Gauges
• state the constructional features of surface gauges
• name the types of surface gauges
• state the uses of surface gauges
• state the advantages of universal surface gauges.
The surface gauge is one of the most common marking Surface gauge-fixed type (Fig. 2)
tools used for.
• setting jobs on machines parallel to a datum surface
scribing lines parallel to a datum surface • checking the height and parallelism of jobs
Types of surface gauges • setting jobs concentric to the machine spindle.
• Surface gauges/scribing blocks are of two types. The fixed type of surface gauge consists of a heavy flat
• Fixed base and a spindle, fixed upright , to which a scriber is
• Universal (Fig. 1) attached with a snug and a clamp-nut.
Universal surface gauge (Figs 3 & 4)
This has the following additional features.
• The spindle can be set to any position.
• Fine adjustments can be made quickly.
• can also be used on cylindrical surfaces.
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Scriber
• state the features of scribers
• state the uses of scribers.
In layout work, it is necessary to scribe lines to indicate

the dimensions of workpieces to be filed or machined .
The scriber is a tool used for this purpose. It is made of
high carbon steel which is hardened. For drawing clear
and sharp lines, a fine point is ground at one end.
Scribes are available in different shapes and sizes. The
one most commonly used is the plain scriber (Fig. 1).
Scriber points are very sharp, and they are to

be handled very carefully. Do not put the
scriber in your pocket. Place a cork on the point
when not in use to prevent accidents.( when it
is not in use)
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While scribing lines, the scriber is used like a pencil so
that the lines drawn are close to the straight edge (Fig.2).
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The point of the scriber should be ground and honed

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frequently for maintaining its sharpness.

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Wheelbase, wheeltrack and measuring tape
• define wheelbase
• define wheeltrack
• state measuring tape, its types and uses.
The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the center distance

between its front and rear wheels. (Fig 1)
Wheel/Track : The wheeltrack of a vehicle equals the center
distance between its front wheels. As shown in the
diagram. (Fig 4)
Measuring tape is a flexible ruler. It is made of ribbon
cloth plastic fiber glass metal strip with lines for
measurements. It is very common measuring tool used
by many people. The available range are 3m, 5m and 10m.
Types
1. Plastic Tape (Fig 3)
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2. Metal Tape (Fig 2)
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3. Fibre glass
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4. Ribbon cloth
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Application
Dress makers
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Civil Engineers
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Mechanical Engineers
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Surveyors
Carpenters
Medical field
Accuracy
Measuring tapes are marks in metric and British system.
The accuracy in metric system is 1mm and in British
system is 1/8”.
Limitation: Accouracy is not possible, because the tape
is flexible and likely to elongate while measuring long
ranges and distances.
32
Length measurement
• name the base unit length measurement as per the International system of units of measurement (SI)
• state the multiples of a metre and their values.
When we measure an object, we are actually comparing
it with a known standard of measurement.
The base unit of length as per SI is the METRE Length SI
UNIT and MULTIPLES
Base Unit
The base unit of length as per the System International
is the metre. The table given below lists some multiples
of a metre.
METRE (m) = 1000 mm
CENTIMETRE(cm) = 10 mm
MILLIMETRE (mm) = 1000 mm
MICROMETRE (m) = 0.001 mm
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The British system of length measurement
Measurement in engineering practice
bl I An alternative system of length measurement is the British
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Usually, in engineering practice, the preferred unit of length system. In this system, the base unit is the Imperial
Standard Yard. Most countries, including Great Britain
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measurement is the millimetre (Fig. 1).
itself, have, however, in the last few years, switched over
Both large and small dimensions are stated in millimetres to SI units.
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However in a regular Steel rule & in vernier caliper the

main scale readings of metric in the bottom and imperial
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in inches in the top wih corrosponding vernier scales.

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Engineer’s steel rule

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• state the constructional features of an engineer’s steel rule
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• explain the uses of a steel rule

• state the maintenance aspects to be considered in respect of steel rules.
When dimensions are given in a drawing without any The reading accuracy of the steel rule is 0.5 mm.
indication about the tolerance, it has to be assumed that
measurements are to be made with a steel rule.
Steel rule are made of spring steel or stainless steel. The
edges are accurately ground to form straight edges.
The surface of the steel rule is satin-chrome finished to
reduce glare, and to prevent rusting.
Sizes of steel rules (Fig. 1)
Steel rules are available in different lengts, the common
sized being 150mm, 300 mm and 600 mm.
The engineer’s steel rule is graduated in 10 mm, 5 mm,
1mm and 0.5 mm.
33
Air impact wrench, air ratchet
• explain the use of air impact wrench
• explain the working principle of air impact wrench.
Air impact wrench (Fig. 1) Air Ratchet (Fig.3)
Air Impact Wrench (also known as an impact or, Air Rattle An Air Ratchet is a quite identical to General ratchet
Gun windy gun), Air wrench is a socket wrench power wrench.
tool, which is used to deliver high torque. It works by storing
energy in rotating mass and suddenly delivering it to output It is also having square drive at different sizes.
shaft. The socket drive is turned by a Air Motor. When we pull
Compressed Air is commonly used as the power source. the trigger, Air motor gets activated it turns the socket
Electric power can also be used as the source of power. drive.
cordless Electric devices are also used, and are very The direction of socket drive can be changed to clockwise
popular due to ease of working. (or) anti clockwise as per the user requirement.
Air Ratchet operates with more speed unless torque. In
case where more torque is required we should use Air
impact wrench.
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Air Chisel
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ish Air chisel is used for cutting the bolts to nuts of vehicle
body sheet.
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The Air impact wrench is to be used along with a specially

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hardened impact socket extension and joints to withstand

sudden force.
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Generally a special 6 inch pin socket is used with air

impact wrench. (Fig. 2)
The compressed Air provides more force and

much efficient than a hand chisel and Hammer.
Air chisel can be used with different types of chisel kit,

depending upon the job.
34
Hand tools
• state the application of punches.
Punches are used in sheet metals and other work to mark

position on work. (Fig 1)
Prick punches
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These punches are used to make witness marks on

scribed lines. (Fig 2)
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Centre punches are used:

• to make deeper witness marks on scribed lines and to
locate a centre position and make it easier for the drill
This makes it easier to see accurate marking out lines. to start correctly. (Fig 5)
• to check the location of the centre positions before
centre punching. (Fig 3)
• to locate the pivot points of compasses for scribing
circles. (Fig 4)
A 100 mm prick punch with a 7 mm diameter body could
have a 2.5 mm diameter point ground to an angle of 60° or
30°
Centre punches
These punches are similar to prick punch, and it is
generally larger then prick punch.
A 100 mm centre punch could have a 10 mm diameter
body and a 6 mm diameter point ground to an angle of 90°
35
Solid punch (Fig 6) These punchase are also used to punch holes in thin sheet
metal, leather, plastic cork etc. Gaskets, seals and
spacers are made using hollow punches.
While using solid or hollow punches, the materials is rigidly
supported with a block of wood (with the end of grain up) or
lead. This will also avoid any damage to the tip of the punch
while punching.
Pin punches (Fig 8)
Pin punches are used to drive locating or locking pins,
dowels and rivets out of their holes.
Pin punches are available in a set of 5 pins of dia.3,4,5,6
and 8 mm with a knurled body to a length of approximately
150 mm.
In riveting sheet metal, holes must be equally spaced and

lined up. The holes in the metal are usually punched with
solid punches.
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Letter and number punches
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Also known as letter stamps or number stamps, letter
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punches are used to emboss the impression of a letter of
number into a workpiece. They are most common in the
reverse image, this allows the end result to be immediately
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readable, however they may be made as a positive image.

This is essential in the case of die or mold making and
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ensure that the finished product will be readable, as a die

is a negative image.
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Hollow punch (Fig 7)

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Chisel
• list the uses of a cold chisel
• name the parts of a cold chisel
• state the different types of chisels.
The cold chisel is a hand cutting tool used by fitters for • Hall round nose chisel
chipping and cutting off operations. (Fig. 1)
• Diamond point chisel
Flat chisels (Fig. 3)
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Chipping is an operation of removing excess metal with They are used to remove metal from large flat surfaces
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the help of a chisel and hammer. Chipped surfaces being and chip excess metal of weld joints and castings.
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rough, they should be finished by filing. Cross-cut or cape chisels (Fig. 3)
Parts of a chisel (Fig. 2) These are used for cutting keyways, grooves and slots.
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Half round nose chisels (Fig. 4)

They are used for cutting curved grooves (oil grooves)
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A chisel has the following parts.

Head
Body
Point or cutting edge
Chisels are made from high carbon steel or chrome
vanadium steel. The cross-section of chisels is usually
hexagonal or octagonal. The cutting edge is hardened
and termpered.
Common types of chisels
There are four common types of chisels
• Flat chisel (1)
• Cross-cut chisel (2)
Diamond point chisels (Fig. 5) Chilsels are specified according to their
These are used for squaring materials at the corners. • length
• width of cutting edge
• type
• cross-section of body
The length of the chisels ranges from 150mm to 400mm.
The width of the cutting edge varies according to the type
of chisels.
Web chisels/punching chisels (Fig. 6)

These chisels are used for separating metals after chain
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drilling.
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Angles of chisels
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• select the point angles of chisels for different materials.
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• state the different cutting angles of a chisel

• state the effect of rake and clearance angles.
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Point angles and materials (Fig 1) If the clearance angle is too low or zero (Fig. 2), the rake
angle increases. The cutting edge cannot penetrate into
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Correct point/cutting angles of the chisel depends on the

the work. The chisel will slip.
materials to be chipped. Sharp angles are given for soft
materials, and wide angles for hard materials.
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The correct point angle and angle of inclination generate

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the correct rake and clearance angles.

Rake angle (Fig. 1)
Rake angle `γ’ is the angle between the top face of the
cutting point, and normal to the work surface at the cutting
edge.
If the clearance angle is too great (Fig. 3), the rake angle
reduces. The cutting edge digs in, and the cut
progressively increases.
Clearance angle (Fig. 1)

Clearance angle `α’ is the angle between the bottom face
of the point and tangent to the work-surface originating at
the cutting edge.
Material to Point Angle It is made of Bakelite frame fitted with clear glasses and
be cut angle Inclination an elastic band to hold it securely on the operator’s head.
It is designed for comfortable fit, proper ventilation and full
High carbon protection from all sides.
steel 65o 39.5o
cast iron 60o 37o
Mild steel 55o 34.5o
Brass 50o 32o
Copper 45o 29.5o
Aluminium 30o 22o

Chipping goggles (Fig. 4): It is used to protect the eyes
while chipping the slag or grinding the job.
Hammers
• state the uses of an engineer’s hammer
• list the parts of an engineer’s hammer and state their functions
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• name the types of engineer’s hammers
• specify the engineer’s hammer,
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An engineer’s hammer (Fig. 1) is a hand tool used for
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striking purposes while

• punching
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• bending
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• straightening
• chipping
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• forging
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• riveting
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The parts of a hammer head are the

• face (1) • pein (2)
• cheek (3) • eyehole (4)
• wedge (5)
The face is the striking portion. Slight convexity is given
to it avoid digging of the edge.
The pein is the other end of the head. It is used for shaping
and forming work like riveting and bending. The pein is of
different shapes like the (Fig. 3)
Major parts of a hammer (Fig. 2)

The major parts of a hammer are a head and a handle.
The head is made of drop-forged carbon steel, while the
wooden handle must be capable of absorbing shock.
• ball pein
• crosspein
• straight pein
The face and the pein are hardened.
The cheek is the middle portion of the hammer-head.
The weight of the hammer is stamped here.
This portion of the hammer-head is left soft.
The face of the hammer is used for general work, such

as striking chisels and punches and levelling and working
over joints. (Fig. 7)
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An eyehole is meant for fixing the handle. It is shaped to
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fit the handle rigidly. The wedges fix the handle in the eye
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hole. (Fig 4,5)

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Specification
An engineer’s hammers are specified by their weight and
the shape of the pein. Their weight varies from 125 gms to
1.5 kg.
Ball pein hammer (Fig. 8)
The ball pein hammers are used for general work in a
machine/fitting shop. A ball pein head is used to spread metal in all directions.
Before using a hammer This hammer has a semi-spherical pein suitable for
riveting. (Fig. 9)
make sure the handle is properly fitted
It is used for shaping the cylindrical end of a metal rivet to
select a hammer with the correct weight suitable for form a rivet head.
the job
Cross pein hammer (Fig. 10)
check the head and handle for any cracks
ensure the face of the hammer is free from oil or A cross pein head is used to spread metal in one direction
grease. in the line of striking.
The figure shows the different parts of a hammer (Fig. 6). This has a blunt wedge-shaped pein at right angles to the
The handle is fitted in the eye-hole of the hammer. axis of the handle.
Straight pein hammer
A straight pein hammer is used to spread metal in one
direction at right angles to the line of striking (Fig. 11)
This hammer has a blunt wedge-shaped pein in line with
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the axis of the handle.
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A lump hammer or club hammer is a small sledgehammer
ish (Fig. 12) whose relatively light weight and short handle
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allow single-handed use. It is useful for light demolition
work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steel chisel
when cutting stone or metal. In this last application, its
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weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material being
cut than lighter hammers.
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Wooden Mallet
• name the different types of mallets
• state the uses of each type of mallets.
Mallets Types and uses
Mallets are soft hammers and are made of raw hide, hard Standard wooden mallets (Fig. 1) are used for general
rubber copper, brase, lead or wood, and are used to strike purpose work like flattening, bending etc.
a soft and light blow on the metal.
Bossing mallets (Fig. 2) are used for hollowing panel
beatings etc.
An end-faked mallet (Fig. 3) is used for stretching,
hammering etc.
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Screwdrivers
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No py
• classify the hand-held screwdrivers

• state the features of standard screwdrivers
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• list out the different types of special screwdrivers and their specific uses
• specify standard screwdrivers.
Screwdrivers are used to tighten or loosen screws which • flared tips which vary in length and thickness with the
are fixed in the machine element. length of the blade.
Classification Standard Screwdrives
• Standard type with tips to suit recessed head Standard screwdrivers are classified as:
screw slots.
• heavy duty screwdrivers
• Special type with tips to suit recessed head
• light duty screwdrivers
screws
• stumpy screwdrivers
Features of Standard screwdrivers (Fig. 1)
Heavy duty screwdrivers (Fig 2 & 3)
Screwdrivers must have:
This screwdriver has a square blade for applying extra
• tips (1) of turn screws with slotted heads
twisting force with the end of the spanner. Heavy duty
• handles of metals, wood or moulded insulating screwdrivers of London pattern have a flat blade and are
material(2), shaped to give a good grip for turning (3). mostly used by carpenters.
• blades of hardened and tempered carbon steel or alloy
steel
• round or square blade with length (4) ranging from
40mm to more than 350mm.
Light duty screwdrivers (Fig. 4)
This screwdriver has a round blade with parallel tips. This
screwdriver is used by electricians. The blades are
sheathed in insulation to avoid short circuting live parts.
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Stumpy screwdrivers (Fig. 5) They are used for slackening or tightening with a medium
force.
These are small sturdy screwdrivers. They are used when
other types of screwdrivers cannot be used due to the They are used in mass production.
space limitations.
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Special screwdrivers and their uses
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Offset screwdriver (Fig. 6)
Phillips (cross-recess) screwdrivers (Fig. 8)
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Offset screwdrivers are used on screws which are placed
in blind spaces. Phillips screwdrivers have cruciform or cross-shaped tips
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They are made with short blades and with the tips at right that are unlikely to slip from the cruciform slots in Philips
angle. recessed head screws.
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Greater turning force can be applied on screws by these The end of the four flats is tapered to an angle of 53o
screwdrivers because of their leverage. The extreme end is ground to 110°.
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Ratchet screwdriver (Fig. 7)

The following are the features of ratchet screwdrivers.
These screwdrivers are made with a three-position ratchet
contol for screwing, unscrewing of a screw and also
providing a neutral position.
They are used for tuning screws in confined spaces.
They can be operated without changing the hand grip.
Four different sizes to cover the full range of screws are
available. These are specified by point sizes 1,2,3 & 4
which correspond to the size of the Phillips screw heads.
For quicker application ratchet offset screwdrivers are also
available with renewable tips. (Fig. 9)
Specification
Screwdrivers are specified (Fig. 10) according to the
• length of the blade (a) Precautions
• width of the tip (b).
Use screwdrivers with tips correctly fitting into the screw
Normal blade length : 45 to 300mm. Width of blade : 3 to slot. (Fig. 13)
10mm.
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The blades of screwdrivers are made of carbon steel or
alloy steel, hardened and tempered.
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Make sure your hand and the handle are dry.

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Hold the screwdrivers axis in line with the axis of the

screw.
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While using a Philips screwdriver apply more downward

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pressure.
Screwdrivers for special uses Keep your hand away to avoid injury due to slipping of the
screwdriver. (Fig. 14)
Small sturdy screwdrivers (Fig. 11) are available for use
where there is limited space.
Screwdrivers with blades sheathed in insulation are

available for the use of electricians (Fig. 12)
Do not use screwdrivers with split or defective handles. Screw driver (Fig 16): There are several different size of
(Fig. 15) screw drivers of the standard, reed & prince & phillips
types.
The offset screw driver is useful in tight quarters where
even a “Stubby” cannot be used.
Safety:
1 Always use correct type and size screw drivers.
2 Don’t do repair work by holding the job on the hand
with the help of screw driver, if may slips it pierce
the hand.
In the case of damaged screwdrivers, the blades can be
ground (the faces will be parallel with the sides of the
screw slot) and used. While grinding ensure the end of
the tips is as thick as the slot of the screw.
While using screwdrivers on small jobs, brace the job on
the bench or hold them in a vice.
Specification of a screwdriver
Screwdrivers are specified according to the
• length of the blade
• width of the tip
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The normal blade length varies from 45mm to 300mm
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and the width of the blade varies from 3mm to 10mm.
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Allen keys
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• state the features and uses of hexagon socket screw keys
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• specify hexagon socket screw keys.

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Hexagon socket screw keys/Allen keys are made from Allen keys, available in different sets in plastic wallets,
hexagonal section bars of chrom vanadium steel. surprise of a set of 8 (2 to 10mm)
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These are hardened and tempered. These are bent to `L’ 2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 10mm
shape. The size of an Allen key is identified by the size
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Sizes of Allen keys (Fig. 1)

across the flat of the hexagon.
Individual pieces are available as follows.1, 1.5, 2, 2.5,
Uses
3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 17, 19, 22, 24, 27, 32 and 36.
They are used to tighten or loosen screws having internal
Designation of Allen keys (Fig. 2)
hexagon sockets, (Fig.1)
A hexagonal socket screw key of width across flat 8 mm
shall be designated as Key 8 IS:3082.
Bench vice
• name the parts and uses of a bench vice
• specify the size of a bench vice
• state the uses of vice clamps.
Vices are used for holding workpieces. They are available Fixed jaw, movable jaw, hard jaws, spindle, handle, box-
in different types. The vice used for bench work is called nut and spring are the parts of vice.
as bench vice or (Engineer’s vice) The box-nut and the spring are the internal parts.
A bench vice is made of cast iron or cast steel and it is Vice clamps or soft jaws (Fig. 2)
used to hold work for filling, sawing, threading and other
hand operations. The hold a finished work use soft jaws (vice clamps) made
of aluminium over the regular jaws. This will protect the
The size of the vice is stated by the width of the jaws. work surface from damage.
Parts of a bench vice (Fig.1) Do not over-tighten the vice as, the spindle may get
The following are the parts of the vice damaged.
The Vice is generally bolted and secured in a wooden
work table, and is useful for operations like filing, chipping,
hacksawing, bending sheetmetal etc.
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Types of vices
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• state the construction and advantages of a quick releasing vice
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• state the uses of pipe vice, toolmakers vice, hand vice and pin vice.
There are different types of vices used for holding is pressed, the nut disengages the screw and the movable
workpieces. They are quick releasing vice, pipe vice, hand jaw can be set in any desired place quickly.
vice pin vice and toolmaker’s vice.
Pipe vice (Fig 2)
Quick releasing vice (Fig 1)
A quick releasing vice is similar to an ordinary bench vice

but the opening of the movable jaw is done by using a
trigger (lever). If the trigger at the front of the movable jaw
A Pipe vice is used for holding round sections of metal,
and pipes. In this vice, the screw is vertical and movable.
The jaw works vertically.
The pipe vice grips the work at four points on its surface.
The parts of a pipe vice are shown in Fig. 2.
Hand vice (Fig 3)
The pin vice is used for holding small diameter jobs. It

consists of a handle and a small collet chuck at one end.
The chuck carries a set of jaws which are operated by
turning the handle.
Toolmaker’s vice (Fig 5)
Hand vices are used for gripping screws, rivets, keys,

small drills and other similar objects which are too small
to be conveniently held in the bench vice. A hand vice is
made in various shapes and sizes. The length varies from
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125 to 150 mm and the jaw width from 40 to 44 mm. The
jaws can be opened and closed using the wing nut on the The toolmaker’s vice is used for holding small work which
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screw that is fastened to one leg, and passes through the required filing or drilling and for marking of small jobs on
other.
ish the surface plate. This vice is made of mild steel.
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Pin vice (Fig 4) Toolmaker’s vice is accurately machined.

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C- Clamps and toolmaker’s clamps

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• state the purpose of using clamps

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• specify the requirements of the clamping devices

• state the features and uses of ‘C’ clamps
• state the features of Toolmaker’s clamps.
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Purpose of using clamps

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Clamps are used for preventing the movement of work,

and for holding the job tight.
Requirements of clamping devices
Should be able to manipulate for easy loading.
Should provide the required clamping force.
Should be capable of locking with minimum movement.
Should accommodate a range of sizes of jobs.
(Fig 1) shows a typical clamping device, employing a
screw and nut to provide the clamping force.
‘C’ Clamps
These clamps are in the shape of a ‘C’. The ‘C’ clamp

has its body forged or cast. One end of the clamp is
machined flat. The other end is drilled and threaded to
accommodate a screw-rod which is operated by a handle.
The screw-rod carries a swivel pad which is free to revolve.
The clamp is hardened and the face is serrated. (Fig 2)
These clamps are used to hold work, on an angle plate or
a drill press table, and also, for holding two or more
workpieces together.
The swivel pad on the end of the clamping screw helps in The head of the screw-rod (B) is provided with a hole
clamping surfaces which are not parallel. ‘C’ clamps are through which a cylindrical pin may be passed for
available for light and heavy duty work. tightening purposes. The toolmaker’s clamps are for
Toolmaker’s clamps holding a previously machined work which is flat and
parallel.
This is the type most commonly used by toolmakers for
holding small, machined, flat pieces for further operations. The toolmaker’s clamp is not suitable for doing any heavy
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They have two rectangular pieces of steel perfectly operations on the workpiece since the contacting and
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machined. The inner faces which come in contact with the holding area of the clamp is limited. It is meant for holding
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workpiece are perfectly parallel. They are assembled by light jobs. It is also called as parallel clamp.
means of two threaded rods. The screw-rod (A) is rotated
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‘U’ Clamps
in one direction to adjust the gap between the two holding
faces. The other screw (B) when tightened maintains the These are clamps used along with ‘V’ Blocks as an
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required pressure. (Fig 3) accessory. These clamps serve the purpose of holding
the round work securely in the ‘V’ groove for layout
operations as well as for machining operations.
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Spanners and their uses

No py
• state the necessity of spanners

• identify the different types of spanners
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• specify the spanners

• list out the parts of adjustable spanners
• state the features of ‘C’ spanners and their uses.
Spanners are used for operating threaded fasteners, bolts The correct spanner fits exactly and allows room for use.
and nuts. They are made with jaws or opening that fit square They should also permit the job to be done in a shorter
on hexagonal nuts and bolts and screw heads. They are time.
made of high tensile or alloy steel. They are drop-forged
and heat-treated for strength. Finally they are given a The following are the points to be noted for using spaners
smooth surface finish for ease of gripping. in a safe way. (Fig. 2)
Spanners are considerably in shape to provide ease of Use open end and ring spanners by pulling on the shank.
operation under different conditions. It is safest to pull as there is less chance of hitting your
knuckles if the spanner or nut slips suddenly. If you are
The basic types of spanners are : (Fig. 1) forced to push the spanner, use the base of your hand
and keep your hand open.
- Open end spanners (1)
Use both hands for large spanners.
- tube or tubular box spanners (2)
Keep yourself balanced and firm to avoid slipping
- Socket spanners (3) yourself, if the spanner slips suddenly, Hold on to some
- Ring spanners (4) support, if there is any chance of falling.
Socket spanners may be turned by accessories which
have square driving ends. (Fig. 2)
Size and identification of spanners

The size of a spanner is determined by the nut or bolt it
fits. The distance across the flats of a nut or bolt varies
both with the size and the thread system. (Fig 4)
In the British system the nominal size of the bolt is used
to identify the spanner. (Fig. 3)
In the unified standard system (Fig. 3), the spanners are
marked with a number based on the gas requirement
decimal equivalent of the nominal fractional size across
the flats of the hexagon, following the sign A/F or with the
fractional size across the flats following the sign A/F. In
the metric system, spanners are marked with the size
across the jaw opening followed by the abbreviation ‘mm’.
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To fit exactly, a spanner must be :

• of the correct size
• placed correctly on the nut
• in good condition.
Spanners have their jaws slightly wider than the width of
the nut so that they can be placed into position easily.
Any excess more than a few hundredths of a millimeter
clearance could cause the spanner to slip under pressure.
Place the spanner so that its jaws bearfully on the
flats of the nut.
Incorrect use damages the spanners & the nuts too.
Use both hands as shown in the figure, when using tubular
box spanners. (Fig. 2) Discard any defective spanners. The spanners illustrated
here are dangerous for use.
Use two spanners as shown in the figure to stop the head
of the bolt rotating as the nut is operated. (Fig. 2) Choose spanners that allow room for use.
Nuts in inaccessible positions may be reached with
socket spanners, with special drawing accessories.
(FIg 5)
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Length of spanners (Fig. 6)

Normally spanners have a length that is about ten times
the width of the jaw opening.
Never exert excessive pull on a spanner, particularly by
using a pipe to extend the length of a spanner.
Excess turning effect of the spanner could result in :
• striping the thread
• shearing the bolt
• straining the jaws of the spanner
• making the spanner slip and cause an accident.
Most common types of adjustable spanners are similar with a range of diameters. A set of three spanners is
to open and spanners, but they have one movable jaw. needed to cover diameters from 19 mm to 120 mm.
The opening between the jaws of a typical 250 mm spanner
The applications of ‘C’ spanners are shown in the figure.
can be adjusted from zero to 28.5 mm. Adjustable
spanners may range in length from 100 mm to 760 mm. C’ Spanners are also used for zero - selfing of micrometer.
the type illustrated has its jaws set an angle of 22 1/20 to With socket spanners (Fig. 10), use the reversible ratchet
the handle. Adjustable spanners are convenient for use handle for doing fast work, where turning space is
where a full kit of spanners cannot be carried about. They restricted.
are not intended to replace fixed spanners which are more
suitable for heavy service. If the movable jaw or knurled
screw is cracked or worn out, replace them with spare
ones.
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Ring or box spanner (Fig 11): For critical tighting and

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loosening of nuts. For multi contact on bolts and nuts.

When using the adjustable spanner follow the steps given
below.
Place it on the nut so that the jaw opening points in the
same general direction the handle is to be pulled. In this
position the spanners are less liable to slip and the required
turning force can be exerted without damage to the moving
jaw and knurl.
Push the jaws into full contact with the nut.
Use the thumb to tighten the adjusting knurl so that the
jaws fit the nut strongly.
Pull continuously. The length of the handle is designed to
suit the maximum opening of the jaws. With small nuts,
a very small pull on the handle will produce the required Pliers (Fig 12): Pliers are commonly used for cutting
torque. wires, holding parts, crimping electrical connections and
‘C’ spanners (Hook spanners) (Fig. 9) bending cotter pins.
It has a lug that fits in a notch, cut in the outer edge of a Safety:
round nut. The ‘C’ section is placed around around the 1 Avoid cutting hardened objects.
nut in the direction in which it is to be turned. In adjustable
2 Never use pliers to turn nuts, bolts or tubing fitting.
hook wrenches, part of the ‘C’ section pivots to fit nuts
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Combination of ring and open end spanner (Fig 13):

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This tool has a box end on one end and an open end on the
other. Both ends are of the same size.
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Socket spanners (Fig 14): The socket is one of the fastest

and most convenient of all the spanners. Sockets come in
two sizes; standard and deep.
Standard sockets will handle the most of the works, while
the extra reach of the deep socket is occasionally needed.
Swivel socket (Fig 15): The swivel socket allows the user
to turn fasterners at an angle.
Socket handles: Several different drive handles are used.
The speed handle (Fig 16 & 17) is used whenever possible
as it can be turned rapidly.
Pliers
• state the features of pliers
• state the uses of pliers.
Features Cutters are provided for cutting off soft wires. (Fig 3)
Pliers have a pair of legs joined by a pivot, hinge or fulcrum
pin. Each leg consists of a long handle and a short jaw.
Elements of pliers with two joint cutters (Fig. 1)
(Combination pliers)
• Flat jaw
• Pipe grip
• Side Cutters
Two joint cutters are provided for cutting or shearing off

steel wires (Fig 4)
Handles are used for applying pressure by hand.
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Pliers are available in sizes from 150 mm to 230 mm.
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(Size = Overall length)
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• Joint cutters
Other types of pliers
• Handles
Flat nose pliers
Features
It has tapered wedge jaws with flat gripping surfaces which
Flat jaw tips are serrated for general gripping.
may be either smooth or serrated. (Fig 5)
Pipe grip is serrated for gripping cylindrical objects.
(Fig 2)
It is used for bending and folding narrow strips of thin
(Fig.6)
End cutting pliers

These pliers have the same uses as the side cutting pliers.
Roundnose Pliers (Fig 10)
This type of pliers is made with tapered round shaped

(Fig.7) They are used to shape loops in wires and the
form curves in light metal strips (Fig.8)
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Circlip pliers
Circlip pliers are used for fitting and removing circlips in
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assembly works.
Internal circlip plier
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It is used to fit and remove the internal circlip in the groove

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of the bore. (Fig 11)

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Slip-joint, multi-grip pliers

It is similar to the grip pliers but has more openings in the
legs. It gives a range of jaw openings. It allows parallel
gripping by the jaws in a number of positions. (Fig 12)
Slip-joint pliers
These pliers are available in various ranges of positions
with different shapes of pivot pins so that they have various
ranges of jaw opening.
Mainly used for gripping. (Fig 9)
The shape and length of the leg are different from those
of the slip-joint pliers. (Fig.13)
Side cutting pliers

It is made with jaws set at an angle. (Fig.14) They are also used for spreading the cotter pin.
External circlip pliers.
External circlip pliers are used to fit and remove the
external circlip in the grooves of the shafts.
Locking pliers
The locking lever of the locking pliers is attached with a
movable handle which clamps the jaws on to an object of
any shape.
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ish The screw in the handle enables adjustment of the lever
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action to the work size.
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They are used for shearing off wires in confined spaces

and cutting off wires close to the surface level. (Fig.15)
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SNIPS (Straight & Bent)

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• state the uses of straight and bent snips
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• state the features and use of lever shears

• state the uses of circle cutting machines.
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A snip, also called a hand shear ans it is used like a pair Straight snips have thin blades which are only strong on
of scissors to cut thin, soft metal sheets. Snips are used a vertical planes. They are, therefore, only suitable for
to cut sheet metal upto 1.2mm thickness. straight cuts and external curves when surplus waste has
to be removed.
Types of snips (shears)
While cutting, the blade of the snips should not cover the
There are several types of snips available for making
marking.
straight or circular cuts, the most common being straight
snips and curved snips. Bent snips (Fig. 3)
The choice of shears (snips) depends on the shape and These snips have curved blades for making circular cuts.
type of the cut required. They are also used for trimming cylindrical or conical work
in sheet metal.
Straight snips (Figs 1& 2)
Snips are specified by the overall length and the shape of
These are used for making straight cuts and large external
the blade.
curves.
Example
200mm straight snip (Fig.4)
Lever shears (Fig 5)
Lever shears are used to cut sheets which cannot be cut
with hand shears.
The lever shear possesses a fixed lower blade and a
moving upper blade. The sheet being cut is prevented from
tilting by a clamping device which can be adjusted to the
thickness of the sheet. The knife-edge cutter of the upper
blade is curved so that the opening angle at the point of
cut remains constant.
Circle cutting and curve cutting machines (Fig 6)
These machines are used to cut circles and curves of the
desired shapes. When cutting curves, the sheet must be
guided by the hand.
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Wrenches
• name the different wrenches used
• state the features of each type of wrenches.
Types of wrenches • Hexagon socket wrench
• Stillson pipe wrench Stillson pipe wrenches (Fig 1 & 2)
• Footprint pipe wrench These are used for gripping and turning pipes of a wide
• Tension wrench range of diameters.
The parts and their names are shown in the (Fig 1).
A jaw is fixed to the handle with outward facing teeth. Some tension wrenches have direct reading indicators
Attached to the handle by a pivot pin is a spring-loaded that you must watch as you pull the handle to the desired
casing that carries a knurled adjusting nut. This engages extent. With others, you preset to the desired graduation
with a thread on the adjustable arm of a jaw with inward and pull until you detect a signal which may be an audible
facing teeth. click, the release of a trigger pin or an automatic release
within the wrench mechanism.
To apply the correct torque with a tension wrench :
- check that the threads of the nut and the bolt are
clean and well formed.
- pull slowly with evenly increasing effort on the hand
grip of the handle.
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Once the jaws are adjusted, the spring loading keeps them
in contact with the work, and the toggle action causes
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the hardened serrations to bite into the work.

The jaws will mark the work. File off any burrs. Never use
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them on polished or plated surfaces. Never grip hardened

materials with this type of wrench as this will damage the
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serrations.
Footprint pipe wrenches (Fig. 3)
These are used for gripping and turning pipes and round
stock, particularly in confined spaces.
Adjust the size by fitting the removable pin in the hole
that allows the pipe to be gripped, with the handles a
comfortable distance apart. Thrust the jaws fully on to the
pipe. Squeeze the handles firmly. Pull on the folded steel
handle to turn the pipe. Stop squeezing and slide the jaws
back round the pipe, squeeze and pull again.
File off any burrs raised by the jaws on the pipe.
Tension wrench (Fig 4) Torque wrench (Fig 5): Torque wrench is used to tighten
A tension wrench acts as a torque limiting device for turning the bolts/nuts at recommended ended torque. The torque
(rotating) nuts to a predetermined degree of tightness. wrench will meausre the torque (twisting force) applied to
This avoids breaking the fasteners. It is also essential to the fastener. E.g. Cylinder head nuts, bearing cap nuts
avoid warping or springing components held by multiple etc. (N.m; Kg m or Ib-ft)
fasteners that could be unevenly or excessively tightened,
cylinder heads of engines, for example.
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Flaring, flare fittings and testing the joints

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• illustrate necessity, types of flaring methods
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• list the types and applications of flare fittings

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• pressurise the joint system and test for leaks.

Flaring necessity: When connecting tubing to fittings,
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it is common practice to flare the end of the tube and to

use fittings designed to grip the flare for a vapour tight
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seal. Special tools are used for making flares.

Types of flaring : There are two types of flaring
Single thickness flare
Double thickness flare
Single thickness flare : It can be made on smaller size
copper tubing (Fig.1)
Double thickness flare : Double thickness flares are
recommended for only the larger size tubing 5/16 inch
(9mm) OD and over. Such flares are not easily formed on
smaller tubing. The double flare makes a stronger joint
than a single flare.
The Fig (2 & 3) shows some defects and correctly made
flare. This also shows how defective flare made the fitting
mismatched.
be done.
Air pressure from
Air compressor - 150 PSI
or - 10Kg/cm2
The gas which is employed can be used for testing.
Leak can be detected with the use of soap solution. There
are also other methods for leak detection.
Pressure tests are usually made on the joints above the
working pressure.
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Flared tubing fittings : To attach a fitting to soft copper

tubing, a flared type connection is generally used.
The following are some of the more common flared type
fittings. (Fig. 4, 5 & 6)
Pressurising the joint on tubing : A flared joint or brazed
joint needs to be tested for its firm. If it leaks while working
it will put the whole system into problem. Before putting
the joint into a system after it is made pressure test must
A pipe cutter is more convenient and better than a saw
when cutting pipes and metal tubing. (Fig. 7)
The sharpened wheel does the cutting. As the tool turns
around the pipe the screw increases the pressure, driving
the wheel deeper and deeper through the pipe until it finally
cuts rights through. (Fig. 8)
Puller
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• state the function of puller
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• state the types of puller.
Puller
ish before every use lubricate the centre bolt threads, with
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graphite - based lubricant

The puller is a General Workshop tool which is used to
remove Gears, bearings pulleys, flanges, bushes. use puller only with recommended attachment
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The puller is made out of steel material, generally with two do not over load a pulley which may cause to break
or three legs and they are adjusted to hold the outside of
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the gears or bearing sleeves while the central threaded

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shaft is screwed forward exerting force on the gear/bearing.

This enables to remove the bearing without damaging the
shaft.
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Pullers are classified according to the application and the

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number of leg.
Another classification is bsed on the power utilised i.e.
Mechanical puller and Hydraulic puller.
Two legs puller is generally used for removing the gears.
Where as puller with three legs are for removing pulleys.
flanges and bearings. It is also called gear puller. Special
pullers: These are mainly used for specialised application
such as crank shaft bearing removal brake drum, removal
pilot bearing removal.
Hydraulic puller : These pullers eliminate time consuming
and unsafe hammering, heating or prying. Damage to past
is minimised through the use of Hydraulic. pullers.
Safety
To avoid personal injury during system operation,
Always wear proper PPE gear
never use a tool to strike a puller
make sure that items are pulled is well and adequately
supported
do not apply heat to a puller
Important: Always keep the guide parts of the
lifting plate greased.
Hydraulic pullers are derigned to help you extend bearing

life in your applications through proper installtion, removal
and service.
Hydraulic pulling systems are available with capacity
ranging from 4 tons to 30 tons, and are ideal for removing
all kinds of shaft filled parts.
Hydraulic pulling system comprises of integrated pump.
clyinder, hose, puller with safety-release valve. The pullers
have self-contained hydraulic pump and are compact,
handy. There are ideal for pulling variety of press-fit parts
including bearing, wheels bushings, gears, pulleys.
In Automobiles Hydraulic Puller especially used for
memoring Engine Liner from the cylinder block during
engine Reconditioning Work.
Mechanical Puller Operation: (Figs 1 & 2)
1 Ensure that the spindle is clean and applied grease
before use.
2 The Shaft (A) must have a center hole (B) as shown in
ed
the figure. If it does not, use a shaft protector (C) as
2 Before each use, lubricate the center bolt of the puller
shown in (fig 1)
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with a graphite-based lubricant.
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3 Tighten strap bolts to hold jaws lightly in place
3 To operated the puller, grasp the puller with one hand
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4 Position the puller that the spindle as shown in fig 2. and and turn the T-handle counter-clockwise with the
other hand until the jaw opening is big enough to fit
5 Tighten the spindle slightly by turning the spindle nut
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over the component to be pulled

with proper wrench
4 Turn the T-Handle clockwise with the other hand until
6 Check that the jaws are fully contacting the part to be
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the jaw firmly onto the component. (Fig.3A)

pulled.
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5 Make sure that the center of the puller is aligned with

7 Tighten the strap bolts.
the center of the component to be pulled. Using hand
8 Apply pulling force by turning the spindle. tools only, tighten the center bolt to pull the component
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Post lock puller operation (Manual pullers) off of its shaft. Never exceed the maximum torque
ratings of the puller’s drive bolt. (Fig.3B)
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1 Make sure that all items being pulled are supported

by a means other than the puller. NO LOOSE 6 Turn the T-handle counter-clockwise to remove the puller
PIECES!!! from the component. (Fig.3C)
Hydraulic Puller Operation: (Fig. 4)
1 Make sure that all items being pulled are supported by
a means other than the puller. NO LOOSE PIECES!!!
2 Install the cylinder into the puller by threading collar
threads clock-wise into the jawhead assembly. Make
sure that the puller collar threads are fully engaged in
the puller. Attach lift plate to the coupler end of the
cylinder. Remove the saddle from the cylinder and insert
the ram point into the plunger. Select the ram point
that will provide the maximum contact with the shaft.
3 To operate the puller, grasp the puller with one hand
and turn the T-handle counter-clockwise with the other
hand until the jaw opening is big enough to fit over the
component to be pulled.
4 Turn the T-Handle clockwise to tighten the jaw firmly
onto the component.
5 Make sure that the puller is square with the component
to be pulled. Advance the plunger until the ram point
contacts the shaft to insure correct alignment. The
center point of the puller must be aligned with the center
point of the shaft. Continue to advance the plunger slowly
to pull the component off of the shaft. Never try to
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retighten the T-handle during the pulling operation.
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Mechanic diesel - Measuring, marking & workshop tools
Least count calculation, care and use of micrometer

• name the principal parts of an outside micrometer
• derive the least count of metric micrometer
• determine the reading by using a metric micrometer
• solve the reading and give the measurement
• state the features of a large micrometers.
The purpose of a metric micrometer is to read an accuracy stop is provided to the spindle in order to prevent a possible
of 0.01 mm of an object. It is available in various sizes. excess pressure on the screw treads.
However, the measuring range is limited to the length of
the threaded spindle.(Fig 1) The sleeve or barrel is marked (Fig 3) with the main scale
in full mm and half mm. The thimble bevel end is graduated
with the thimble scale. Fifty equal divisions are made on
the circumference of the thimble bevel end. Every 5th
division of the graduation is indicated with the number.
Normally, the spindle face is fitted with a carbide tip to
resist the wear. The spindle with the screw is attached to
the thimble of the micrometer. The corresponding threaded
nut is fitted to the barrel or sleeve of the micrometer. The
ed
other measuring face of the micrometer is the anvil, which
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is normally fitted with a carbide tip to resist the wear.
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The range of micrometers are 0-5 mm, 25-50 mm, 50-75,

75-100 mm etc. The spindle can be easily screwed down
in the barrel. In order to have the reference point for reading
the micrometer, the datum or index line is marked on the
sleeve.
When the face of the anvil and the face of the spindle are
in contact, the O graduations of the index line and O
graduation of the thimble coincide with each other.
The spindle may be withdrawn by rotating the thimble in
an anticlockwise direction. The thimble portion is knurled
The principal parts of a micrometer are the frame, anvil, to provide a good grip for holding as well as for rotating the
spindle and the thread, sleeve or barrel and the thimble, spindle.
there is a knurled collar or small lever on the frame to lock
the spindle in the barrel.(Fig 2) In addition to this, a ratchet
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Deriving the least count of a metric micrometer Read on the barrel scale the number of whole millimeters
that are completely visible from the bevel edge of the
The main scale is graduated in ½ mm. Every 5th mm is
thimble. It reads 4 mm. (Fig 6)
shown with the reading. The pitch of the screw thread is
accurately maintained to ½ mm.(Fig 4) Add to this any half millimeters that are completely visible
from the bevel edge of the thimble.
The figure reads ½ = 0.5 mm
Add the thimble reading to the two earlier readings.(Fig 7)
The figure shows the 5th division of the thimble is coinciding

with the index line of the sleeve. Therefore the reading of
ed
the thimble is 5 8 0.01 mm = 0.05 mm. The total reading
of the micrometer.(Fig 8)
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ish a 4.00 mm
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b 0.50 mm
c 0.05 mm
Total reading 4.55 mm
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By turning one complete revolution of the thimble in a

clockwise or an anticlockwise direction, the spindle moves
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exactly ½ mm in the forward direction or the reverse

direction. As the circumference of the thimble graduated
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into 50 equal divisions, the advancement of the spindle for

each division of the thimble scale is ½ mm - 50 i.e. 1/100
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mm or 0.01 mm. Therefore, the least count of a metric

micrometer is 1/100 mm or 0.01 mm.(Fig 5)
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Determining the reading of a metric micrometer

Before using the micrometer for measurement, it is
necessary to ascertain that there is no error in the
micrometer. Some examples of metric micrometer readings and their
The faces of the anvil spindle must be free from dust. solution.
While reading the micrometer, the spindle must be locked i) 5.00 mm
with the reading.
0.50 mm
Method of reading 0.12 mm
Total 5.62 mm
ii) 12.00 mm viii) 19.00 mm
0.50 mm 0.50 mm
0.05 mm
0.19 mm
Total 12.69 mm Total 19.55 mm
ix) 2.00 mm
iii) 23.00 mm
0.50 mm
0.50 mm 0.25 mm
0.49 mm
Total 2.75 mm
Total 23.99 mm
x) 21.00 mm
iv) 1.00 mm 0.00 mm
0.50 mm 0.14 mm
0.39 mm
Total 21.14 mm
Total 1.89 mm
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v) 5.00 mm xi) 9.00 mm
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0.50 mm 0.00 mm
0.00 mm
ish 0.10 mm
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Total 5.50 mm Total 9.10 mm

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Large micrometers (Fig 10)

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vi) 0.00 mm
0.50 mm
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0.00 mm
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Total 0.50 mm
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vii) 7.00 mm
0.00 mm
0.22 mm
Total 7.22 mm
Outside micrometers have limited reading capacity as

they are dependent upon the length of the spindle which
itself is limited and fixed.
A 0-25 mm capacity outside micrometer can read a

maximum dimension of 25 mm. For measuring sizes over
and above this, we have to change to the next capacity
micrometer 25-50 mm, then 50-75 mm and so on
depending on the size of the job. As such, a good number
of micrometers will have to be used for finishing jobs of
various dimensions. In order to eliminate this problem, a
large micrometer is used for measurements.
Skill Information
Precision Measuring Instruments - Outside Metric Micrometer
Objectives At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• hold the micrometer for measurement
• set the micrometer on work for measurement
• read the measurement.
Holding the micrometer for measurement
The micrometer may be held either in one hand or both
the hands.
Holding In one hand (Fig 1)
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Setting the micrometer on the workplace for

measurements (Fig 3)
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High skills needed for obtaining accurate measurements

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with the outside micrometer. A wrong setting of the

micrometer over the workplace may cause:
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- inaccurate reading
Hold the outside micrometer in your right hand, keeping
- excessive strain on the screw thread
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the graduations on the main scale towards you.

- distortion in the frame.
Support the frame on the lower centre of your palm. Use
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your little or third finger to hold the frame in the palm. Figure shows the adjustment of the spindle and anvil over
workplace. As you adjust the workplace between the
Place the middle finger behind the frame to support it.
spindle and the anvil, you should feel a light pressure or
Keep the first finger and thumb free to adjust the knurled resistance against the workplace surface. Use the spring
thimble. loaded ratchet stop to ascertain the feel.
Holding by both the hands (Fig 2)
Sometimes, it may be more convenient to hold the
micrometer with both the hands.
Support the frame between the fingers and the thumb of
your left hand.
Use the thumb and finger of your right hand to adjust the
thimble.
• When satisfied with the feel, remove the fingers from
the thimble
• Turn the micrometer towards you
• read the measurement
Method of reading the micrometer 0-25 range (Fig 5)
Look at the reading which has been taken from the

workplace.
Read on the barrel scale the number of whole millimeters

that are completely visible from the bevel edge of the
thimble. Figure 'a' shows 4 divisions = 4 mm.
Add any half millimeters that are completely visible from

the bevel edge of the thimble.
Figure 'b' shows 1 division = 0.5 mm.
Add the thimble reading to the main scale reading which

has already been taken. Figure 'c' shows the 5th division
of the thimble scale is coinciding with the index line. So
thimble reading = 5 * 0.01 = 0.05 mm.
ed
4. 00 mm
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0.50 mm
ish 0.05 mm
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Total reading 4.55 mm

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While using only one hand: (Fig 4)

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• Close the anvil and spindle until you feel them just
touching the work
• Move the work slightly between the spindle and the
anvil or pass the micrometer over the workplace by
moving your wrist
• Make further adjustments of the thimble as required
until you obtain the right 'feel'
Depth micrometer
• name the parts of a depth micrometer
• state the constructional features of a depth micrometer
• read the depth micrometer measurement.
Constructional features (Fig 1)
A depth micrometer consists of a stock on which a
graduated sleeve is fitted.
The other end of the sleeve is threaded with 0.5 mm pitch
'V' thread.
A thimble, which is internally threaded to the same pitch
and form, mates with the threaded sleeve and slides over
it.
The other end of the thimble has an external step machined
and threaded to accommodate a thimble cap.
A set of extension rods are generally supplied. On each of
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them, the range of sizes that can be measured with that
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rod is engraved as 0-25 mm, 25-50 mm, 50-75 mm, 75-
100 mm, 100-125 mm and 125-150 mm.
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line represents one millimeter. Each fifth line is drawn little

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longer and numbered. Each line representing 1mm is

further subdivided into two equal parts. Hence each
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subdivision represents 0.5 mm. (Fig 3)

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These extension rods can be inserted inside the thimble

and the sleeve.
The extension rod has a collar head which helps the rod
to be held firmly. (Fig 2)
The measuring faces of the stock and the rods are
hardened, tempered and ground. The measuring face of
the stock is machined perfectly flat.
The extension rods may be removed and replaced
according to the size to be measured.
Graduation and least count
On the sleeve a datum line is marked for a length of 25
mm. This is divided into 25 equal parts graduated. Each
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The graduations numbered are in the reverse direction to The advancement of the extension rod for one full turn of
that marked on an outside micrometer. the thimble is one pitch which is 0.5 mm.
The zero graduation of the sleeve is one the top and the Therefore the advancement of the extension rod for one
25 mm graduation is near the stock. division movement of the thimble will be equal to 0.5 / 50 =
0.01 mm.
The bevel edge of the thimble is also graduated. The
circumference is divided into 50 equal parts and every 5th This will be the smallest measurement that can be taken
division line is drawn longer and numbered. The numbering with this instrument, and so this is the accuracy of
is in the reverse direction and increases from 0 to 5, 10, measurement of this instrument.
15, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 (0). (Fig 4)
Uses of a depth micrometer
Depth micrometers are special micrometers used to

measure:
- Depth of holes
- depth of grooves and recesses
- heights of shoulders and projections.
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Description least count, calculation, care and use of vernier caliper

• state the principle of vernier
• define least count
• derive the least count of vernier scales.
The vernier principle Figure 3 shows the method of reading the vernier scale.
The zero of the vernier scale is between 0.2 to 0.3 units
The basic principle of the vernier is that the smallest unit
of size to which a vernier can be read is equal to the
difference in the length between the divisions of the two
scales.
The magnification on the vernier scale is given by two

scales sliding over each other; the eye can detect which
divisions on one of them are smaller than those on the
other. The eye can detect which of these divisions are in
line with each other, and it is this fact which enables us to
read a vernier to 0.02 mm accuracy.
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on the main scale and number 2 graduation of the vernier
bl I scale is coinciding with the 4th division of the main scale.

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Thus the reading is 0.2 + 2 * 0.01=0.22.
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Figure 1 show the vernier principle being used to determine

the reading. Figure 1 shows the main scale with the datum
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line marked.
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Figure 4 shows a typical 50 division vernier scale as used

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in modern metric measurements.
Figure 2 shows the main scale and vernier scale with

graduations. The value of 1 main scale is 0.1 unit. In vernier
scale 9 such units are taken and divided into 10 equal
parts. Hence the value of 1 vernier scale is
The main scale of this instrument is graduated in mm.
0.9/10=0.09 units
The purpose of a vernier 49 such divisions are … divided
Now, by applying the vernier principle, the smallest unit of into 50 equal divisions. So the value of vernier scale division
size is 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D. (i.e.) 0.1 - 0.09=0.01 unit. works out to 49/50 mm (Fig 6).
Definition of the least count
The least count is the smallest possible measurement

that can be taken with the precision instrument.
71
It is 0 mm as 'O' of vernier scale and 'O' of the main scale
if that coincide.
Measurement of reading (Fig 9 & 10)
'O' of vernier is to the right of the main scale and lies
between 'O' and 1st division of the main scale. The 3rd
division of the vernier scale coincides with a division on
the main scale.
Hence measurement is 0 mm + 3 * 0.1 mm = 0.3 mm.
ed
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Least count is 1 main scale division - 1 vernier scale division
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ish
(Fig 7).
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49 50 - 49 1
which is 1mm - mm = = = 0.02 mm
50 50 50 Measurement of reading (Fig 11)
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In that case of 150 mm capacity vernier calipers the main 'O' of the vernier scale lies between the 44th and 45th
callers graduated in ½ mm instead of in 1 mm. For the divisions of the main scale and the 4th division of the vernier
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purpose of the vernier scale 24 such divisions are taken scale coincides with a division of the main scale. Hence
and divided into 25 equal divisions. So the value of 1 vernier the measurement is 44 mm + 4 * 0.1 mm = 44.4
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scale division is
1 24 12
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× = mm
2 25 25
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Least count = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D.
1 12 25 - 24 1
mm - mm = = = 0.02mm
2 25 50 50
Measurement of reading (Fig 8) Measurement of reading

'O' of the vernier scale lies between the 53rd and 54th
divisions on the main scale, and the 8th division of the
vernier scale coincides with a division on the main scale.
Hence measurement is 53 mm + 8 * 0.1 mm = 53.8 mm.
The least count of the vernier caliper used for

the above readings is 0.1 mm.
The universal vernier caliper and its application
• list out the parts of a universal caliper
• state the constructional features of the universal vernier caliper
• state its functional features
• list out the points for taking the measurements.
One of the precision instruments having the principle of application to take outside, inside and depth
vernier applied to it is the universal vernier caliper. It is measurements. Its accuracy is 0.02 mm.
known as a universal vernier caliper because of its
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A universal vernier caliper consists of a: To the left of the beam the fixed jaws for external and
internal measurements are fixed as integral parts., The
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• Beam vernier unit slides over the beam.

• Fixed jaw for external measurements
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• Movable jaw for external measurements At the bottom face of the beam a keyway-like groove is
• Movable jaw for internal measurements machined for its full length, permitting the blade to slide in
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• Blade for depth measurement the groove.

• Main scale
• Vernier scale At the bottom right hand end, a unit is fixed serving as a
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• Fine adjustment screw support for the blade when it slides in the groove.
• Set of locking screws.
The vernier unit has got the vernier graduations marked on
All parts are made out nickel-chromium steel, heat-treated
it. The movable jaws for both external and internal
and ground. They are machined to a high accuracy. They
measurements are integral with this.
are stabilized to avoid distortion due to temperature
variations. The fixed and movable jaws are knife-edged to have better
accuracy during measurement. When the fixed and
Constructional features (Fig 1)
movable jaws are made to contact each other, the zero of
the vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale.
The beam is the main part and the main scale graduations
are marked on it. The markings are in millimeters and
At this position in the blade will be in line with the right
every tenth line is drawn a little longer and brighter than
hand edge of the beam.
the other graduations and numbered as 1,2,3 ….
When the vernier scale unit slides over the beam, the The application of the universal vernier caliper is taking
movable jaws of both the measurements as well as the external, internal and depth measurements is shown in
blade advance to make the reading. (Fig 2)
Advantages
To slide the vernier unit, the thumb lever is pressed and
pulled or pushed according to the direction of movement No need to have separate precision instruments for taking
of the vernier unit. external, internal and depth measurements.
Disadvantages
Least count
Accuracy of reading depends on the skill of the operator.
In the vernier scale illustrated here, 19 mm are divided into
Loses its accuracy by constant usage as slackness in
10 equal parts on the vernier scale. The value of 1 vernier
the sliding unit develops.
scale division will then be
Cannot be used to measure components having deviations
19 less than +/-0.02 mm.
= 1.9mm
10
Possibility of parallax error during noting down the
The difference of the two main scale divisions and 1 vernier coinciding line may cause the reading of the measurement
scale division gives the least count and it is equal to to be wrong.
2*1m -1.9 mm = 0.1 mm.
To read a measurement
For better accuracy, a 49 mm space is divided into 50 Note the number of graduations on the main scale passed
equal parts on the vernier scale so that one vernier scale by the zero of the vernier. This gives the full mm.
division value will be
ed
Note which of the vernier scale division coincides with any
bl I
pu M
49 one line on the main scale.
ish
= 0.98 mm
50
Re NI
Multiply this number with the least count.

Here the least count will be 1 main scale division - 1 vernier
scale divisions = 1 mm-0.98 mm= 0.02 mm. Add the multiplied value to the mainscale reading.
be @
o ht
t t rig
No py
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Telescope gauge
• name the parts of telescope gauge
• Measuring technique how to telescope gauge reading on outside micrometer
Telescopic Gauge (Fig 1) : This is an instrument used Measuring Technique

for measuring the inside size of slots or holes. It consists
of a handle and two plungers, one of which telescopes (a) Compress the fixed and telescopic legs and lock them
into the other. Both the plungers are kept under spring by locking screw.
tension. In order to lock the plungers in position, a knurled
(b) Insert the gauge ends into the hole to be measured.
screw at the end of the handle is tightened. If the diameter
of a hole is to be measured, the plungers are first (c) Unlock the legs by unscrewing the locking screw for
compressed and then locked. The plunger end is put into expanding the legs to the inner diameter of the hole.
the hole and the end is allowed to expand so that the
(d) Measure with feel and lock the legs in position.
plungers touch the opposite edges.
(e) Transfer the measurement to an outside micrometer
Then the plungers are locked in position and taken out of for reading.
the hole. The diameter is measured with the help of an
outside micrometer. The telescopic gauge does not have
ed
graduations of its own.
bl I
pu M
The precaution to be taken in the telescopic gauge in that
ish
they should be inserted squarely on to the bore and
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centralised properly.
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75
Dial bore gauge

• name the parts of a bore dial gauge
• state the features of a bore dial gauge
• read the measurement using a graduated dial.
This is a precision measuring instrument used for

measuring the internal dimensions. The dial bore gauge is
normally available as a two-point, self-cantering type
Dial bore gauge (Fig 1) :
ed
bl I
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ish
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Stem
o ht
This holds all the components together and contains the

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mechanism for transmitting the plunger motion to the dial.

Fixed anvil/inserts
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These anvils are interchangeable. The selection of the anvil

is made depending on the diameter of the bore to be
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measured. For certain types of bore dial gauges, extension

rings/washers are provided for extending the range of
measurement.
Sliding plunger
This actuates the movement of the dial for reading the
measurement.
Centering shoes/spherical supports
Certain types of bore dial gauges are provided with a pair
of ground discs. (Fig 2)
This maintains the alignment of the measuring faces in
the centre of the bore. For some types, two spherical
supports which are spring-loaded are provided.
The accuracy of the instrument depends on the type of
Dial Indicator (Fig 3) graduations on the dial. The most frequently used
This has graduations marked on the dial. The graduations instruments have accuracies of 0.001 mm and 0.01 mm.
has marked in clockwise and anticlockwise directions.
The dial gauge should be set to zero before
Bore dial gauges are available in various sizes with different taking measurement. Setting rings are
measuring ranges. These are interchangeable measuring available for zero setting. (Fig 5)
rods (external rods or combination washers) for measuring
different sizes. (Fig 4)
76
has a range of 0.8 mm and is graduated 0-40 in both
directions. Thus the value of each division is 0.01 mm.
The indicator shows positive deviations in the clockwise
direction and negative deviations in the anticlockwise
direction.
While taking measurements press the spring-loaded end

(plunger) as it enters into the setting device or in the bore
being measured. Slightly rock and steady the device for
keeping the measuring faces in position. (Fig 6)
Classroom assignment
Basic measurement Value measured
30.0 mm 29.97 - 29.98
ed
30.02 - 30.03
bl I 30.03 - 30.04
pu M
ish 30.04 - 30.05
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23.0 mm 22.92 - 22.93

be @
22.93 - 22.94
22.94 - 22.95
o ht
22.96 - 22.97
t t rig
47.8 mm 47.86 - 47.87

No py
Slip gauges fixed in a setting fixture can also be used for 47.88 - 47.89
zero setting. (Fig 7)
47.92 - 47.93
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47.96 - 47.97
53.0 mm 52.92 - 52.93

52.93 - 52.94
53.96 - 53.97
53.97 - 53.98
65.0 mm 64.75 - 64.76

64.79 - 64.80
64.83 - 64.84
64.87 - 64.88
Reading the dial indicator (Fig 8)

When taking the reading, first check the measuring range
and the subdivisions of the scale. The indicator in the figure
Dial test indicators

• state the principle of a dial test indicator
• state the types of dial test indicator
• identify the parts of a dial test indicator
• state the important features of a dial test indicator
• state the functions of a dial test indicator
• identify the different types of stands.
• state the important of straight edge
Dial test indicators

Dial test indicators are instruments of high precision, used Stem (F)
for comparing and determining the variation in the sizes of Plunger (G)
a component. These instruments cannot give the direct Anvil (H)
reading of the sizes like micrometers and vernier calipers. Revolution counter (J)
A dial test indicator magnifies small variations in sizes by
means of a pointer on a graduated dial. This indirect reading For converting the linear motion of the plunger, a rack and
of the deviations gives an accurate picture of the conditions pinion mechanism is used.
of the parts being tested. (Fig 1)
ed
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ish
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The lever type dial test indicator (Fig 3,4,5)

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Principle of working
In the case of this type of dial test indicators, the
The magnification of the small movement of the plunger or magnification of the movement is obtained by the
stylus is converted into a rotary motion of the pointer on a mechanism of the lever and scroll.
circular scale.
Types
Two types of dial test indicator4s are in use.
They are the
- Plunger type (Fig 2)
- Lever type. (Fig 3,4 & 5)
The plunger type dial test indicator
The external parts and features of a dial test indicator are
as shown in the (Fig 2).
Pointer (A)
Rotatable bezel (B)
Bezel clamp (C)
Back lug (D) It has a stylus with a ball-type contact, and it has an
Transparent dial cover (E) oscillating movement as against the reciprocating
movement in the plunger type indicator.
78
• To check plane surfaces for parallelism and flatness.
• To check straightness of shafts and bars.
• To check concentricity of holes and shafts.
Indicator stands (Fig 6 & 7)
Dial test indicators are used in conjunction with stands for
holding them so that the stand itself may be placed on a
datum surface or machine tool.
This can be conveniently mounted on a surface gauge The different types of stands are:
stand, and can be used in places where the plunger type
dial test indicator application is difficult. • Magnetic stand with universal clamp
• Magnetic stand with flexible post
• General purpose holder with cast iron base.
ed
Important features of dial test indicators
bl I
pu M
ish
An important feature of the dial test indicator is that the
dial can be rotated by a ring bezel, enabling the zero to be
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get in any position.

be @
Many dial test indicators read plus in the clockwise

direction from zero, and minus in the anticlockwise
o ht
direction so as to give plus and minus indications.

Uses
t t rig
• To compare the dimensions of workpiece against a

No py
known standard, eg. Slip gauges.

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Straight edges
• name the different types of straight
• state the straight edge uses edge
• state the different method of testing straightness.
For testing straightness and to use a guide for marking

long straight lines. Straight edges made of steel or cast
iron are used.
Steel straight edges.

These are usually available up to 2 meters in length and
may be rectangular in cross-section or have one edge
beveled (Fig 1)
Use of straight edges
ed
Checking with feeler gauges
bl I
pu M
ish In certain situations when the gap between the surface
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and the straight edge is more. a feeler gauge can be used
(Fig 3) to determine the extent of deviation.
be @
Cast iron straight edges (Fig 2)

o ht
These are made from close- grained, grey, cast iron and
t t rig
can be considered as narrow surface plates. They are

available up to 3 meters length and are used for testing
machine tool sideways, cast iron straight edges have ribs,
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and bow-shaped tops to prevent distortion. These straight

edges are-shaped tops to prevent distortion. These straight
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edges are provided with feet to prevent distortion under

their own weight.
80
Feeler gauge & uses

• state the constructional features of a feeler gauge
• state the method of indicating different ranges of
• state the method of setting a feeler gauge
• state the different uses of feeler gauges.
Features
A feeler gauge consists of a number of hardened and
tempered steel blades of various thicknesses mounted in
a steel case.
ed
bl I
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ish
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The thickness of individual leaves is marked on it. (Fig 1)

The sizes of the feeler gauges in a set are carefully chosen
be @
in order that a maximum number of dimensions can be

formed by building up from a minimum number of leaves.
o ht
The dimension being tested is judged to be equal to the Wire gauge (Fig 4): The plug wire gauge is a thickness
thickness of the leaves used. When a slight pull is felt gauges using wires of varying diameter instead of thin flat
t t rig
while with drawing them. Accuracy in using these gauges strips of steel. It is used fir checking spark plug gap.
requires a good sense of feel.
No py
B.I.S
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The Indian standard establishes four sets of feeler gauges

Nos.1,2,3 and 4 which differ by the number of blades in
each and by the range of thickness(minimum) is 0.03mm
Example
Set No.4 of Indian standard consists of 13 blades of different
thicknesses. Types of feeler gauge.
0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.010, 0.015, 0.20, 1 universal master gauge
0.30, 0.040, 0.50.
2 standard feeler gauge
USES 3 ignition and wire gauge
Feeler gauges are used: Classification of feeler gauge
- to check the gap between the mating parts - Universal master gauge containing 25 leaves
- to check and set the spark plug gaps and tappet - Standard feeler gauge containing 10 leaves
clearance in an engine etc. - Go and No Go type feeler gauge containing 15 step-
grand leaves
- to set the clearance between the fixture (setting block)
and the cutter/tool for machining the jobs. (Fig 2,3) - Overhead valve feeler gauge containing 16 offset blades
- Ignition feeler gauge containing 12 leaves
- to check and measure the bearing clearance, and for
many other purposes where a specified clearance must - Piston gauge containing and leaves
be maintained. - Spark plug wire gauge containing are electrode bender
8 wire gauge
81
Vacuum gauge
• state the purpose of vacuum gauge
• state the vacuum gauge attachment in an engine.
A vacuum gauge (Fig 1) is a useful diagnostic and time-up Attaching Vacuum Gauge
tool.
At normal operating temperature connect the vacuum
It is used to detect vacuum leaks at idle speed, sticking gauge to the intake manifold. Some manifolds incorporated
valves, worn rings, clogged exhaust, incorrect timing and a plug that may be removed so that vacuum line adopter
positive crank case ventilation (PCV) may be installed.
• A relative study high vacuum reading indicate an
absence vacuum leak in the system (i.e) values and
rings are in good sealing.
• Fairly study vacuum reading indicate vacuum leak in
the system (i.e) value and rings are not in good sealing.
• Vacuum reading indicate uneven, valve are burned or
ed
sticky and damaged piston or blown gasket.
bl I
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ish
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82
Tyre pressure gauge

• state the construction and features of tyre pressure gauge
• use a tyre pressure gauge to check & set tyre pressure.
Pressure gauge Special features

It is used to check the pressure of tyre unit. Bourdon tube • Excellent load-cycle stability and shock resistance.
pressure gauges (Fig 2) made by stainless steel. A Pres-
• All stainless steel construction
sure rise in bourdon tube makes it tend to straighten. This
movement will pull on the link which will turn the gear • Positive pressure ranges 0-200 P.S.I (Fig 3)
sector counter clockwise. The pointer shaft with then turn
The pressure gauge hose has a adapter, which depresses
clockwise to move needle on a graduated scale to indi-
the valve pin of tyre and compressed air get into the tube
cate pressure. (Fig 1)
of the gauge. The pressure is indicated in the dial.
Compare the pressure to the recommended pressure by
the manufacturer. If it is less, refill the tyre with compressed
air by operating the trigger (Fig 3). When the required
pressure is shown in the gauge stop filling.
ed
bl I
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ish
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No py
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83
Mechanic Diesel - Fastening and fitting
Rivets - types & uses
• state what is riveting
• state the uses of a rivet
• name the features of a rivet
• name the different types of rivets.
Riveting (Fig. 1)
Riveting is a method of making permanent joints. For riveting,
the plates to be joined are drilled or punched The head on
the other end is formed after assembling the parts.
The main features of rivets used in self-piercing riveting are:
Shank diameter and rivet length
Shape of rivet head and tail design
Rivet material and hardness
Type of crating/plating
ed
Types of rivets
bl I
pu M
1 solid/round rivets
2 Semi tubular rivets
ish 5 Drive rivets
Re NI
6 Flesh rivets
3 Blind rivets
7 Friction-lock rivets
be @
4 Oscar rivets
8 Rivet alloys shear strength and driving conditions
9 Self-piercing rivets
o ht
Rivet proportions
t t rig

• determine the hole sizes for different diameters of rivets
No py
• choose the rivet diameters according to the thickness of the plates/sheets

• calculate the length for different diameter rivets and plate sizes.
Co
In order to produce efficient and good quality riveted joints A formula generally used for determining the diameter
the following aspects are important. of a solid rivet is
The size of the hold drilled for inserting the rivets. D.Min = T
The diameter of the rivet in proportion to the thickness of to D.Max = 2T
the plates/sheets to be joined. The actual value used will depend upon the actual joint
The length of the rivet according to the type of the rivet and features and service conditions.
the thickness of the plates/sheets. The size of the hole has to be slightly larger than the
The size of the rivet and hole nominal diameter of the rivet (Table 1)
The size of the hole to be drilled is according to the diameter For hot working, rivets will have holes with more clearance
of the rivet used. than for cold working.
TABLE 1
Hole diameter for rivets
Rivet
nomial dia 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 15-40
Hole 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.3 6.3 8.5 11 13 16.5 Holes largethan
dia the nominal dia
by 1.5. to 2.0mm
84
Length of rivets
The length of a rivet is the shank length. This will vary
according to the thickness of the plates to be riveted and
the type of the rivet head.
A formula generally used in the shop floor is
length of snap-head rivets (Fig 1)
L = T + 1.5 D
Body
Tail
Materials
In riveting, the rivets are secured by deforming the shank
to form the head. These are made of ductile materials.
Examples
Low carbon steel, brass, copper and aluminium.
Rivet head-shapes
ed
bl I Snap-head (Fig 4)
pu M
Length of countersunk head rivets (Fig 2)
L = T + 0.6 D
ish This rivet is most commonly used for structural works.
Re NI
The opposite end of the rivet is shaped similar to the head.
L = shank length
be @
T = total thickness of the number of

plates used
o ht
D = rivet diameter
t t rig
D1 = hole diameter
No py
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Pan head (Fig 5)

It is a very strong rivet. The opposite end is usually finished
to the snap-head shape. Pan head rivets are used in heavy
construction.
The rivets are then inserted and closed by force so that
they completely fill the hole and form a rigid joint.
Uses
Rivets are fasteners used for joining metal sheets and
plates in fabrication work such as bridges, ships. cranes.
structural steel work, boilers, aircraft etc.
Parts (Fig 3)
The following are the parts of a rivet.
Head
Riveted joints
• name the different types of riveted joints
• state the features of different types of riveted joints
• distinguish between chain riveting and zigzag riveting.
In construction and fabrication work different types of This type of joint will have two rows of rivets. The overlap
riveted joints are made. is large enough to accommodate two rows of rivets.
The commonly used joints are: Double riveted (Zigzag) lap joint (Fig 3)
- single riveted lap joint
- double riveted lap joint
- double riveted (zigzag) lap joint
- single strap butt joint
- double strap butt joint
Single riveted lap joint (Fig 1)
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
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This provides a stronger joint than a single lap joint. The

be @
rivets are placed either in a square formation or in a

triangular formation. The square formation of rivet
placement is called CHAIN riveting. The triangular
o ht
formation of rivet placement is called zigzag riveting.

t t rig
Single strap butt joint (Fig 4)

This method is used in situations where the edges of the
No py
This is the simplest and most commonly used type of components are to be joined by riveting.
joint. This joint is useful for joining both thick and thin
Co
A separate piece of metal called STRAP is used to hold

plates. In this, the plates to be joined are overlapped at the edges of the components together.
the ends and single row of rivets is placed in the middle of
the lap.
Double riveted lap joint (Fig 2)
Double strap butt joint (Figs 5 & 6)
This joint is also used for joining the edges of components
together. This is stronger than the single strap butt joint.
This joint has two cover plates placed on either side of
the components to be assembled.
When a single or double straps are used for riveted butt
joints, the arrangement of rivets may be:
- Single riveted, i.e. one row on either side of the butt
double or triple riveted with chain or zigzag formation.
ed
bl I
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ish
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Tools for hand riveting

be @
• name the different tools used for hand riveting

• state the uses of different hand riveting tools.
o ht
The following tools are used for making efficient riveted Snap
t t rig
joints.
The rivet snap is used to form the final shape of the rivet
Rivet set (Fig 1) during riveting. Snaps are available to match the different
No py
shapes of rivet heads.

A rivet set is used for bringing the plates closely together
after inserting the rivet in the hole. This is required while Combined rivet set (Fig 2)
Co
riveting thin plates or sheets with small rivets.

Dolly
This is used to support the head of the rivet which is
already formed and also to prevent damage to the shape
of the rivet head.
This is a tool which can be used for setting and forming

the head.
Drift (Fig 3)
This has a lever mechanism which exerts pressure
between the jaws when the handle is pressed.
This is useful for riveting copper or aluminium rivets,
interchangeable anvils can be provided.
Pop riveter (Fig 5)
This is used to align the holes to be riveted.

Hand riveter (Fig 4)
This is used for riveting pop rivets by hand. The trigger
mechanism squeezes the rivet and separates the mandrel
of the rivet. In this method, as the mandrel is being
separated from the rivet, the head is formed on the other
end.
ed
bl I
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ish
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Spacing of rivets in joints

be @

• determine the distance between the rivet and the edge of the joint.
o ht
• state the effect on the joints when the rivets are too close or too far from the edge
• determine the pitch of rivets in joints
t t rig
• state the effect of too close and too far a pitch of rivets in joints.
No py
The spacing of the rivet holes depends upon the job. Given This distance will help to drive the rivets without
below is a general approach in determining this. interference.
Co
Distance from the edge to the centre of the rivet (Fig1) Too closely spaced rivets will tear the metal along the
centre line of the rivets.(Fig 2)
The space or distance from the edge of the metal to the
centre of any rivet should be at least twice the diameter The maximum distance between the rivets should not
of the rivet. exceed twenty four times the thickness of the metal.
The purpose of this is to prevent the splitting of the edges. Too far a pitch will allow the sheet/plate to bukcle between
The maximum distance from the edge should not be more the rivets. (Fig 3)
than ten times the thickness of the plate.
Too much distance from the edge will lead to GAPING.
Pitch of rivet
The minimum distance between rivets should be three
times the diameter of the rivet (3D)
Defects in riveted joints
• relate riveting defects with their causes.
While making riveted points certain precautions are to be A few common causes and defects and resistant effects
exercised to avoid defects in the joints. in riveting are given below:
Causes of riveting defects Resultant effect
Holes wrongly aligned
Rivet too short
Hole too large
ed
Burrs in drilling
bl I
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ish
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Burrs between plates

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Rivet not set correctly

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Rivet length too long
Head formed out of centre
Caulking and fullering

• state the purpose of caulking and fullering
• distinguish between caulking and fullering processes.
In order to provide a leak-proof joint in the construction of

fluid containers, caulking and fullering are carried out after
riveting.
Caulking (Fig. 1)
Caulking is an operation of closing down the edges of the
plates and heads of the rivets to form a metal-to-metal
joint.
The edge of the rivet head is tightly pressed and expanded A better fluid-tight joint is achived by fullering.
on the plate by a caulking tool which looks like a flattened
Caulking is done on the edges of the plates as well as on
cold chisel.
the edges of the rivet heads. But fullering is done on the
Fullering (Fig. 2) edges of the plate only. To facilitate caulking and fullering
on the plates, the edges of the plates are bevelled about
80° to 85°.
The strength of riveted joints
A riveted joint is only as strong as its weakest part and it
must be borne in mind that it may fail in one of the following
four ways.
Shearing of the rivet
Crushing of the metal
Fullering is an operation of pressing the whole surface of
splitting of the metal
the edge of the plate. It is done by a fullering tool.
Rupture or tearing of the plate
When the caulking tool is about as thick as the plate, it
is called a fullering tool. These four undesirable effects are illustrated in the table
below:
The whole surface of the edge of the first plate is tightly
pressed on the second plate.
Table
ed
Riveted Joint
bl I
Effects Causes Prevention
pu M
ish
Shearing of the Diameter of the rivet too Select the correct
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rivet small compared with the diameter rivet to suit

thickness of the plate. thickness of the
be @
The diameter of the rivet plate.

must be greater than the
thickness of the plate in
o ht
which it is to be inserted.
t t rig
Crushing of the Diameter of the rivet too Select the correct

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metal large compared with the diameter rivet for the

thickness of the plate. thickness of the metal
Co
The rivets when driven plate.

tend to bulge and crush
the metal in front of them.
Splitting of the Rivet holes punched or Drill or punch the

metal drilled too near the edge rivet at the correct
of plate. Metal is likely to distance from the edge
fail by splitting in front of and use the correct lap
the rivets. allowance for the
diameter of the rivet.
Tearing of the Plates weakened by rivete Punch or drill rivet

plate holes being too close holes at the correct
together. Plate tend to spacing or ‘pitch. In
rupture along the centre addition remove all
line of the rivets burrs from the holes
before final assembly.
Special sheet metal rivets and their applications
• state the types and uses of tubular rivets
• state the use of `hank’ rivet bushes
• state the use of speed nuts.
Tubular rivet (Figs 1, 2 & 3) the flanged head. The stem-head causes the rivet tube to
The use of the tubular rivet removes much of the skill nec- be swaged out thus forming a new head on the far side of
essary, and there is no need for the support as with a the joint, and consequently pulling the plates tightly to-
solid rivet. gether. Finally the pulling force on the stem is sufficient
to fracture the stem below its head on the stem diameter.
Another type of tubular rivet has a stem-head which breaks
off outside the rivet tube after the swaging stage, thus
leaving the central hole clear. This is essential where drain-
age from cavities and hollow sections is necessary.
`Hank’ rivet bushes (Figs 4, 5 & 6)
These bushes are a means of providing a thin sheet metal
with a deep tapped hole, and diameters and thread form,
and they are used in conjuction with the standard set
screws where access cannot be gained to fit the stan-
dard nuts.
ed
The following steps are required to fit shank bushes.
bl I Position the previously drilled hole in the panel.

pu M
ish Mark the centre punch hole position
Re NI
Drill a hole of the required size. The hole should be the

clearance size of the bush shank.
be @
o ht
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Remove the burrs.

Fit the shank bush from the under the side.
Support for riveting operation.
One type of tubular rivet is the `pop rivet’. While it is held

by its stem in the riveting `gun’, the rivet is pushed into the
rivet hole and the gun causes the stem to be pulled back
Using a ball pein hammer, spread the shank of the bush.
into the gun, while the gun nozzle remains pushed against
Strike squarely to ensure the even spread of the shank.
stamped in such a manner that one or more thread en-
gaging portions are pressed upwards from the base to
form part of a screw thread.
Change to the flat face of the hammer. Strike squarely,

flatten the shank. Speed nuts are generally used in conjunction with coarse
Speed nut (Fig. 7) thread or sell-tapping screws. As the screw is tightened,
the pressure exerted on the tongues gives a self-locking
Speed nuts are available in a variety of forms and are made action.
form different materials such as spring steel, stainless
steel etc. The speed nut consists of a strip of metal This is used for lacking and soldering of joining points.
ed
Bolts, studs and nuts
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• state the situations in which bolts and nuts are used
• state the advantages of using bolts and nuts
• name the different types of bolts
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• state the applications of the different types of bolts

• state the situations in which studs are used
o ht
• state the reason for having different pitches of threads on stud ends.
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Bolts and nuts (Fig.1) Bolts with clearance hole (Fig.2)

These are generally used to clamp two parts together. This is the most common type of fastening arrangement
No py
When bolts and nuts are used, if the thread is stripped, a using bolts. The size of the hole is slightly larger than the
new bolt and nut can be used. But in the case of a screw bolt (clearance hole)
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directly fitted in the component. When threads are Slight misalignment in the matching hole will not affect
damaged, the component may need extensive repair or the assembly.
replacement.
Depending on the type of application, different types of
bolts are used.
Body fit bolt (Fig.3)

This type of bolt assembly is used when the relative
movement between the workpieces has to be prevented.
The diameter of the threaded portion is slightly smaller
than the shank diameter of the bolt.
When excesssively tightened, the variation in the thread
pitch allows the fine thread or nut end to slip. This prevents
damage to the casting.
The bolt shank and the hole are accurately machined for
achieving perfect mating. Designation of bolts as per B.I.S. specifications
Anti-fatigue bolt (Fig.4) Hexagon head bolts shall be designated by name, thread
size, nominal length, property class and number of the
This type of bolt is used when the assembly is subjected Indian Standard.
to alternating load conditions continuously. Connection
ed
rod big ends in engine assembly are examples of this Example
application.
bl I A hexagon head bolt of size M10, nominal length 60mm
pu M
ish and property class 4.8 shall be designated as:
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Hexagon head bolt M10x60 - 4.8-IS: 1363 (Part 1)

Explanation about property class
be @
The Part of the specification 4.8 indicates the property

class (mechanical properties). In this case it is made of
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steel with minimum tensile strength = 40kgf/mm2 and

having a ratio of minimum yield stress to minimum tensile
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strength = 0.8.
NOTE
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Indian standard bolts and screws are made of three

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product grades - A,B, & C, À’ being precision and the

others of lesser grades of accuracy and finish.
While there are many parameters given in the B.I.S.
The shank diameter is in contact with the hole in a few specification, the designation need not cover all the
places and other portions are relieved to give clearances. aspects and it actually depends on the functional
requirement of the bolt or other threaded fasteners.
Studs (Fig.5)
For more details on the designation system, refer to IS:
Studs are used in assemblies which are to be separated 1367, Part XVI 1979.
frequently.
Locking Devices
• state what is a locking device
• name the effect, if proper locking devices are not employed
• name the various types of locking devices
• state the uses of the commonly used locking devices.
Locking devices fastener to get slack and to slip off. Then the assembled
part will get loose and cause damages. Some examples
A locking device is a device used to lock the threaded
are given below to illustrate the importance of the locking
fasteners to prevent them from loosening. Due to vibration
device.
in the moving part, there is a tendency for the threaded
In the case of a micrometer, the lock-nut avoids the Move-
ment of the spindle after taking the reading. In the case of
boilers and gas cylinders, locking of the nut avoids the
leakage of steam or gas.
In automobiles the lock-nut avoids the loosening of the
assembled part.
Classification of lock-nuts
Lock-nuts are classified into two categories.
• Positive locking device
• Frictional locking device
These nuts have special provision in the form of slots for
fixing split pins for locking the nuts.
Slotted nuts are hexagonal shaped throughout. In the case
of castle nuts, the top part of the nut is cylindrical in shape.
Wing-nuts (Fig. 1)
Wing-nuts are used in light duty assembly which require
frequent removal and fixing. These are available as hot
forged/cast (Type A) and cold forged (Type B).
Hexagonal nuts with collar (Fig. 4)
ed
These nuts have a machined collar on one end. This pro-
vides additional bearing surface in assembly. The collar
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acts like a washer and is useful where frequent tightening
ish
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Thumb-nut (Fig. 2)
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These are used in places where frequent adjustments

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are required and mere finger tightening enought. They are

available in two types - Types A & Type B.
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and loosening is necessary.

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Hexagonal weld nuts (Fig. 5)

These are nuts used for welding on the plate work. These
nuts have:
- a spigot ring which fits in the hole of the plate
- three projections to provide a uniform contact on the
surface, that is to be welded
- a countersunk hole on one end to protect the thread
during welding.
Cap nut (Fig. 3)

These are used to protect the bolt end threads from dam-
ages and also as a protector for safe working. They serve
to provide a decorative appearance.
Self-locking nut (Fig. 9)
Self-locking nut will have a nylon insert to prevent the loos-
ening of the nut from shock, vibration and temperature.
Wire lock (Fig. 10)

Wire locks are used for light engineering works. The wire
is passed through the groove.
Nut applied with a sealant
These locking devices are for permanent locking in light
Out. Castle nuts (Fig. 6) are widely used in automobiles works.
and locomotive engines to avoid sudden shock and vibra-
tion.
Circlip (Fig. 7)
ed
These are widely used to retain the component on a shaft
bl I
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or in a bore. Seating of these circlips in a slot by using a
ish
special type of pliers facilitates rapid assembly and dis-
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assembly.
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Split pin (Fig. 11)

A split pin is made from a steel wire of semicircular
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Chuck nut (Fig. 8) crosssection, bent as shown in the figure. It is inserted in

a hole drilled in the bolt so that it exerts pressure on the
This nut is used along with one ordinary nut as shown in top face of the nut to prevent it from turning.
the figure.
A chuck nut is also called a lock-nut. The two nuts are

thus locked or wedged tightly against each other and
against the bolt. This will prevent slackening.
Sawn nut (Wiles nut) Frictional locking devices (Fig 14)
In this locking device, a slot is cut half way across the These lock nuts are easy to fit and less time consuming.
nut. A screw is fitted with a clearance hole on the top part
The frictional locking devices are:
and a matching thread on the lower part of the nut. Tight-
ening of the nut provides positive locking for the nut. • lock-nut (chuck nut)
Positive locking device (Fig. 12) • spring washer
Frictional locking device • wedge lock bolt
• simmonds lock-nut.
Commonly used locking devices
ed
Positive locking device(Fig. 13)
bl I Wing-nut (Fig. 15)
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ish
In the positive locking device, the locking action is posi-
tive. This locking device is difficult to fit and may take
A wing-nut is used where frequent adjustment or removal
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is necessary. It can be loosened or tightened rapidly with-
more time. But it is very essential to use this type of lock- out the need of a wrench. These nuts are manufactured
ing device in critical joints where failure could cause seri- with the same material as is used for the bolts.
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ous accidents.
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No py
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Thumb-nut
A thumb-nut is used where the movement of the spindle is
Eg. Clutches, brakes, controls etc. to be locked, as in a micrometer. Stopping the movement
The positive locking devices are: of the spindle is necessary for taking a correct reading.
• standard hexagonal nut, cross-drilled and pinned Locking ring
• standard slotted nut A locking ring is used in taper nose spindles of lathes to
lock the chuck.
• standard castle nut
Castle nut (Fig. 16)
• hexagonal nut and locking plate
Slots are cut in a cylindrical collar provided on the top of
• wiring bolt heads. the nut, thus overcoming the disadvantage of the slotted
Slotted and castle nut with a split pin
The position of the nut can be locked using the split pin.
Split pins are designated by the nominal size, nominal
length, the number of the Indian Standard and the mate-
rial. (Fig. 17 & 18)
The nominal length is the distance from the underside of Locking plate (Fig. 20)
the eye to the end of the short leg. For preventing the nut from loosening, locking plates are
Split pins are used for locking slotted nuts, castle nuts, fixed on the outside of the hexagonal nut.
hexagonal nuts, clevis pins etc. and are used in different Lock washers with lug (Fig. 21)
ways.
In this arrangement of locking, a hole is drilled for accom-
modating the lug.
ed
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ish
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No py
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The movement of the nut is prevented by folding the washer

against the nut.
Tab washers (Fig. 22)
Grooved nut (Penning nut) (Fig. 19) Tab washers can be used for locking the nuts which are
located near an edge or corner.
This is a hexagonal nut with the lower part made cylindri-
cal. On the cylindrical surface there is a recessed groove Spring washer (Fig. 23)
in which a set screw is used to lock the nut.
Spring washers are available with single or double coils.
These are placed under a nut in the assembly as wash-
ers. The stiff resistance offered by the washer against the
surface of the nuts serves to prevent loosening.
Keys and Splines
• name the different types of keys used in transmission
• state the features of each type of keys.
Keys and splines Flat saddle key

Keys are used for transmitting torque from a rotating shaft This key has a rectangular cross-section.
to a hub/wheel or from a hub/wheel to the shaft. (Fig.1)
For fitting this key in the assembly a flat surface is ma-
chined on the shaft. (Fig. 3). The key is placed between
the flat surface of the shaft and the keyway on the hub.
This is considered to be stronger than the hollow saddle
key. This is not suitable for heavy duty transmission.
ed
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Circular taper key (Fig 4)

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In this case both the shaft and the hub have semicircular
keyways cut on them. (Fig.4) The taper key is driven in
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while assembling. This key is suitable only for light trans-

mission.
Keys of different types are used depending on the require-
ments of transmission.
Hollow saddle key
One face of this key has a curvature to match with that of
the shaft surface. It has a taper of 1 in 100 and is driven in
through the keyway. (Fig.2)
Sunk key (Fig 5 & Fig 6)

This key has a rectangular cross-section and its fits into
the keyway cut on both the shaft and the hub. Sunk keys
are either parallel or tapered. (Figs.5 and 6)
The hub is held on the shaft due to friction. This key is
useful only for light duty transmission.
Feather key (Fig 8)
This is a parallel key with rounded ends. This is useful
when the hub/pulley has to slide axially on the shaft to
some distance. (Figs 8a,b and c) This key may be either
tightly fitted in the keyway or screwed in.
ed
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ish
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Woodruff key (Fig 9)

This is semicircular key and it fits on to the shaft on which
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matching recesses are cut. The top portion of the key

projects out and fits in the keyway cut on the hub. (Fig.9)
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Gib-head key (Fig 7)

This is another type of sunk key. This has a gib-head to
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assist in fixing and removing the keys. (Figs 7a and b)

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This key is particularly useful on tapered fittings of shafts.

Splined shaft & serrated shaft
Splinded shafts along with splined hubs are used particu-
larly in the motor industry. The splined hub can also slide
along the shaft, wherever necessary. (Figs 10a and b)
In certain assemblies, serrated shafts are also used for
transmission. (Figs 11a and b)
Circlips
ed
bl I
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• state the functions of circlips
• state the different types of circlips
ish
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• state the advantages of circlips over other fastening devices

• state the material used for circlips.
be @
Circlips are fastening devices used to provide shoulders

for positioning or limiting the movement of parts in an
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assembly (Fig.1) Circlips are also called `Retaining rings.

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The rings are generally made of meterials having good

spring properties so that the fastener may be deformed
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elastically to a considerable degree and still spring back

to its original shape. This permits the circlips to spring
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back into a groove or other recess in a part or they may

be seated on a part in a deformed conditiona so that they
grip the part by functional means. Circlips are
manufactured from spring steel with high tensile and yield
strength.
External circlip (Fig.3)

This type of rings are installed on shafts, pins, studs and
similar parts.
Both types offer a number of advantages over other types
of fasteners.
• Their cost is relatively low when compared with other
types of fasteners.
• Their use often results in savings in raw material and
simplified machining operations for other parts in the
TYPES
assembly.
There are two types.
• One circlip often can replace two or more parts.
Internal circlips (Fig.2)
• Assembly toolings developed for circlips usually permit
This type of rings are assembled in holes, bores or very rapid assembly of the fasteners, even by unskilled
housing. workers.
Material
Because retaining rings depend for their function largely
on their ability to be deformed elastically during assembly
and disassembly, the materials must have good spring
properties. Circlips are manufactured from spring steel
with high tensile and yield strength.
Washers - Types and Uses

• state the purpose of washers
• name the types of washers
• state the uses of each type of washers
• specify the washers as per B.I.S.
Purpose
It is a common practice to provide washers under the
nuts in bolted joints.
ed
Washers help to (Fig 1)
bl I
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- increse the frictional grip
-
ish
prevent loosening of nuts due to vibration
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- prevent damage to the work piece and

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- distribute force orver a larger area.

o ht
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Machined washers (Fig 3)

No py
These washers are used for assemblies using machined

components. These washers are available with chamber
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on one side or on both sides. They are heat treated and

ground.
Types of washers
There are different types of washers available. They are
- plain or flat washers
- taper washers
- spring washers
- tab washers
- toothed lock washers.
Plain or flat washers (Fig 2)
These washers are used for bolting assemblies with flat Punched washers
surfaces. The diameter thickness and the bore diameter
are proportional to the diameter of the bolt. (I.S. 2016) These do not have chamfers and are commonly used in
structural fabrication work.
Plain washers are available as machined or punched
washers.
Tapered washers (Figs 4 & 5) Tab washers (Fig. 8)
These are used in structural assemblies with tapered These washers are used for locking the nuts.
surfaces like the inside of beams, channels etc. These
washers help bolt head or nut to seat square to the hole.
Toothed lock washers (Fig. 9)

These washers have serrations, cut and twisted. When
placed between the nut and the assembly, this washer
exerts friction on both the contacting surfaces. This
prevents the nuts from slackening.
ed
bl I
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ish
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Spring washers (Figs 6 & 7)

Specifications
Spring washers are used under the nuts to prevent
No py
The Indian standard Is:2016-1967 designates a washer

slackening of the nuts due to vibrations. They are made
by name, type size and number of the standard and
of spring steel, and when compressed they create tension
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material.
between the bolt and the nut.
Example
A machined washer of size 10.5 mm made of brass shall
be designated as machined washer 10.5 IS:2016 Brass.
Note
For detailed specification of different types of washers
refer to the following IS specifications.
Taper washer - IS: 5374 and IS: 5372
Tab washer - IS: 8068
Toothed lock washer - IS: 5371
Plain washer - IS: 2016
Different types of screws, nuts, studs and bolts.
• name the different types of machine screws used in heavy duty assembly
• name the different types of machine screws used in light assembly work
• state the uses of different types of machine screws
• name the different types of set screws.
Machine screws are used when a nut cannot be used in • slotted countersink head screws (Fig.3)
the assembly and the component in the assembly has a
threaded hole to receive the screws (Fig.1) • cross-recessed countersink head screws (Fig 4)
Types of machine screws (Heavy duty)
ed
Hexagon head screws
bl I
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Hexagon socket head cap screws
Square head countersink head screws
ish
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These are heavy duty screws.

• slotted raised countersink head screws (Fig.5)
be @
Hexagon head screws

• cross recessed, raised countersink head screws.
These are used when the projection of the screw head
(Fig.6)
o ht
will not be an obstruction in the assembly (Fig.1)

t t rig
Hexagon socket head cap screws

These are used when the projection of the screw head
No py
above the surface is to be avoided. (Fig.2) The Indian

Standard specification head socket cap screws cover the
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range from 1.6 mm to 36mm.

Hexagon head screws and hexagon socket head screws
are made of steel. Hexagon head screws used in electrical
work are made of brass.
Countersink screws are capable of aligning the matching

component correctly with the threaded hole. (Fig.7)
The projection of the screw head above the assembly is
Countersink head screws also avoided. B.I.S. specification covers the following
ranges of countersink head screw sizes in different types.
There are four types of countersink head screws in
common use.
They are:
Raised cheese head (Fig 11) ; Round head (Fig 12)
• Slotted countersink head screws M1 - M20

• Cross-recessed countersink head screws M1.6 to M10.
• Slotted raised countersink head screws M1 to M20.
• Cross-recessed raised countersink head screws M1.6
to M10.
Square head screws. (Fig. 8)
ed
Square head screws are used in places where there is
bl I
frequent removal and refitting of the assembly. These
pu M
ish
screws are tightened to a higher torque using a wrench.
These screws are also available with slotted head or as
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(Fig.8) Square head screws are also available with a collar.
In this there is a washer at the base which is an integral cross-recessed.
part of the head. The purpose of this collar is to protect
be @
the work-surface from damages due to constant use of The screws used for light duty are normally available up
wrenches. to 10mm thread diameter.
o ht
These screws are made of steel, stainless steel or brass.

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These screws are either plain finished, zinc-coated or

chrome-plated.
No py
Set screws and grub screws

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Hexagonal socket set screws (Fig.13)
Other types of machine screws used in light assembly These are headless socket screws available with different
work are: points for various functional requirements. (Fig.14)
Pan head (Fig 9) ; Cheese head (Fig 10)
These points either allow to bite into the metal or tighten
without damage to the work-surface. They are used to
fasten pulleys, collars etc. to the shafts. They are used
for higher strength applications where space is limited.
Square set screws (Fig.15)
These set screws have similar applications as hexagon

socket set screws but have square heads projecting above
the work-surface.
Grub screws are also available with different types of points
(Fig.17)
ed
bl I
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ish
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No py
These are useful when the assembly needs frequent

disassembly and setting.
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Grub screws
Grubs have similar application as hexagon socket set
screws but are used for light holding. (Fig. 16)
Thumb Screws
• state the types of thumb screws
• state the uses of thumb screws
• designate thumb screws as per B.I.S. specification.
Thumb screws are used in places where fixing and

removal of components are frequent. Tightening and
loosening of the assembly is finger tight only.
Types
As per the Indian standard specification IS:3726-1972
there are five types of thumb screws.
Type-A Thumb screws partially threaded (Fig 1)
Type-B Thumb screws fully threaded (Fig 2)
Type-C Slotted thumb screw partially threaded (Fig 3) The type of thumb screw selected depends on the actual
requirement in the assembly.
Sizes
Thumbs screws are available in the following sizes as per
B.I.S.
M1.6, M2, M2.5, M3, M4, M5, M6, M8 and M10.
Designation of thumb screws

Thumb screws shall be designated by the nomenclature,
Type-D Slotted thumb screw fully threaded (Fig 4) type, thread size, nominal length, the number of Indian
Standard and the symbol for mechanical properties.
Example
A thumb screw of Type À’, size M6, nominal length 12mm
ed
and of property class 4.6 shall be designated as:
bl I Thumb screws A M6 x 12 IS: 3726-4.6
pu M
ish When brass or any other non-ferrous metal is used for
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the manufacture of thumb screws, the word Brass or the
name of the non-ferrous metal used will replace the
Type-E Flat thumb screws (Fig 5) property class number in the designation.
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Types of Nuts
o ht

t t rig
• name the common types of nuts

• state the features and uses of the common types of nuts.
No py
Different types of nuts are used depending on the

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requirement of the assembly.
Hexagonal nuts (Figs 1 & 2)
This is the most commonly used type of nut in structural

and machine tool construction.
Hexagonal nuts are available in different thicknesses. Thin
nuts are used as lock-nuts.
Square nut (Fig. 3)
Square bolts are provided with square nuts. In bolts for

coaches mostly square nuts are used.
Self-locking nuts (Simmonds lock-nut)
This nut has an internal groove cut in which a fibre or
nylon ring is inserted. This ring holds the nut tightly on
the bolt and serves as a locking device.
Self-locking nuts are not used with studs.
T-nuts.
T-nuts are used along with studs on machine tools for
fixing/holding devices or workpieces.
Slotted and castle nuts (Fig. 4)
ed
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ish
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Round nuts (Fig. 5)

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Round nuts of different types are available for special

applications.
Slotted round nut (Figs 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10)
Slotted round nut for hook wrench.
Round nut with set pin holes on sides
Round nut with holes in the face.
ed
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ish
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Methods of removing broken studs
• state the reasons for breakage of studs
• state the different methods for removing broken studs.
The stud is used in the place of a bolt. Where hole cannot Using square taper punch (Fig 3)
be had for the bolt to pass through or to avoid the use of an
unnecessarily long bolt. Studs are generally used to fix up Broken studs can also be removed by drilling a blind hole
cover plates or to connect cylinder covers to engine (hole diameter equal to half of stud diameter) and driving a
cylinders. square taper punch into the hole as shown Fig 3. Turn the
punch using a suitable spanner in an anticlockwise direction
Reasons for breakage of stud/bolt to unscrew the stud.
Excessive torque is applied while screwing the stud into
the hole/tightening the nut.
Threads are corroded excessively.
Matching threads are not of proper formation.
Threads are seized.
Methods of removing broken studs
ed
Prick punch method (Fig 1)
bl I
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ish
If the stud is broken very near to the surface, drive it in an
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anticlockwise direction, using a prick punch and hammer
to remove it.
be @
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No py
Ezy-out method (Fig 4)

Ezy-out or a stud extractor is a hand tool, some what
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similar to the form of a taper reamer but it has left hand

spiral. It is available in a set of 5 pieces. The recommended
drill size is punched on each ezy-out.
Filling square form (Fig 2)
Drilling the hole, the recommended ezy-out is set on and
When the stud is broken a little above the surface, form a turned in an anticlockwise direction by a tap wrench. As it
square on the projecting portion to suit a standard spanner. is rotated it penetrates into the hole increasing its grip
Then turn it anticlockwise using a spanner to remove stud. and in the process the broken stud gets unscrewed.
109
Making drill hole (Fig 5) If all other methods fail drill a hole equal to the size of the
stud size or a little over and tap the hole with an oversize
tap. Now a special oversize stud as shown in figure 6 is to
be made and fitted in position. (Fig. 6)
Correctly find out the centre of the broken stud and drill a
hole nearly equal to the core diameter of the stud down
the centre so that the threads only remain (Fig 5). Remove
the thread portion by the point of a scriber in the form of
broken chips. Re-tap the drill hole to clear the threads.
Screw pitch gauge

• state the purpose of a screw pitch gauge
• state the features of a screw pitch gauge.
ed
Purpose
bl I For obtaining accurate results while using the screw pitch
pu M
ish
A screw pitch gauge is used to determine the pitch of a gauge, the full length of the blade should be placed on the
threads. (Fig 2)
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thread.
It is also used to compare the profile of threads.
be @
Constructional features
Pitch gauges are available with a number of blades
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assembled as a set. Each blade is meant for checking a

particular standard thread pitch. The blades are made of
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thin spring steel sheets, and are hardened.

No py
Some screw pitch gauge sets will have blades provided

for checking British Standards threats (BSW, BSF etc.)
at one end and the Metric Standard at the other end.
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The thread profile on each blade is cut for about 25 mm or

30 m.. The pitch of the blade is stamped on each blade.
The standard and range of the pitches are marked on the
case. (Fig 1)
Automobile Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.27 - 1.3.28
Hacksaw frame and blade

• name the parts of a hacksaw frame
• specify hacksaw frames
• state the different types of hacksaw frames and their uses.
The hand hacksaw is used along with a blade to cut metals For proper working. It is necessary to have frames of rigid
of different sections. It is also used to cut slots and construction.
contours.
Hacksaw blades (Fig. 2)
A hacksaw blade is a thin narrow steel band with teeth
and two pin holes at the ends. It is used along with a
hacksaw frame. The blade is made of either low alloy steel
(LAS) or high speed steel (HSS) and is available in standard
lengths of 250 mm and 300 mm.
Types of hacksaw blades
Two types of hacksaw bladws are available - all hard blades
and flexible blades.
ed
The parts are idenfified in the (Fig 1)
All hard blades
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Types of hacksaw frames
ish
The two different types of hacksaw frames are solid frame
These are hardened to the full width between the pin holes.
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Flexible blades
and adjustable frames.
For these types of blades. Only the teeth are hardened.
be @
Solid frame
Because of their flexibility, these blades are useful for
Only a prticular standard length of blade can be fitted to cutting along curved lines.
o ht
this frame.
Pitch of the blade (Fig. 3)
Adjustable frame (Flat type)
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Different standard lengths of blades can be fitted to this

frame.
No py
Adjustable frame (Tubular type)

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This is the most commonly used type. It gives a better

grip and control, while sawing.
The distance between adjacent teeth is known as the pitch

of the blade.
Classification Pitch
Coarse 1.8 mm
Medium 1.4 mm & 1.0 mm
Fine 0.8 mm
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Hacksaw blades are designated according to their length,
pitch and type.
To prevent the saw blade binding when penetrating into
the material and to allow free movement of the blade, the
cut is to be broder than the thickness of the saw blade.
This is achieved by the setting the saw teeth. There are
two types of saw teeth settings.
Staggered set (Fig. 4)
Pitch Type of Set

0.8 mm Wave -set
1.0 mm Wave or staggered
Over 1.0 mm Staggered
For the best results, the blade with the right pitch should
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Alternate teeth or groups of teeth are staggered. This
be selected and fitted correctly.
arrangement helps for free cutting and provides for good
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chip clearance.
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Wave set (Fig. 5)
In this, the teeth of the blade are arranged in a wave form.
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Sets of blades can be classified as follows
Elements of a file
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• name the parts of a file.

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Methods of Material Cutting

The three methods of metal cutting are abrasion (Fig.1).
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Fusion (Fig 2) and Incision (Fig 3)
Filing is a method for removing excess material from a Face or side

work pieces by using a file which acts as a cutting tool.
The broad part of the file with teeth cut on its surface
(Fig 4) shows how to hold a file. Files are available many
shapes and sizes. Edge
Parts of a file (Fig 5) The thin part of the file with a single row of parallel teeth
The parts of a file as can be seen in figure 5, are Heel
Tip or Point The portion of the broad part without teeth.
The end opposite to tang
112 Automobile : Mechanic Diesel (NSQF LEVEL - 4) Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.27 - 1.3.28
Tang
The narrow and thin part of a file which fits into the handle
Handle
The part fitted to the tang for holding the file
Parts of a file (Fig 5)
Ferrule
A protective metal ring to prevent cracking of the handle.
Materials
Generally files are made of high carbon or high grade
cast steel. The body portion is hardened and tempered.
The tang is however not hardended.
Shoulder
The curved part of the file separating tang from the body
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Cut of files
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• name the different cuts of files

• state the uses of each type of cut.
The teeth of a file are formed by cuts made on its face.

Files have cuts of different types. Files with different cuts
have different uses.
Types of cuts
Basically there are four types.
Single cut. Double cut. Rasp cut and curved cut.
Single cut file (Fig. 1) Double cut file (Fig. 2)
A single cut file has rows of teeth cut in one direction A double cut file has two rows of teeth cut diagonal to
across its face. The teeth are at an angle of 60o to the each other. The first row of teeth is know as OVERCUT
centre line. It can chips as wide as the cut of the file. and they are cut at an angle of 70o. The other cut, made
Files with this cut are useful for filing soft metals like diagonal to this, is known as UPCUT and is at an angle of
brass, aluminium, bronze and copper. 51o. This removes stock faster then the single cut file.
Single cut files do not remove stock as fast as double
cut files, but the surface finish obtained is much smoother.
Automobile : Mechanic Diesel (NSQF LEVEL - 4) Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.27 - 1.3.28 113
Curved cut file (Fig. 4)
Rasp out file (Fig. 3)
These files have deeper cutting action and are useful for
filing soft materials like - aluminium, tin, copper and
plastic. The curved cut files are available only in a flat
shape.
The selection of a file with a particular type

The rasp cut has individual sharp pointed teeth in a line
of cut is based on the material to be filed.
and is useful for filing wood, leather and other soft materials.
Single cut files are used for filing soft
These files are available only in half round shape.
materials. But certain special files, for
example, those used for sharpening saws are
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also of single cut.
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File specifications and grades
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• state how files are specified
• name the different grades of files
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• state the application of each grade of file.

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Files are manufactured in different types and grades to

meet the various needs.
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Files are specified according to their length, grade, cut

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and shape.
Length is the distance from the tip of a file to the heel.
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(Fig 1) A second cut file (Fig 4) is used to give a good finish on

metals. It is excellent to file hard metals. It is useful for
bringing the jobs close to the finishing size.
File grades are determined by the spacing of the teeth.

A round file (Fig 2) is used for removing rapidly a larger
A smooth file (Fig 5) is used to remove small quantity of
quantity of metal. It is mostly used for trimming the rough
material and to give a good finish.
edges of soft metal castings.
A bastard file (Fig 3) is used in cases where there is a

heavy reduction of material.
A dead smooth (Fig 6) file is used to bring to accurate The most used grades of files are bastard,
size with a high degree of finish. second cut, smooth and dead smooth. These
are the grades recommended by the Bureau
of Indian Standars. (BIS)
Different sizes of files with the same grade will have varying
sizes of teeth. In longer files, the teeth will be coarser.
File - Applications
• state the features of flat and hand files
• state the application of flat and hand files.
Files are made in different shapes so as to be able to file faces are double cut, and the edges single cut. These
and finish components to different shapes. files are used for general purpose work. They are useful
The shape of files is usually specified by their cross for filling and finishing external and internal surfaces.
section. Hand files (Fig 1)
The files useful for this exercise are flat files and hand These files are similar to the flat files in their cross section.
files. The edges along the width are parallel through the length.
Flat files The faces are double cut. One edge is single cut whereas
the other is safe edge. Because of the safe edge, they
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These files are of a rectangular cross section. The edges are useful for filling surfaces which are at right angles to
along the width of these files are parallel up to two-thirds
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of the length, and then they taper towrads the point. The
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Shapes of files
• name the different shapes of files
• state the uses of Square, Round, Half Round, Triangular and Knife-edge files.
For filing and finishing different profiles, files of different

shapes are used.
The shape of files is stated by its cross section.
Common files of different shapes
Flat file, Hand file, Square file, Round file
Half found file, Triangular file and Knife-edge file.
(Flat and hand files have already been discussed).
Square File
The square file is square in its cross sectiion. It is used
for filling square holes, internal square corners, rectangular Round file
opening, keyways and spines. (Fig 1) A round file is circular in its cross section. It is used for
enlarging the circular holes and filing profiles with fillets.
(Fig 2)
Half round File Knife-edge File
A half round file is in the shape of a segment of a circle. It A knife-edge file has the cross section of a sharp triangle.
is used for filing internal curved surfaces (Fig 3) It is used for filing narrow grooves and angles above 100.
(Fig 5)
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Triangular File
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A triangular file is of a triangular cross section. It is used The above files have one third of their lengths tapered.
for filing corners and angles which are more than 600. They are available both in single and double cuts.
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(Fig 4)
Square, round, half-round and triangular-files are available
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in lengths of 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 and 400 mm. These
files are made in bastard, second cut and smooth grades.
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Off- hand grinding with bench and pedestal grinders

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• state the purposes of off-hand grinding
• state the features of bench and pedestal grinders.
Off-hand grinding is the operation of removing material is fastened to the floor. They are used for heavy duty
which does not require great accuracy in size or shape. work.
This is carried out by pressing the workpiece by hand
against a grinding wheel.
Off-hand grinding is performed for rough grinding of jobs
and resharpening of
scribers, punches, chisels, twist drills
single point cutting tools etc.
Off-hand grinding is performed with a bench or pedestal
grinder (Fig 1 and 2)
Bench grinders
Bench grinders are fitted to a bench or table, and are useful
for light duty work.
Pedestal grinders
Pedestal grinders are mounted on a base (pedestal), which
Small jobs should be held with pliers or other suitable
tools. (Fig 5)
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These grinders consist of an electric motor and two
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spindles for mounting grinding wheels. On one spindle a
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coarse-grained wheel is fitted, and on the other, a fine
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grained wheel. For safety, while working, wheel guards
are provided. (Fig 3)
Never hold jobs with cotton waste or similar materials.
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A coolant container is provided for frequent cooling of the Use gloves for your hands while grinding heavy jobs.
work. (Fig 3)
Do not grind on the side of the grinding wheels. (Fig 6)
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Move the work across the full face of the wheel to prevent
uneven wearing of the grinding wheel. (Fig 7)
Adjustable work-rests are provided for both wheels to

support the work while grinding. These work-rests must
be set very close to the wheels. (Fig 4)
Extra eye-shields are also provided for the protection of
the eyes. (Fig 4)
While grinding
Adjust the tool-rest as close to the wheel as possible.
The maximum recommended gap is 2 mm. This will help
to prevent the work from being caught between the tool-
rest and the wheel. (Fig 5)
Safe working on off - hand grinders
• work safety on an off-hand grinder.
How to work on an off-hand grinder? Do not work on grinding wheels which are loaded or glazed.
Dress and true wheels whenever necessary. (Fig.2)
While working on off-hand grinders, it is important to
observe the following safety measures.
BEFORE STARTING
Make sure the grinding wheel guards are in place.
Wear safety goggles while grinding. (Fig 1)
If any abnormal sound is noticed, stop the machine.

Cracked or improperly balanced wheels are dangerous.
Stand on one side of the machine while starting.
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Indian standard system of limits & fits-terminology
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• state the terms under the BIS system of limits and fits.
• define each term under the BIS system of limits and fits.
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Size Basic size

It is a number expressed in a particular unit in the It is the size based on which the dimensional deviations
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measurement of length. are given. (Fig 1)

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Actual size Limits of size

It is the size of the component by actual measurement These are the extreme permissible sizes within which the
after it is manufactured. It should be between the two limits operator is expected to make the component. (Fig 2)
of size if the component is to be accepted. (Maximum and minimum limits)
Maximum limit of size Shaft
It is the greater of the two limit sizes. (Fig 2) (Table 1) In the BIS system of limits & fits, all external features of a
component including those which are not cylindrical are
Minimum limit of size
designated as shaft. (Fig 3)
It is the smaller of the two limits of size. (Fig 2) (Table 1)
Deviation
It is the algebraic difference between a size, to its
corresponding basic size. It may be positive, negative or
zero. (Fig 2)
Hole
In the BIS system of limits & fits, all internal features of a
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component including those which are not cylindrical are
designated as ‘hole’. (Fig 3)
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TABLE 1 (Examples)
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Sl.No Size of Upper Lower Max-Limit Min-Limit

Component Deviation Deviation of size of Size
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1 +.008 +0.008 -0.005 20.008 19.995

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20-.005
2 +.028
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20+.007 +0.028 +0.007 20.028 20.007

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3 -.012
20-.021 -0.012 -0.021 19.988 19.979
Upper deviation Tolerance

It is the algebriac difference between the maximum limit of It is the difference between the maximum limit of size and
size and its corresponding basic size. (Fig 2) (Table 1) the minimum limit of size. It is always positive and is
expressed only as a number without a sign. (Fig 2)
Lower deviation
Zero line
It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of
size and its corresponding basic size (Fig 2) (Table 1) In graphical representation of the above terms, the zero
line represents the basic size. This line is also called as
Upper divation is the deviation which gives the the line of zero deviation. (Fig 1 and 2)
maximum limit of size. Lower deviation is the
Fundamental deviation
deviation which gives the minimum limit of
size. There are 25 fundamental deviations in the BIS system
represented by letter symbols (capital letters for holes
Actual deviation and small letters for shafts). i.e for holes - ABCD......Z
excluding I,L,O,Q&W. (Fig 4)
It is the algebraic difference between the actual size and
its corresponding basic size (Fig 2)
In addition to the above, four sets of letters, JS, ZA, ZB &
ZC are included. For fine mechanisms CD, EF and FG are
added. (Ref. IS:919 Part II - 1979)
For shafts, the same 25 letter symbols but in small letters
are used. (Fig 5)
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The position of tolerance zone with respect to the zero

line is shown in figs 6 and 7
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Fundamental tolerance
This is also called as ‘grade of tolerance’. In the Indian
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Standard System, there are 18 grades of tolerances

represented by number symbols, both for hole and shaft,
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denoted as IT01, IT0, IT1.... to IT16. (Fig 10) A high number

gives a large tolerance zone.
The grade of tolerance refers to the accuracy

of manufacture.
The fundamental deviations are for achieving the different

classes of fits. (Fig 8 and 9)
In a standard chart, the upper and lower deviations for As pointed out earlier, the permissible variation from the
each combination of fundamental deviation and basic dimension is called ‘DEVIATION’.
fundamental tolerance are indicated for sizes ranging upto
The deviation is mostly given on the drawing with the
500 mm. (Refer to IS 919)
dimensions.
Toleranced size
In the example 25 ± 0.2, ± 0.2 is the deviation of the hole
This includes the basic size, the fundamental deviation of 25 mm diameter. (Fig 13) This means that the hole is of
and the grade of tolerance. acceptable size if its dimension is between
Example 25 + 0.2 = 25.2 mm
25H7 - toleranced size of a hole whose basic size is 25. or 25 - 02 = 24.8 mm.
The fundamental deviation is represented by the letter
25.2 mm is known as the maximum limit. (Fig 14)
symbol H and the grade of tolerance is represented by the
number symbol 7. (Fig 11) 24.8 mm is known as the minimum limit. (Fig 15)
ed
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25 e8 - is the toleranced size of a shaft whose basic size
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is 25. The fundamental deviation is represented by the
letter symbol e and the grade of tolerance is represented
by the number 8. (Fig 12)
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The difference between the maximum and minimum limits

is the TOLERANCE. Tolerance here is 0.4 mm. (Fig 16)
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A very wide range of selection can be made by the All dimensions of the hole within the tolerance zone are of
combination of the 25 fundamental deviations and 18 grades acceptable size as in Fig 17.
of tolerances.
As per IS 696, while dimensioning the
Example components as a drawing convention, the
In fig. 13, a hole is shown as 25 ± 0.2 which means that deviations are expressed as tolerances.
25 mm is the basic dimension and ± 0.2 is the deviation.
Fits and their classification as per the indian standard
• define ‘Fit’ as per the Indian Standard
• list out the terms used in limits and fits as per the Indian Standard
• state examples for each class of fits
• Interpret the graphical representation of different classes of fits.
Fit
It is the relationship that exists between two mating parts,
a hole and a shaft, with respect to their dimensional
difference before assembly.
Expression of a fit
A fit is expressed by writing the basic size of the fit first,
(the basic size which is common to both the hole and the
shaft) followed by the symbol for the hole, and by the
symbol for the shaft.
Example
30 H7/g6 or 30 H7 - g6 or 30 So the limits of the shaft are
Clearance 20 - 0.007 = 19.992 mm
In a fit the clearance is the difference between the size of and 20 - 0.020 = 19.980 mm. (Fig 3)
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the hole and the size of the shaft which is always positive.
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Clearance fit
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It is a fit which always provides clearance. Here the
tolerance zone of the hole will be above the tolerance
zone of the shaft. (Fig 1)
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Maximum clearance
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In a clearance fit or transition fit, it is the difference

between the maximum hole and minimum shaft. (Fig 4)
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Example 20 H7/g6
With the fit given, we can find the deviations from the
chart. Minimum Clearance
For a hole 20 H7 we find from the table +21mm. In a clearance fit, it is the difference between the minimum
These numbers indicate the deviations in microns. hole and the maximum shaft. (Fig 5)
(1 micrometre = 0.001 mm)
The limits of the hole are 20 = 0.021 = 20.021 mm and
20 + 0 = 20.000 mm. (Fig. 2)
For a shaft 20 g6 we find in the table - 7mm
- 20mm
The minimum clearance is 20.000 - 19.993 = 0.007 mm.
(Fig 6)
The maximum clearance is 20.021 - 19.980 = 0.041 mm.
(Fig 7)
There is always a clearance between the hole and the

shaft. This is the clearance fit.
Interference The maximum interference is = 25.035 - 25.000
It is the difference between the size of the hole and the = 0.035
shaft before assembly, and this is negative. In this case, The minimum interference is = 25. 022 - 25.021
the shaft is always larger than the hole size.
= 0.001
Interference Fit
Transition fit
It is a fit which always provides interference. Here the
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tolerance zone of the hole will be below the tolerance zone it is a fit which may sometimes provide clearance, and
of the shaft. (Fig 8)
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represented graphically, the tolerance zones of the hole
and shaft will overlap each other. (Fig 12)
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Example Fit 75 H8/j7 (Fig 13)

Example Fit 25 H7/p6 (Fig 9)
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The limits of hole are 25.000 and 25.021 mm and the

limits of the shaft 25.022 and 25.035 mm. The shaft is
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always bigger than the hole. This is an interference fit.
The limits of the hole are 75.000 and 75.046 mm and

those of the shaft are 74.018 and 74.988 mm.
Maximum interference Maximum Clearance = 75.046 - 74.988 = 0.058 mm.
In an interference fit or transition fit, it is the algebraic If the hole is 75.000 and the shaft 75.018 mm, the shaft
difference between the minimum hole and the maximum is 0.018 mm, bigger than the hole. This results in
shaft. (Fig 10) interference. This is transition fit because it can result in
a clearance fit or an interference fit.
Minimum interference
Hole basis system
In an interference fit, it is the algebraic difference between
the maximum hole and the minimum shaft. (Fig 11) In a Standard system of limits and fits, where the size of
the hole is kept constant and the size of the shaft is
In the example (Fig 9)
varied to get the difference class of fits, then it is known
as, the hole basis system.
The fundamental deviation symbol ‘H’ is chosen for the This is because the upper deviation of the shaft ‘h’ is
holes, when the hole basis system is followed. This is zero. It is known as ‘basis shaft’. (Fig 15)
because the lower deviation of the hole ‘H’ is zero. It is
known as ‘basic hole’. (Fig 14)
The hole basis systemis followed mostly. This is because,

Shaft basis system depending upon the class of fit, it will be always easier to
alter the size of the shaft because it is external, but it is
In a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of
difficult to do minor alternations to a hole. Moreover the
the shaft is kept constant and the variations are given to
hole can be produced by using standard toolings.
the hole for obtaining different class of fits, then it is known
as shaft basis. The fundamental deviation symbol ‘h’ is The three classes of fits, both under hole basis and shaft
chosen for the shaft when the shaft basis is followed. basis, are illustrated in (Fig 16)
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Soldering
• state the process of soldering
• state the method of applicatoin of soldering iron
• state the different types of solder and their application.
There are different methods of joining metallic sheets.

Soldering is one of them.
Soldering is the process by which metallic materials are

joined with the help of another liquified metal (solder)
The melting point of the solder is lower than that of the

materials being joined.
The solder wets the base material without melting it.
Soldering iron (Fig 1)
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The soldering iron is used to melt the solder and heat the
metal that are to be joined together.
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A soldering iron has the following parts.

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• Head (copper bit)

• Shank
125
Brazing and braze welding principles: Brazing is an
adhesion process in which the metals being joined are
heated but not melted; the brazing filler metal melts and
flows at temperatures above 840oF (450oC). Adhesion is
the molecular attraction exerted between surfaces.
A brazed joint is stronger than a soldered joint because

of the strength of the alloys used. In some instances it is
as strong as a welded joint. It is used where mechanical
strength and leakproof joints are desired. Brazing and
braze welding are superior to welding in some
applications. since they do not affect the heat treatment
• Wooden handle of the original metals as much as welding.
• Edge
Brazing and braze welding wrap the original metals less
Shape of head (Fig 1, 2 & 3) and it is possible to joing dissimilar metals. For example.
steel tubing may be brazed to cast iron, copper tubing
The head of the iron is made of forged copper. This is brazed to steel and tool steel brazed to low carbon steel.
because copper has a good heat conductivity and has a Brazing is done on metals which fit together tightly. The
strong affinity for the solder so that the solder melts easily metal is drawn into the joint by capillary action (A liquid
and sticks to the bit. will be drawn between two tightly fitted surfaces. This
drawing action is known as Capillary action). Very thin
The edge is V shaped from two sides of a square. This is
layers of filler metals are used when brazing. The joints
called Hatchet type soldering iron
and the material being brazed must be specially designed
ed
for the purpose. When brazing, poor fit and alignment
This type is used for straight soldering joints.
bl I result in poor joints and in inefficient use of brazing metal.
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The other type is the square pointed soldering iron or a In braze welding, joint designs used for oxyfuel gas or
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standard workshop pattern soldering iron. For this type arc welding are satisfactory. When braze welding, thick
the edge is shaped to an angle on four sides to form a layers of the brazing filler metal is used.
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pyramid shape.
Solders (Fig. 7)
Metal : The fitter metal is distributed between the closely
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fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary action’ Coalescence

is a joining or uniting of materials. (Figs 5 & 6)
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Brazewelding : A welding process variation in which a

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filler metal, having a liquidus above 840oF (450oC) and

below the solidus of the base metal, is used. Unlike
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brazing, in braze welding the filler metal is not distributed

in the joint by capillary action.
Brazing has been used for centuries. Blacksmiths,

jewelers, armorers and other crafters used the process
on large and small articles before recorded history. This
joining method has grown steadily both in volume and
popularity. It is an important industrial process, as well Pure metals or alloys are used for solders
as jewelry making and repair process. The art of brazing Solders are applied in the form of wires, sticks, ingots,
has become more of a science as the knowledge of rods, threads, tapes, formed sections, powder and pastes
chemistry, physics and metallurgy has increased.
Types of solders
The usual terms Brazing and Braze welding imply the
use of a nonferrous alloy. These nonferrous alloys consist There are two types of solders
of alloys of copper, tin, zinc, aluminum, beryllium,
magnesium, silver, gold and others - soft solder
Brass is an alloy consisting chiefly of copper and zinc. - hard solder

Bronze is an alloy consisting chiefly of copper and tin.
One distinguishes between soft solders whose melting
Most rods used in both brazing and braze welding on
points are below 450°C and hard solders whose melting
ferrous metals are brass alloys rather than bronze. The
points are above 450°C.
brands which are called bronze usually contain a small
percent (about one percent) of tin.
Soft solders Hard solders
These are alloys of the metals-tin, lead, antinomy, copper, These are alloys of copper, tin, silver, zinc, cadmium and
cadmium and zinc and are used for soldering heavy (thick) phosphorus, and are used for soldering heavy metals.
and light metals.
Brazing
• describe the method of brazing
• state advatnages and disadvantages of brazing
• difference between soldering and brazing.
Brazing (Fig. 1): Brazing is a metal joining process which Torch brazing: The base metal is heated to the required
is done at temperature of above 450°C as compared to temperature by the application of the oxy-acetylene flame.
soldering whihc is done at below 450°C.
Conditions to obtain satisfactory brazed or soldered
Process: joint
Clean the area of the joint thoroughly by wire brushing, Wet the base metal
emerying and by chemical solutions for removing oil,
Spread the filler metal and make contact with the joint
grease paints etc.
surfces. The solder will be drawn into the joint by capillary
Flame joints tightly using proper clamping, (Maximum action.
gap permitted between the two joining surfaces is only
Suggested joint designs for solidering and brazing.
0.08mm)
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Advantages of brazing
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Apply the flux in paste form (for brazing iron and steel a
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mixture of 75% borax powder with 25% boric acid (liquid The completed joint requires little or no finishing
form) to form a paste is used). Usually the brazing flux
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The relatively low temperature at which the joint is made
contains chlorides, fluorides, borax, borates, fluroborates,
minimizes distortion.
boric acid, wetting agents and water. So suitable flux
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combination is selected based on metal being used. There is no flash or weld spatter.
Brazing is employed where a ductile joint is required. The brazing technique does not require as much skill as
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Brazing filler rods/metals melt at temperature from 860°C the technique for fusion welding
950°C and are used to braze iron and its alloys.
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The process can be easily mechanised

Brazing fluxes: Fused borax is the general purpose flux
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of post metals. The process is economical owing to the above advantages.

It is applied on the joint in the form of a past made by Disadvantages of brazing
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mixing up with water.

If the joint is exposed to corrosive media, the filler metal
Brazing is to be done at a lower temperature, fluorides of used may not have the required corrosive resisteance.
alkali materials are commonly used. These fluxes will
remove refractory oxides of aluminium, chromium, silicon All the brazing alloys loose strength at an elevated
and berrylium. temperature.
The colour of the brazing alloy which ranges from silver

white to copper red may not match the base metal very
closely.
Brazing and braze welding: Both brazing and braze

welding are metal joining processes which are performed
at temperatures above 840°F (450°C) as compared to
soldering which is performed at temperatures below 840°F
(450°C)
The American Welding Society defines these processes

as follows:
Brazing - À group of welding processes which produces

coalscence of materials by heating them to a suitable
temperature and by using a filler metal having a liquids
above 840°F (450°C) and below the solidus of the base.
Gasket
• state the need of gaskets
• state the materials of gaskets
The gasket (Fig. 1) in automobiles has to combat sealing changes. They must seal against compression, oil and
problems caused by high and low temperatures, coolants. They must resist extrusion, elongation, oxidation
expansion and contraction, vibration, pressure or vaccum, and chemicals. The cylinder head gasket consists of a
corrosion and oxidation, inadequate sealing reduces the multi-layer of materials with coolant and oil passages.
service life and efficiency of the components.
The seals which are used between two stationary
components are called static seats. The most common
static seal is gasket. Gaskets are designed to suit
particular needs and are manufactured from different
materials like copper, aluminium, cork fibre, asbestos,
synthetic rubber, paper and various combinations of these
materials. In latest In latest semi-liquid is also used as
gasket.
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Cylinder head gaskets are the most complicated in design
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and construction because they must withstand extreme
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ish
pressure, vibration, high temperature and expansion
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Oil seal
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• state the use of oil seals
• explain differnt types of oil seals
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• state the material used for oil seals.

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Seals
are moulded to close tolerances in the cross-sectional
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Seals are sealing parts on static or moving inter faces of areas and to the inner and outer diameters.
machines, devices pipes and tank reservoir seals are used
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for sealing spaces as different pressure against each other, Bearing Isolator (Fig. 1)
ie combustion chamber & oilways etc. oil seals have
flexible lip that rubs against a shaft or housing to prevent Bearing Isolator are dynamicsed designed to protect
leakage of fluid (grease, oil etc.) bearing from outside containant. The contain potor
(rotating) & stater (Stationary) member same bearing
All seal are used to retain or seperate lubricant on fluid
Isolator are of labyrinth construction of other use o-rings.
Types of oil seal
i) Flexible lip
ii) radial lip
iii) rotary shaft seal
configuaration
a) single lip
b) double lip
c) triple lip
d) Fan lip
Seals capable of sealing two components which move or
rotate insulation to each other are called dynamic seals.
The most common dynamic seal is called ‘O’ rings which
128
Specifications Sealants:
Sealing orientation (Fig 2 & 3) Type of sealant:
• Rod seals or shaft seals are type of radial seal. There are three types of sealant used.
1 The Teflon tape
• Radial seal are pressfit into a housing bore with the
sealing up contacting the shaft. 2 Pipe tape
3 Anaerobic resin compound
1 Teflon tape
The purpose of this Teflon tape (whir), no sticking tape is
the serve as a lubricant when threaded part of pipe a piping
system are being assembles.
2 Pipe tape
This material relies on a solvent carrier and hardware when
the solvent evaporator. The resulting seal adheres to all
plastic, metal pipes and effective blocks leak paths.
3 Anaerobic resin compound
This sealant is confined within the threads of the metal
• Piston seals are radial seal. These seals are fit on a pipe connection and air in exuded. It maintains the sealing
shaft with sealing lip contacting the housing bore. V properties even after heat aging, excellent then prelature
rings are external lip seals. and solvent remittance.
ed
Key concepts
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• Symmetrical seal works equally as a rod or piston
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seal.
ish - Tape does not truly seal, it lubricator.
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• An axial seal seals axially against a housing or - Tape can harden and become brittle.
machine component. - Anaerobic must be combatable with pipe fitting
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• Material - Nylon, Rubber, polythen, PTFE etc. material.

Sealant selection factors
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- Material
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- Temperature
- Pressure
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- Vibration
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Drilling machine (portable type)

• name the different types of portable drilling machines
• state their distinctive features and uses.
Necessity
Portable hand drills of different types are used for certain
jobs which cannot be handled on stationary drilling
machines.
Types
There are two types of portable drilling machines,
power operated and hand operated.
Power Operated drilling machines
Electric hand drill (light duty) (Fig 1)
These are available in different forms. The electric hand
drill has a small electrical motor for driving the drill. On
ed
the end of the spindle, a drill chuck is mounted. Electric Pneumatic hand drill (Fig 4)
bl I
hand drills used for light duty will have, usually, a single
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speed.
ish This type of drill is operated by compressed air. An air
driven motor is housed in the casing, and a handle is
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fitted along with an air pipe to operate the drill conveniently.

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This drill is used where electrically operated drills are

prohibited i.e. explosives factories, petroleum refineries
Electric hand drill (heavy duty) (Figs 2 and 3) etc.
This drill has an additional feature by which the drill speed Hand operated drilling machines
can be varied through a system of gears. This is particularly
Different types of hand operated drilling machines are
useful for drilling larger diameter holes.
shown below. They are used in structural fabrication, sheet
metal and carpentry, particularly where electricity or
pneumatic supply is not available.
The ratchet drilling machine (Fig 5) is commonly used in
structural fabrication. Square head, taper shank drills are
used on these machines.
The bevel gear type drilling machine (Fig 6) is used for
drilling small diameter holes up to 6mm.
The breast drilling machine (Fig 7) is used for drilling holes
of larger diameter as more pressure can be exerted. Drills
between 6 mm to 12 mm can be used on these machines.
130
ed
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Drilling machines (bench and pillar type)

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• name the types of drilling machines

• list out the parts of bench type, pillar type and radial drilling machines
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• compare the features of the bench type, pillar type and radial drilling machines.
The principal types of drilling machines are :
- the sensitive bench drilling machine

- the pillar drilling machine
- the column drilling machine
- the radial arm drilling machine (radial drilling machine).
(You are not likely to use the column and radial types of
drilling machines now. Therefore, only the sensitive and
pillar type machines are explained here.)
The sensitive bench drilling machine (Fig. 1)
The simplest type of sensitive drilling machines is shown

in the figure with its various parts marked. This is used for
light duty work.
This machine is capable of drilling holes upto 12.5 mm

diameter. The drills are fitted in the chuck or directly in
the tapered hole of the machine spindle.
Large machines are provided with a rack and pinion
machanism for moving the table for setting the work.
Radial drilling machines (Fig 4)

These are used to drill :
- large diameter holes
- multiple holes in one setting of the work
- heavy and large workpieces.
FEATURES
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For normal drilling, the work-surface is kept horizontal. If
the holes are to be drilled at an angle, the table can be
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tilted.
Different spindle speeds are achieved by changing the
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belt position in the stepped pulley. (Fig 2)

The pillar drilling machine (Fig 3)
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The radial drilling machine has a radial arm on which the

spindle head is mounted.
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The spindle head can be moved along the radial arm and
can be locked in any position.
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The arm is supported by a pillar (column). It can be ro-

tated about with the pillar as centre. Therefore, the drill
spindle can cover the entire working surface of the table.
The arm can be lifted or lowered.
The motor mounted on the spindle head rotates the spindle.
The variable-speed gearbox provides a large range of r.p.m.
This is an enlarged version of the sensitive bench drilling

machine. These drilling machines are mounded on the
floor and driven by more powerful electric motors. They
are used for heavy duty work. Pillar drilling mechines are
available in different sizes.
Cutting speed and RPM
• define cutting speed
• state the factors for determining the cutting speed
• differentiate between cutting speed and r.p.m.
• determine r.p.m. spindle speed
• select r.pm. for drill sizes from tables.
For a drill to give satisfactory performance, it must oper-

ate at the correct cutting speed and feed.
Cutting speed is the speed at which the cutting edge

passes over the material while cutting, and is expressed n= r.p.m
in metres per minute.
v= cutting speed in m/min
Cutting speed is also sometimes stated as surface speed
or peripheral speed. d= diameter of drill in mm
The selection of the recommended cutting speed for drill- ∏= 3.14

ing depends on the materials to be drilled, and the tool
material. Material being Cutting speed
drilled for HSS (m/min)
Tool manufacturers usually provide a table of cutting speeds Aluminium 70 -100
ed
required for different materials.
bl I Brass 35-50
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The recommended cutting speeds for different materials
ish
are given in the table. Based on the cutting speed recom- Bronze (Phosphor) 20-35
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mended, the r.p.m. at which a drill has to be driven, is

determined. Cast Iron (grey) 25-40
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Calculate r.p.m Copper 35-45

o ht
n× d× ∏ LC/MC steel/ Alloy steel 20-30

V= m/min
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1000
Thermosetting plastic
(low speed due to abrasive 5-8
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properties )
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Work - holding devices

• state the purpose of work-holding devices
• name the devices used for holding work
• state the precautions to be observed while using.
Workpieces to be drilled should be properly held or Workpieces which are not accurate may be supported by
clamped to prevent them from rotating along with the drill. wooden pieces.
Improperly secured work is not only a danger to the
operator but can also cause inaccurate work, and Clamps and bolts (Fig 2,3,4 & 5)
breakage to the drill. Various devices are used to ensure
proper holding. Drilling machine tables are provided with T-slots for fitting
bolt heads. Using clamps and bolts, the workpieces can
The machine vice (Fig 1) be held very rigidly. While using this method, the packing
should be, as far as possible, of the same height as the
Most of the drilling work can be held in a machine vice. work, and the bolt nearer to the work.
Ensure that the drill does not drill through the vice after it
has passed through the work. For this purpose, the work There are many types of clamps and it is necessary to
can be lifted up and secured on parallel blocks providing determine the clamping method according to the work.
a gap between the work and the bottom of the vice.
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Drill - holding devices

• name the types of drill-holding devices
• state the features of drill chucks
• state the functions of drill sleeves
• state the function of drift.
For drilling holes of material, the drills are to be held Drill Chuck
accurately and rigidly on the machines.
Straight shank drills are held in drill chucks. For fixing
The common drill-holding devices are drill chucks and and removing drills, the chucks are provided either with a
sleeves and sockets. pinion and key or a knurled ring.
The drill chucks are held on the machine sprindle by Drills are provided with five different sizes of morse tapers,
means of an arbor fitted or the drill chuck. (Fig 1) and are numbered from MT 1 to MT5.
Taper Sleeves and Sockets (Fig 1) In order to make up the difference in sizes between the
shanks of the drills and the type of machine spindles,
Taper shank drills have a morse taper.
sleeves of different sizes are used. When the drill taper
Sleeves and sockets are made with the same taper so shank is bigger than the machine spindle,taper sockets
that the taper shank of the drill. When engaged, will give are used. (Fig 1)
a good wedging action. due to this reason morse tapers
are called self-holding tapers.
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While fixing the drill in a socket or sleeves the tang portion Use a drift remove drills and sockets from the machine
should align in the slot (Fig 2). this will facilitate the spindle. (Fig 3)
removal of drill or sleeve from the machine spindle.
While removing the drill from the sockets
sleeves, don’t allow it to fall on the table or
jobs. (Fig 4)
Drill Bits
• state the functions of drills
• name the parts of a drill
• state the functions of each part of a drill.
Drilling is a process of making holes on workpieces. The Point

drill used as a tool. For drilling the drill is rotated with a
The cone shaped end which does the cutting is called
downward pressure causing the tool to penetrate into the
point. It consists of a dead centre, lips or cutting edges
material (Fig 1)
and a heel.
ed
Shank
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This is the driving end of the drill which is fitted on to the
machine. Shanks are of two types.
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Taper shanks, used for larger diameter drills, and straight

shank, used for smaller diameter drills.
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Tang
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Parts of a Drill (Fig 2)

This is a part of the taper shank drill which fits into the
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The Various parts of a drill can be identified from fig. 2 slot of the drilling machine spindle.
Body (Fig. 3)
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The portion between the point and the shank is called Land/Margin
the body of a drill.
The land/margin is the narrow strip which extends to the
The parts of the body are flute, land/margin, body entire length of the flutes.
clearance and web.
The diameter of the drill a measured across the land
Flutes margin.
Flutes are the spiral grooves which run to the length of Body Clearance
the drill. The flutes help,
Body clearance is the part of the body which is reduced
- to form the cutting edges
in diameter to cut down the function between the drill and
- to curl the chips and alow these to come out the hole being drilled.
- the coolant to flow to the cutting edge.
Web
Web is the metal column which separates the flutes. It

gradually increases in thickness towards the shank.
Drill Angles
• list the various angles of a twist drill
• state the functions of each angle
• list the tool types for drill as per IS
• distinguish the features of different types of drills
ed
• designate drills as per ISI recommendations.
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Angles
ish
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They are different angles for different purposes. They are

listed below.
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Point Angle, Helix angles,Rake angle, Clearance angle

and chisel edge angle.
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Point Angle/Cutting Angle

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The point angle of a general purpose (standard) drill is

118o.This is the angle between the cutting edges (lips).
This angle according to the hardness of the material to
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be drilled (Fig 1)
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The helix angles vary according to the material being

drilled. According to Indian Standards, three types of drills
are used for drilling various materials.
• Type N-for normal low carbon steel
• Type H-for hard and tenaceous materials
• Type S- for soft and tough materials.
Helix Angle (Figs 2,3 and 4) The type of drill used for general purpose drilling work is
Type N.
Twist drills are made with different helix angles. The helix
angle determines the rake angle at the cutting edge of
teh twist drill.
Rake Angle (Fig 5) Chisel Edge Angle/ Web Angle (Fig 7)
This is the angle between the chisel edge and the cutting
lip.
Rake angle is the angle of flute (helix angle) Designation of drills
Clearance Angle (Fig 6) Twist drills are designated by the
The clearance angle is to prevent the friction of the tool • diameter

behind the cutting edge. This will help in the penetration
of the cutting edges into the material. If the clearance Diameter of drill
IS NO.
angle is too much the cutting edges will be weak, and if
it is too small the drill will not cut.
Twist drill 9.50 H - IS5101 - HS
ed
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ish Tool Type Material
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• tool type
• material
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Example
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A twist drill of 9.50mm dia of tool type “H’ right hand cutting
and made from HSS is designated.
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If the tool type is not indicated in the designation, it should

be taken as type ‘N’ tool.
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Drills for different materials
Recommended drills
Material to be Point Helix angle Material to be Point Helix angle

drilled angle d=3.2-5 5-10 drilled angle d=3.5 -5
Steel and cast steel Copper (up to 30 mm

up to 70 kgf/mm2 drill diameter)
strength Al-alloys, forming
Gray cst iron curly chips
Malleable cast iron celluloid
Brass
German silver, nickel
Brass, CuZn 40 Austentic steels
Steel and cast steel Moulded plastics
ed
70.... 120 Kgfmm2 (with thickness s>d)
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ish
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Moulded plastics,
with thickness s<d
Laminated plastics.
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Stainless steel; hard rubber (ebonite)

Copper (drill diameter) marble, state, coal
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more than 30 mm)

Al-alloy, forming
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short - broken chips

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Zinc alloys
Hand taps and dies
• state the uses of threading hand taps
• state the features of hand taps
• distinguish between different taps in a set
• name the different types of tap wrenches
• state the uses of different types of wrenches.
Use of Hand Taps

Hand taps are used for internal threading of components.
Features (Fig 1)
They are made from high carbon steel of high speed steel
handened and ground
Threads are cut on the surface and are accurately finished.
ed
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ish
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plug or bottoming tap

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These taps are identical in all features except in the taper

lead.
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The taper tap is to start the thread. It is possible to form

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full threads by the taper tap in through holes which are

not deep.
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The bottoming tap (plug) is used to finish the threads of a

blind hole to the correct depth.
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for identifying the type of taps quickly - the taps are either
To form the cutting edges, the flutes are cut across the numbered as 1,2 and 3 or rings are marked on the shank.
thread.
The taper tap has one ring the intermediate tap has two
For holding and turning the taps while cutting threads the rings and the bottoming tap has three rings (Fig 2)
ends of the shanks are squared.
Tap Wrenches
The ends of the taps are chamfered (taper lead) for
assisting aligning and starting of the thread. Tap Wrenches are used to align and drive the hand taps
correctly into the hole to be threaded.
The size of the taps and the type of the thread are usually
marked on the shank. Tap Wrenches are of different types.
In certain cases the pitch of the thread will also be marked. Double ended adjustable wrench, T handle tap wrench
and solid type tap wrench.
Markings are also made to indicate the type of tap i.e
first, second final or plug tap. Double ended adjustable tap Wrench or Bar
Types of Taps in a set Type Tap Wrench (Fig 3)
Hand taps for a particular thread are available as a set This is the most commonly used type of tap wrench. It is
consisting of three pieces. (Fig 2) available in various sizes. These tap wrenches are more
These are suitable for large diameter taps and can be used in open
places where there is no obstruction to turn the tap. It is
first tap or taper tap important to select the correct size of wrench.
second tap or intermediate tap
140
T- Handle Tap Wrench (Fig 4) This is not suitable for holding large diameter taps.
These are small adjustable chucks with two jaws and a Solid Type Tap Wrench (Fig 5)
handle to turn the wrench.
These Wrenches are not adjustable
This tap wrench is useful to work in restricted places and
They can take only certain sizes of taps. This eliminates
is turned with one hand only.
the use of wrong length of the tap wrenches and thus
prevents damage to the taps.
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Tap drill size
bl I
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ish
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• state what is tap drill size

• choose the tap drill sizes for different threads from tables
be @
• calculate the tap drill sizes for ISO metric and ISO inch.
What is a tap drill Size? Considering this aspect, a more practical approach for
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determining the tap drill sizes is

Before a tap is used for cutting internal threads, a hole is
Tap drill size = Major diameter – pitch
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to be drilled. The diameter of the hole should be such that

it should have sufficient material in the hole for the tap to cut = 10 mm - 1.5 mm
= 8.5 mm.
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the thread.
Compare this with the table of tap drill sizes for ISO
Tap Drill Sizes for Different Threads metric threads.
Co
ISO Metric Thread

ISO Inch (Unified) threads Formula
Tapping drill size Tap Drill size = 1
for M10 x 1.5 thread Major diameter –
Number of thread per inch
Minor diameter = Major diameter – 2 x depth For calculating the tap drill size for 5/8" UNC thread
depth of thread = 0.6134 x pitch of a screw
Tap drill size = 5/8" – 1/11"
2 depth of thread = 0.6134 x 2 x pitch = 0.625" – 0.091"
=1.226 x 1.5 mm = 1.839 mm = 0.534"
The next drill size is 17/32" (0.531 inches)
Minor dia (D1)=10 mm – 1.839 mm
=8.161mm or 8.2 mm Compare this with the table of drill sizes for unified inch
threads.
This tap drill will produce 100% thread because this is
equal to the minor diameter of the thread. For most
What will be the tapping size for the following threads?
fastening purposes a 100% formed thread is not required.
A standard nut with 60% thread is strong enough to be (a) M 20
tightened until the bolt breaks without stripping the thread. (b) UNC 3/8
Further it also requires a greater force for turning the tap if
a higher percentage formation of thread is required. Refer to chart for determining the pitches of the
thread.
TABLE FOR TAP DRILL SIZES - ISO METRIC
PITCH
Nominal
diameter
NOMINAL DIA 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.75 0.8 1 1.25 1.5
1.5 1.75 2 2.5
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.55
1 0.85
0.75
1.1 0.95
0.86
1.2 0.96
1.4 1.10
1.6 1.25
1.8 1.45
2 1.60
2.2 2.15 1.75
2.5 2.65 2.05
3 3.15 2.50
3.5 2.90
4 3.50 3.30
4.5 4.00 3.70
5 4.50 4.20
5.5 5.00
6 5.20 5.00
7 6.20 6.00
ed
8 7.20 7.00 6.80
bl I 8.20 8.00 7.80

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10
ish 9.20 9.00 8.80 8.50

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11 10.20 10.00 9.50
12 11.00 10.80 10.50 10.20

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14 13.00 12.80 12.50 12.00
15 14.00 13.50
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16 15.00 14.50 14.00
17 16.00 15.50
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18 17.00 16.50 16.00 15.50
20 19.00 18.50 18.00 17.50

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22 21.00 20.50 20.00 19.50

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24 23.00 22.50 22.00 21.00
25 24.00 23.50 23.00
26 24.50
27 26.00 25.50 25.00 24.00
28 27.00 26.50 26.00
30 29.00 28.50 28.00 27.00 26.50
32 30.50 30.00
33 31.50 31.00 30.00 29.50
35 33.50
36 34.50 34.00 33.00 32.00
38 36.50
39 37.50 37.00 36.00 35.00
40 38.50 38.00 37.00
42 40.50 40.00 39.00 38.00 37.50
45 43.50 43.00 42.00 41.00 40.50
48 46.50 46.00 45.00 44.00 43.00
50 48.50 48.00 47.00
52 50.50 50.00 49.00 48.00 47.00 50.50
56
50.50
Die and die stock
• name the different types of dies
• state the features of each type of die
• state the use of each type of die
• name the type of diestock for each type of die.
Uses of Dies Circular Split Die/Button Die (Fig 2)

Threading dies are used to cut external threads on This has a slot cut to permit slight variation in size.
cylindrical workpieces. (Fig 1)
When held in the diestock, variation in the size can be

made by using the adjusting screws. This permits
increasing or decreasing of the depth of cut. When the
side screws are tightened the die will close slightly.(Fig 3)
ed
Types of Dies
bl I For adjusting the depth of the cut, the centre screw is

pu M
The following are the different types of dies.
ish
advanced and locked in the groove. This type of die stock
Circular Split Die (Button die) is called button pattern stock.
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Half Die
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Adjustable Screw Plate Die

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Half Die (Fig 4)
Half dies are stronger in construction.
Adjustments can be made easily to increase or decrease

the depth of cut.
These dies are available in matching pairs and should be

used together.
By adjusting the screw of the diestock, the die pieces can

be brought closer together or can be moved apart.
They need a special die holder.
Adjustable Screw Plate Die (Fig 5) This is another type of a two piece die similar to the half die.
This provides greater adjustment than the split die.
The two die halves are held securely in a collar by means
of a threaded plate (guide plate) which also acts as a guide
while threading.
When the guide plate is tightened after placing the die
pieces in the collar, the die pieces are correctly located and
rigidly held. (Fig 5)
The die pieces can be adjusted, using the adjusting screws
on the collar. This type of die stock used is called quick
cut diestock. (Fig 6)
The bottom of the die halves is tapered to

provide the lead for starting the thread. On one
side of each die head, the serial number is
stamped.
Both pieces should have the same serial
numbers.
ed
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Die Nut (Solid Die) (Fig 7)

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The die nut is used for chasing or reconditioning the

damaged threads.
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The die nut is turned with a spanner.

The die nuts are available for different standards and sizes
of threads.
Die nuts are not to be used for cutting new

threads.
Hand Reamers
• state the uses of reamers
• state the advantages of reaming
• distinguish between hand and machine reaming
• name the elements of a reamer.
What is reamer?
A reamer is a multi-point cutting tool used for enlarging
and finishing previously drilled holes to accurate sizes.
(Fig 1)
Advantages of ‘reaming’
ed
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Reaming by using a hand reamer is done manually for

which great skill is needed.
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Hand reamers have straight sha nks with ‘square’ at

Reaming produces high quality surface finish and the end for holding with tap wrenches. (Fig 2)
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dimensional accuracy to close limits.

Machine reamers are fitted on spindles of machine tools
Also small holes which cannot be finished by other by means of a floating chuck and are rotated for reaming.
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processes can be finished.

Machine reamers are provided with Morse taper shanks
Classification of reamers
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for holding on machine spindles.(Fig 3)

Reamers are classified as hand reamers and machine Parts of a hand reamer
reamers. (Fig 2 and 3)
The parts of a hand reamer are shown in Fig 4
145
Hole size for reaming
• determine the hole size for reaming.
For reaming with a hand or machine reamer the hole drilled Determing the drill hole sizes for the following reamers.
should be smaller than the reamer size.
i) 15mm ii) 44mm
The drilled hole should have sufficient metal for finishing
with the reamer. Excessive metal will impose a strain on iii) 4mm iV) 19mm
the cutting edge of the reamer and damage it. Answer
Calculating drill size for reamer i) ------------------------
A method generally practised in workshops is by applying ii) ------------------------
the following formula.
iii) -------------------------
Drill size = Reamed size - (undersize+oversize) of drilled
iv) ---------------------------
hole.
Finished size If the reamed hole is undersize, the cause is
that the reamer is worn out.
Finished size is the diameter of the reamer.
Undersize Always inspect the condition of the reamer
before commending reaming.
Undersize is the recommended reduction in size for
different ranges of drill diameter. (see Table)
ed
For obtaining good suface finish, use a coolant while
TABLE -1
bl I reaming. Remove metal chips from the reamer frequently
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ish
advance the reamer slowly into the work.
Undersizes for reaming
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DEFECTS IN REAMING - CAUSES AND REMEDIES
Diameter of ready Undersizes of rough
reamed hole (mm) bored hole (mm) Reamer hole undersize
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under 5 0.1...0.2 If a worn out reamer is used, it may result in the reamed
hole being undersize. Do not use such reamers.
5....20 0.2...0.3
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Always inspect the condition of the reamer before using.

21....50 0.3....0.5
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Surface finish rough

over 50 0.5....1
The causes may be anyone of the following ara
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combination there of.

Oversize of drilled hole
- incorrect application
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It is generally considered that a twist drill will make a

hole larger than its diameter. The oversize for calculation - Swarf accumulated in reamer flutes
purposes is taken as 0.05 mm, for all diameters of drills.
- in adequate flow of coolant
For light metals the undersize will be 50% larger.
- feed rate too fast
Example
While reaming apply a steady and slow feed rate.
A hole is to be reamed on mild steel with a 10mm reamer.
Ensure a copious supply of the lubricant.
What will be the diameter of the drill for drilling the hole
before reaming? Do not turn the reamer in the reverse direction.
Drill size = Reamed size - (undersize + oversize) (finished
size) = 10mm
Undersize as per table = 0.2 mm
Oversize = 0.05 mm, finished size = 0.05+0.2=0.25mm
Drill size = 10mm-0.25mm
= 9.75mm
Lapping
• state the purpose of lapping
• state the features of a flat lapping plate
• state the use of changing a flat lapping plate
• state the method of charging a cast iron plate
Lapping is a precision finishing operation carried out using

line abrasive materials.
Purpose: This process
- improves geometrical accuracy

- refines surface finish
- assists in achieving a high degree of dimensional
accuracy.
- improves the quality of fit between the mating
components.
Use a finished hard steel block and press the cutting

particles into the lap. While doing so, rubbing should be
kept to the minimum. When the entire surface of the
ed
lapping plate is charged, the surface will have a uniform
bl I grey appearance. If the surface is not fully charged, bright
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ish spots will be visible here and there.
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Excessive application of the abrasive

compound will result in the rolling action of
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Lapping process: in the lapping process small amounts the abrasive between the work and the plate
of material are removed by rubbing the work against a lap developing in accuracies.
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charged with a lapping compound. (Fig 1)

The lapping compound consists of the abrasive particles. The surface of the flat lap should be finished true by
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Suspended in a vehicle such as oil, paraffin, grease etc. scraping before charging. After charging the plate, wash
of all the loose abrasives using kerosene.
The lapping compound which is introduced between the
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workpiece and the lap chips away the material from the Then place the worpiece on the plate and move along
workpiece. Light pressure is applied when both are moved and across, covering the entire surface areas of the plate.
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against each other. The lapping can be carried out When carrying out fine lapping, the surface should be
manually or by machine. kept moist with the help of kerosene.
Hand lapping of flat surfaces: Flat surfaces are hand Wet and dry lapping: Lapping ca be carried out either
lapped using lapping plates made out of close grained wet or dry.
cast iron. (Fig 2) The surface of the plate should be in a In wet lapping there is surplus oil and abrasives on the
true plane for accurate results in lapping. surface of the lap. As the workpiece which is being lapped
The lapping plate generally used in tool rooms will have is moved on the lap, there is movement of the abrasive
narrow grooves out on its surface both lengthwise and particles also.
crosswise forming a series of squares. In the dry method the lap is first charged by rubbing the
These grooves are usually about 12mm apart. abrasives on the surface of the lap. The surplus oil and
abrasives are then washed off. The abrasives embedded
While lapping the lapping compound collects in the on the surface of the lap will only be remaining. The
serrations and rolls in and out as the work a moved. embedded abrasives act like a fine oilstone when metal
Before commencing lapping of the component, The cast pins to be lapped are moved over the surface with light
iron plate should be CHARGED with abrasive particles. pressure. However, while lapping, the surface being lapped
is kept moistened with kerosene or petrol. Surfaces
This is a process by which the abrasive particles are finished by the dry method will have better finish and
embedded on to the surfaces of the laps which are appearance. Some prefer to do rough lapping by wet
comparatively softer than the component being lapped. method and finish by dry lapping.
For charging the cast iron lap apply a thin coating of the
abrasive compound over the surface of the lapping plate.
Lap Materials and lapping compounds
• name the different types of lap materials
• state the qualities of different lap materials
• name the different types of abrasive materials used for lapping
• distinguished between the application of different lapping abrasives
• state the function of lapping vehicles
• name the solvents used in lapping.
The material used for making laps should be softer than Aluminium oxide: Aluminium oxide is sharp but tougher
the workpiece being lapped. This helps to charge the than silicon carbide. Aluminium oxide is used in un-fused
abrasives on the lap. If the lap is harder than the and fused forms.
workpiece, the workpiece will get charged with the
abrasives and cut the lap instead of the workpiece being Un-fused alumina(aluminium oxide) removes stock
lapped. effectively and is capable of obtaining high quality finish.
Laps are usually made of Fused alumina is used for lapping soft steels and
nonferrous metals.
- close grained iron
Boron Carbide: This is an expensive abrasive material
- copper
which is next to diamond in harness. While it has excellent
- brass or lead. cutting properties, it is used because of the high cost
only in special application like dies and gauges.
The best material used for making lap is cast iron, but
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this cannot be used for all applications.
Diamond: This being the hardest of all materials. It is
bl I used for lapping tungsten carbide. Rotary diamond laps
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When there is excessive lapping allowance, copper and
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brass laps are preferred as they can be charged more
are also prepared for accurately finishing very small holes
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which cannot be ground.
easily and cut more rapidly than cast iron.
Lapping vehicles: In the preparation of lapping
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Lead is an in expensive form of lap commonly used for

compounds the abrasive particles are suspended in
holes. Lead is cast to the required size on steel arbar.
vehicles. This helps to prevent concentration of abrasives
These laps can be expanded when they are worn out.
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on the lapping surfaces and regulates the cutting action

Charging the lap is much quicker.
and lubricates the surfaces.
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Lapping abrasives:
The commonly used vehicles are:
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Abrasives of different types are used for lapping. - water soluble cutting oils
- vegetable oils
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The commonly used abrasives are:

- machine oils
- silicon carbide
- petroleum jelly or grease
- aliminium oxide
- vehicles with oil or grease base used for lapping ferrous
- boron carbide metals.
- diamond. Metals like copper and its alloys and other non-
Silicon carbide: This is an extremely hand abrasive. Its ferrousmetals are lapped using slouable oil, bentomite
grit is sharp and brittle. While lapping the sharp cutting etc.
edges contiuously break down exposing new cutting In addition to the vehicles used in making the lapping
edges. Due to this reason this is considered as very ideal compound, solvents like water, kerosene, etc are also
for lapping hardened steel and cast iron, particularly where used at the time of lapping.
heavy stock removal is required.
Types of sheet metals and their application

• state the types of metals used in sheet metal work
• state the uses of the different types of metals.
In sheet metal work, different types of metal sheets are Copper sheet
used. The sheets are specified by standard gauge num-
bers. Copper sheets are available either as cold-rolled or hot-
rolled sheets. Cold-rolled sheets being resistant to corro-
It is very essential to know the different uses and applica- sion and worked easily are commonly used in sheet metal
tions of these metal sheets. shops. Copper sheet has better appearance than other
Black Iron metals.
The cheapest sheet metal is black iron, which is rolled to Gutters, expansion joints, roof flashings, hoods, utensils
the desired thickness. It has a bluish black appearance, and boiler plates are some of the common examples where
and is often referred to as uncoated sheet. Since it is copper sheet is used.
uncoated, it corrodes rapidly. Aluminum
The use of this metal is limited to articles that are to be Aluminum cannot be used in its pure form, but is mixed
painted or enamelled such as tanks, fans, stoves, pipes with a very small amount of copper, silicon, manganese
etc. and iron. It is whitish in colour and is light in weight. It is
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Galvanised iron highly resistant to corrosion and abrasion.
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Zinc-coated iron is known as ‘galvanised iron’. This soft Aluminum is now widely used in the manufacture of articles
such as household appliances, refrigerator trays, lighting
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iron sheet is popularly known as GI sheet. The zinc coating
resists rust, improves the appearance of the metal and fixtures, windows, and also in the construction of airplanes
permits it to be soldered with greater ease. Because it is and in many electrical and transport industries.
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coated with zinc, galvanised sheet iron withstands contact Tinned plate
with water and exposure to weather.
Tinned plate is sheet iron coated with tin to protect it
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Articles such as fans, buckets, furnaces, heating ducts, against rust. This is used for nearly all solder work, as it
cabinets, gutters etc. are made mainly from GI sheets.
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is the easiest metal to join by soldering. This metal has a

Stainless sheet very bright silvery appearance and is used in the making of
roofs, food containers, dairy equipment, furnace fittings,
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This is an alloy of steel with nickel, chromium and other cans and pans, etc.
metals. It has good corrosive resistance and can be welded
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easily. Stainless steel used in a sheet metal shop can be Lead

worked as galvanised iron sheets, but is tougher than GI Lead is very soft and heavy. Lead sheets are used for
sheets. The cost of stainless steel is very high. Stainless making the highly corrosive acid tanks.
steel is used in dairies, food processing, chemical plants,
kitchenware etc.
Properties of an auto body sheet metal

• describe the properties of an auto body sheet metal.
Properties of auto body sheet metal: The sheet metal impact. Direct damage can be in the form of deep scratches,
used in the production of automobile surface panels must gauges, tears in the metal or in the case of severe impact,
contain certain properties of qualities such as plasticity, crumpled or mangled sheet metal.
elasticity and work hardening. The force of the direct damage is transmitted or transferred
Direct and indirect damages: Damage to the body sheet from the impact area to different parts of the panel thus
metal can be classified as either direct or indirect damage. causing indirect damage in the form of roll buckles, valleys
or sharp ridges.
Direct damage results from the impact of an object stilling
the sheet metal. The area of damage is called the point of When straightening a panel with direct and indirect dam-
age, the indirect damage should be straightened first.
149
Notches in sheet metal
• state the purpose of notches
• name the types of notches
• distinguish the features of different notch forms.
Notches Square notch (Figs 3, 4 & 5)

Notches are the spaces provided for joining the edges A square notch is used for forming a square or rectangular
when sheet metals are cut form the layout. box.
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Purpose of notches
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Notch helps:
• to prevent surplus material from overlapping and
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causing a bulge at the seam and edges.

• to allow the work to be formed to the required size
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and shape.
• to allow the work to assemble better.
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Types of notches
Straight notch of slit (Figs 1 & 2)
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Slant notch (Fig. 6)
This Notch is cut at an angle of 45o to the corner of the

sheet. It is used when a single hem meets at right angles.
Straight cuts made in the edge of the sheet where it is to

be bent is know as a straight notch.
‘V’ Notch (Figs 7 & 8) Wire notch (Figs 9 & 10)
The angle of this notch is usually 30o and the distance

from which the notch is started is 3 times the diameter of
the wire.
Uses
The wire notch is used on a work which has wired edges.
This notch must be provided to prevent the wired edge
from overlapping at the seam.
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In this notch, both the sides are cut at a 45o angle to the
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edge of the sheet.

The sides of the notch meet at 90o . This notch is used
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when making a job with a 90o bend and an inside flange.
Edge Stiffening
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• state what is a hem
• state the types of hems
• state the uses of the different types of hems.
The edges of light gauge sheet metal articles (Fig. 1) are What is a hem?
very sharp and unsafe to handle. Safe edges are provided
to strengthen the sheet metal and to enhance the A hem is an edge or border made by folding.
appearance of the finished article. It stiffens the sheet of the metal and avoids sharp edges.
Types of hems
- Single hem
- Double hem
- Wired edge
Single hem (Fig. 2)
A single hem is made by folding the edge of the sheet
metal with a single folding.
It makes the edge smooth and stiff and is done while
making small articles.
Double hem (Fig. 3)
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A double hem is made by folding the edges over twice to
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make it smooth and this is done normally to strengthen
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the edges of lengthy articles.
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Wired edge (Fig. 4)

The wired edge is done for round and lengthy articles to
enhance the appearance and increase the strength. The
wired edge is smooth and is very strong.
Sheet Metal Joints

• state what is a seam
• state the types of seams
• state the uses and application of the different types of seams.
Sheet metal working incorporates a wide variety of seams Types of seams

What is a seam? Lap seam
A seam is a joint made by the fastening of two edges of The lap seam is the simplest type of seam and can be
two pieces of metal together. prepared as a lap joint. This joint is also known as edged
on joint. This joint is used to fit the top and bottom to
cylindrical shapes. This joint is finally secured by soldering
or brazing.
Grooved seam
A grooved seam is used to join two pieces of straight or
curved metal of light gauge and then locking them by a
groove.
Single seam (Fig. 1
The single seam is used to join a bottom to vertical bodies
of various shapes. This joint is called paned-down joint.
This joint is also secured by soldering or brazing. Double grooved seam (Figs 4 & 5)
The double grooved seam (Fig. 5) is similar to the dovetail
joint in carpentry and it is used for roofing and paneling
joints.
Double seam (Figs 2 & 3)
ed
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The double seam is similar to a single seam joint except
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that its forward edge is bent upward against the body.
This joint fulfils the same function as the edged-on and
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paned-down joints, but it is the strongest of the three.

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Folding and Joining Allowances

• state the necessity for providing allowances in sheet metal operations.
When making self-secured joints or seams, it is Allowance for grooved joints/seams (Fig. 1)
necessary to make an allowance for the extra material to
be added for the preparation of the edges and seams. If we fold over the edges to width W and form the joint,
the final completed width of the joint G will be greater
The allowance is necessary for maintaining the correct than W. It can be seen that the final width of the groove
size of the finished product and for improving the strength will have a minimum value of W + 3T, where T represents
at joints of all edges. the metal thickness.
Allowance is also necessary for avoid cracking or
warping, and for obtaining the required finish.
This allowance depends upon the width of the folded edge
and the thickness of the metal.
Allowances
In the making of various types of hems and seams, no
allowance is necessary for thinner sheets of 0.4 mm or
less.
The allowance for a grooved seam is three times
the thickness of the sheet.
Allowance for double grooved seam/joint (Fig. 2)
It will be seen from the figure that the width of the capping
strip is equivalent to two times the width of the folded
edge plus four times the thickness of the metal size.
C = 4W + 4T
The complete allowance for the double grooved
seam/joint will be four times the width of the
folded edge plus four times the thickness of the
metal.
Allowance for paned down and knocked-up joints

(Figs 3 & 4)
ed
The size of paned down and knocked-up joints is
bl I
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determined by the width of the single folded edge.
ish
‘P’ represents the size of the paned down joint and ‘K’
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represents the size of the knocked-up joint.

P = 2W + 2T
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K = 2W + 3T
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Groovers
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• state what is a groover
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• state the sizes of groovers

• state the uses and application of groovers.
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Any seam in sheet metal should be locked or closed

properly for effective functioning. Otherwise the joint will
be a failure.
What is a groover?
A groover is a hand tool used for closing and locking of
seams in sheet metal work.
The end of the tool is recessed to fit over the lock making
the grooved seams.
Sizes (Figs 1 & 2)
Groovers are available in various sizes viz.3mm, 4mm,
5mm etc.
Generally a groover 1.5 mm wider than the width of the
fold is used.
For thicker materials, a groover 3 mm larger than the width
of the fold is used.
The width of the groove is stamped on the tool body.
Failure to lock the joints in stages with the end of the
groover will result in bite marks along the joint.
Using too small groover will mark the metal and prevent
locking.
Closing and locking (Figs 3, 4 & 5)
ed
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First the joint is held in position and then it is closed with

a mallet.
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Then the groover is placed over the closed end of the

joint. The groover is positioned at a very slight angle. The
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edge of the joint acts as a guide to the groover position.

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The grooving operations are repeated for the other end of

the joint.
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The joint is locked working along the joint in stages.

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The seam is tightened using a mallet or a light planishing

hammer.
Standard wire gauge

• state the use of the standard wire gauge
• state some important hints in using standard wire gauge
• state the metal thickness in mm for the given gauge numbers.
The job drawing indicates only gauge or thickness of the

meet to be used. Before starting the work identify the
correct thickness of the sheet. The thickness of the sheet
is measured with the help of the standard wire gauge.
The gauge consist of a disc shape smoothened steel
metal piece with numerous slots around the outside edge.
These slots are of various width and correspond to certain
gauge number (Fig.1)
Gauge number is stamped on one side of each slot and
on the other side, the decimal part of an inch is stamped
to show the thickness of the sheet and the diameter of
the wire.
Thickness of the sheet is checked by inserting the edge
of the sheet in the appropriate slot of the standard wire
gauge.
Wire diameter is checked by inserting the wire only in
the slot, and not in the circle (Fig.2)
Higher the SWG gauge number lessen the thickness of
the sheet.
Following is the table showing the thickness in inch and mm corresponding to the gauge No.
Table for G.No.to inches and mm
No. of Approx. Th. Approx. Th. No. of Approx. Th Approx Th.

the gauge in inch in mm the gauge in inch in mm
00 .3437 8.729 18 0.480 1.257

0 .3125 7.937 19 .0418 1.118
1 .2812 7.142 20 0.359 0.996
2 .2656 6.846 21 0.329 .886
3 .2391 5.895 22 .0299 .794
ed
4 .2321
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5.895 23 .0269 .707
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5 .2092 5.312
ish 24 .0230 .629
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6 .1943 4.935 25 .0179 .498

7 .1793 4.770 26 .0179 .498
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8 .1644 3.988 27 .0164 .443

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9 .1495 3.551 28 .0149 .396

10 .1280 3.175 29 .0135 .353
t t rig
11 .1196 2.827 30 .0120 .315

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12 .1046 2.517 31 .0109 .276

13 .0897 2.240 32 .0101 .256
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14 .0747 1.994 33 .0093 .236

15 .0673 1.775 34 .0085 .251
16 .0640 1.587 35 .0073 .185
17 .0538 1.412 36 .0070 .177
Sheet metal shearing, drawing, squeezing .

• state the constructional features of the power press
• name the different types of power presses
• state and explain the different operations that can be performed on the power press
• state the safety precautions while working in the press shop.
The constructional feature of the power press is almost of the ram by using various mechanical devices. In a
similar to that of a fly press or hand press. (Fig 1) Except hydraulic press, the fluid under high pressure is pumped
that the ram is driven by power. The power presses may on one side of the piston and then to the other side in a
be identified as Mechanical or Hydraulic, according to hydraulic cylinder to drive the reciprocating movement.
the type of working mechanism used to transmit power The power presses are designated according to the power
to the ram. In a mechanical press, the rotary motion of sources, Frame construction, Number of slides in action.
the electric motor is converted into a reciprocating motion
b) Piercing (Fig 4): Piercing is an operation of making a
cutout on a component. The cutout can be of any shape.
The material punched out which comes out of the die is
the scrap and the metal with the cutout which is on the
die is the component. The punch governs the size of the
cutout and the clearances is provided on the die.
c) Punching (Fig 5): Punching is an operation of punching

out circular holes. The difference between punching and
piercing is that this cutout made by piercing can be of
any shape. But in punching only circular holes are made.
The size of the hole is governed by the size of the punch
Power press operations (Fig 2): The press operations and the clearance is provided on the die. (Fig. 4)
are classified based on the operations performed.
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d) Perforating (Fig. 6): Perforating is an operation of

punching circular holes in a regular pattern or evenly
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spaced. Metal this is done by dimpling operation where

Shearing : Shearing is an operation of cutting sheet metal
the metal will be punched and a dimpling tool will be kept
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with the help of a punch and die on a power press. The

at the extreme of the hole and using a hammer the forming
sheet is placed on the die and when the punch descends
will be completed to accommodate the heads of
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on the metal, it causes a rupture and forces the metal to

countersunk screws and countersunk rivets.
be severed and ram the sheet metal. As the clearance
between the punch and die is very small it forces the
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metal to drop down from the die opening.

a) Blanking (Fig 3): Blanking is an operation of producing
a flat component from a strip of sheet metal. The metal
cutout is the required component and the sheet with the
cut on the die is the scrap. In blanking, the size of the
blank is governed by the size of the die and the clearance
is left on the punch.
Drawing: Drawing is the operation of producing cup

shaped articles from flat sheet metal blanks. The blank is
placed on the die and while the punch comes down, the
pressure pad holds the blank firmly on the die. As the
punch further comes down the metal blank is pushed into
the die opening and the metal is made to flow down the
die plastically to form the sides of the cup. The pressure
pad avoids the formation of wrinkles developed while
forming. The size of the blank required to draw out a cup
can be calculated by the formula given below.
D = O d2 +4dh
Where D = The diameter of the blank
d = The diameter of the cup
h = The height of the cup
a) Cupping (Fig. 7): Cupping is the operation of forming
cup shaped articles by drawing operation.
Squeezing: Squeezing operation is the most sever of all
cold press operations. More pressure is required to
squeeze the metal into the cavity of the die and punch to
get the required shape. Hydraulic presses are most suited c) Embossing: Embossing is the operation of forming
for this operation. impressions of figures, letters or designs on sheet metal.
The punch or the die or both of them may have the design
engraved on them which are formed on the sheet metal
by squeezing and with the plastic flow of metal.
Flattening or Planishing (Fig. 9): Flattening or Planishing
is the operatioin of straightening the curved or bent sheet
metal parts, on a press using a planishing tool.
ed
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b) Coining (Fig. 8): Coining is the operation of producing
coins, medals or other ornamental work. The metal
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having good plasticity and correct size is places into the

tool and pressure is applied on the tool form both ends.
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Compressive load the metal flows under severe and fills

into the cavity of the punch and die. The component gets
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sharp impression on both sides according to the

engravings on the punch and die.
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Bending Sheet Metal

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• state what is a bend radius
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• state the need for a bend radius

• state what is a spring back
• state the factors governing spring back.
Bending sheet metal neutral line (Figs 1, 2 & 3)
When a sheet metal is bent the plane (or line) Where

neither extension nor contracton occurs but only a bend
takes place, is called the neutral plane (or line).
While performing a bend, if the inside of the sheet is not Plate thickness
rounded, the outside of the sheet will be much pulled. In
What is spring back (Fig. 4)
order to avoid it, the sheet is often bent after providing the
radius as shown in the (Fig 3). When a sheet of steel is bent, if the bending force is
removed, a part of the elastic deformation returns to the
The radius of the roundness is called the bend radius.
original state of the material before deformation. This
Least bend radius phenomenon is called spring back.
The radius of the least roundness with which the sheet
can be bent without occurances of a crack in the outside
of the bend is called the least bend radius.
The least bend radius varies depending on the :
- material
- thickness
- direction of the plate
Factors governing spring back
- working temperatures. etc.
The spring back varies depending on the :
Table 1 gives the least bend radius generally used.
- material
Where the material is soft and the bend line is at right
angle to the rolling direction of the sheet, a small value is - thikness of the sheet
used, and where the metal is hard and the bend line is
- system of working
parallel with the rolling direction, a higher value is used.
ed
- bend radius
Table 1
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Least bend radius
ish It is difficult to calculate the accurate degree of spring

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Material Least bend radius R back. When the job is actually performed, the sheetis
experimentally bent and the pressure adjusted so that an
Cold rolled steel plate t x (0 - 0.5)
accurate bend angle can be made after allowing for the
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Semi-hard steel plate t x (0.3 - 1.5) spring back.

(C 0.35 - 0.40%)
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Sheet of copper group t x (0 - 2.0)

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Brass/Aluminium sheet t x (0 - 1.0)

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Soft Aluminium t x (1.0 - 2.5)

Duralumin t x (2.0 - 4.0)
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Manual Bending
· state the function of the folding bar
· state the method of bending a sheet over the hatchet stake
· define a hand seamer and its function
· state the method of bending by a fly press.
Folding bars (Fig 1 & 2)

The sheet metal to be bent is clamped in the folding bar.
The folding line coincides with the top of the folding bar.
The folding bar clamped in the vice as shown in the figure.
While tightening the vice, pull the projecting part of the
folding bar towards yourself to prevent the sheet from
dropping from the bars, in most cases a wooden or rubber
mallet is used for bending at right angles with bending
bar.
Bending over hatchet stake (Fig 3 & 4)
The folding line is to coincide with the edge of the stake,
and the sheet pressed with both the hands and hammered
for the required bend.
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Another method of bending is shown in the figure. The

work is clamped to the edge of the bench by means of a
piece of hardwood and two `C’ clamps (Fig. 5). Then the
projecting parts of the plate can be folded downwards.
If folding bars are not available, two pieces of angle iron
(Fig. 6) can be used. The ends are clamped together by
means of a `C’ clamp.
For bending narrow edges (Fig. 7) on small pieces of
sheet, for eg. if seams must be folded, a hand seamer
can be used.
Bending metals to an angle
• state the methods of bending rods and pipes in a bench vice
• state the methods of bending rods and pipes with a fixture.
Bending is a process of shaping materials without

cutting.(Fig.1)
Bending using bending jaw or bending block

To form bends to a required radius on workpieces, bending
jaws or bending blocks are used (Figs 5 and 6)
ed
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Different methods are used for bending rods, sheets and

pipes.
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Bending on vice
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Work is held in the vice and bent with hand force or with
a hammer according to the diameter of the rod or the
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thickness of the sheet. (Fig. 2) A hammering block (Fig 3

and 4) is used to prevent hammer marks and also to direct
the force at the correct place.
Round rods are also used sometimes for forming radius
on sheets or rods (Fig 7)
Bending with fixtures (Figs 8, 9 & 10)
A bending fixture can be prepared and used when a large
number of workpieces is required to be bent (Fig 8a and
8b)
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Pipe bending machines

• name the three most common pipe benders
• differentiate their constructional features
• name the parts of bending machines
• state the uses of bending machines.
There are some situations in plumbing jobs, where it is Hydraulic bending machine (Fig 3)
preferable to bend a pipe rather than use a pipe fitting.
The most common pipe benders are listed here.
Portable hand operated pipe bending (Fig.1)
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The portable hand-operated pipe bender consists of the

following parts.
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1 Tripod stand
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2 Pipe stop lever

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3 Handle or lever
4 Inside former
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Bench type hand operated pipe bender (Fig 2)
This machine can be used bending G.I. and M.S. pipes

without sand filling to any direction.
It consists of the following the parts.
1 Inner former
2 Back former
3 Hydraulic ram
This consists of the following parts. It is used for bending 4 Pressure release valve
galvanized iron and steel pipes. 5 Operating lever
1 Inner former 6 Bleed screws
2 Lever or handle 7 Base plate.
3 Adjusting screw with lock nut Inner formers are interchangeable and are able to bend
4 Pipe guide pipes up to 75 mm diameters (Figs 3a, b, c, d, e & f)
163
Pipes and pipe fittings
• state the uses of pipes
• name the common types of pipes
• list the standard pipe fittings and state their uses.
Various types of pipes and tubes are used for the following
purposes.
• Domestic hot and cold water supplies
• Waste water outlets
• High pressure steam supplies.
• Hydraulic oil supplies
• Lubricating oil supplies
• Special fluid and gases for industrial processes.
• Pneumatic systems
• Refrigeration systems
• Fuel oil supplies
The common types of pipes classified according to
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material are:
• galvanized iron pipes
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• mild steel pipes
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• C.I. soil pipes

• copper pipes
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• aluminum pipes
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• brass pipes
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• lead pipes
Tee branch: A tee joint helps the pipe line to branch off
• P.V.C. pipes
at 90°. The branches may be equal in diameter or there
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• rubber pipes may be one reducing branch.

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• plastic pipes Dimensions of a branch are always quoted as A x B x

(Fig 2)
• stoneware pipes
Standard pipe fitting: Pipe fittings’ are those fittings
that may be attached to pipes in order to:
• change the direction of the pipe
• connect a branch with a main water supply pipe
• connect two or more pipes of different sizes
• close the pipe ends
Standard Pipe Fittings
Elbows (Fig 1): Elbows and bends provide deviations of
90 and 45o in pipe work systems. Reducing tee branch : Reducers are fitted where a change
Long radius elbows have a radius equal to 1 1/2 times in pipe diameter is required (Fig 3)
the bore of the pipe (Fig 1a) Eccentric reducer : Used mainly in horizontal position
Short radius elbows have a radius equal to the bore of (Fig 4)
the pipe. (Fig 1b)
The 45° elbows allow pipe deviation of 45° (Fig 1c)
Reducer (Fig 9): A reducer coupling is used to connect
two pipes with different diameters.
Concentric reducer : Used mainly in vertical position (Fig5)

Union : A device used to connect pipes. Unions are
Caps: Caps are used for closing the end of a pipe or
inserted in a pipe line to permit connections with little
fitting which has an external thread. (Fig 6)
change to the position of the pipe. (Fig10)
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Plug: A plug is used for closing a pipeline which has an
When unions are used in pipe lines, it is easy to dismantle
internal thread (Fig 7)
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and repair.
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tubular pipe fittings used to connect two or more pipes of

different sizes
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Close nipple (Fig 11)
Coupling: (Fig 8) A coupling is used to connect two pipes.

Couplings have internal threads at both ends of fit the
external threads on pipes.
Short nipple (Fig 12) The hexagonal nut (Fig 14): The hexagonal nut in the
centre of the nipple is for tightening with a spanner or
wrench (Fig 14)
Long nipple (Fig 13)
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Mechanic diesel - Fastening and fitting
Blow lamp
• state the constructional feature of blow lamp
• name the parts of blow lamp
• describe the operation of blow lamp.
Blow lamp (Fig 1): the kerosene is pressurized to pass The flame within the housing provides the heat to maintain
through pre-heated tubes, thus becoming vaporised. The vaporisation of the kerosene. The free flame at the nozzle
kerosene vapour continues through a jet to mix with a air outlet is used to heat the soldering bit.
and when ignited directed through a nozzle, producing a
Blow lamp is a portable heating appliance used as a direct
forceful flame.
source of heat for soldering irons or other parts to be
soldered. Fig.1 shows parts of blow lamp.
It has an tank made of brass, filler cap is fitted at its top
to fill kerosene. A pressure relief valve is connected to the
mouth to switch ON/OFF and control the flame.
Priming trough is provided for filling mentholated spirit for
lighting the blow lamp. Set of nozzle is provided to direct
the kerosene vapor to produce forceful flame. Burner
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housing is mounted on support brackets on which
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Flux
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• state the criteria for the selection of fluxes

• distinguish between corrosive and non-corrosive fluxes
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• name the different types of flux and their application.

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Fluxes are non-metallic materials which are used at the Corrosive flux in acid form is corrosive and should be
time of soldering. washed immediately after the soldering operation is
completed.
Functions of flux
Non-corrosive flux is in the form of lump, powder, paste or
- Flux removes oxides from the soldering surface. liquid.
- It prevents corrosion. DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLUX
- It helps molten solder to flow easily in the required Hydrochloric acid
place.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid is a liquid which fumes
- It promotes the wet surface. when it comes into contact with air. After mixing with water,
Selection of flux 2 or 3 times the quantity of the acid, it is used as dilute
hydrochloric acid.
The following criteria are important for selecting a flux.
Hydrochloric acid combines with zinc forming zinc chloride
- Working temperature of the solder and acts as a flux. So it cannot be used as a flux for
- soldering process sheet metals other than zinc, iron or galvanised sheets.
- materials to be joined Zinc chloride
Classes of flux It is mainly used for soldering copper sheets, brass sheets
and tin plates.
Flux can be classified into corrosive flux, and non corrosive
flux As it is extremely corrosive, the flux must be perfectly
washed off after soldering.
167
Ammonium chloride printed Circuit Boards (PCB). Components to be soldered
This is the form of powder or lump. It evaporates when or tinned are dipped into a bath of molten solder, which is
heated. heated electrically. The solder is kept in motion by an
agitator in order to obtain an even temperature and to
Ammonium chloride is used as a flux for soldering steel. keep the surface free from oxides. If no agitator is provided,
A solution of a mixture of hydrogen chloride, zinc chloride the surface must be protected or skimmed at regular
and ammonium chloride is used as a flux for stainless intervals to remove the oxides.
steel sheets. The temperature can be controlled very accurately.
Resin
As resin is not very effective for removing oxidation coating,
and, as it is not highly corrosive, it is used as flux for
copper and brass. Resin melts at about 80° to 100°C.
Paste
This is a mixture of Zinc chloride, resin, glycerin and
others and is available as a paste.
As it is effective for removing oxidation coating, it is used
for soldering small handworks and radio wiring.
Soldering with blowlamp
Machine soldering
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The method, shown in Fig 3, is used for quantity production
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and is based on the principle, when molten solder is set
ish in rapid motion, the oxide film breaks without setting on

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the surface. The solder comes into direct contact with
the components to be soldered.
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Soldering with a blowlamp is done when the heat capacity

of a soldering iron is not sufficient.
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The method, shown in Fig 1, permits rapid heating and is

used primarily for larger jobs, such as piping and cable
work, vehicle, body repairs and some applications in the
building trade.
Soldering machines are of different designs for wave
This requires skillful management of the flame. soldering, cascade soldering and jet soldering.
Dip soldering Equipment for machine soldering is expensive and the
This method, shown in Fig 2, is used for bulk production cost of production is high.
and for tinning work similar to component soldering on Accurate temperature control can be arranged.
Brazing Techniques
• explain the brazing technique
• Study copper to copper pipe brazing swaged joint
• Studies braze copper with MS tube
Brazing techniques -
Connect the torch with a flexible hose to the gas
regulating valve of the acetylene cylinder; make sure
Acetylene torch (Fig 1): (Danger: Acetylene is very that all of the connections are tight to prevent gas
inflammable, Do not allow anyone to smoke while you leakage. Check all connections for leaks with soap
are brazing) water before lighting the torch.
8 This is an acetylene flame suitable for capillary tube
brazing required.
9 The other flame should be pale yellow. If it is yellow,
10 This is a propone turbo torch flame. The end tractions
will tell you what size of flame of use.
Kerosene blow lamp
- This gives a larger flame than a propane or acetylene
torch.
- When lighting, follow carefully the instructions supplied
- Open the cylinder valve one turn, only. Open the with the torch. Wherever possible light the blow lamp
regulating valve fully. Open the torch control valve just in an open space for safety.
enough to give a flow of gas. Light the escaping gas
Silver brazing: One of the best method of connection
at the tip of the torch.
copper pipes after swaging or by the use of coupling, in a
- Adjust the torch control valve to get the correct flame. leak proof manner is by silver brazing,. By this method
The flame should be blue. It should have a sharp bright the copper pipes can be connected to the compressor,
cone in the middle with pale outer flame. If the flame service valves and the other parts also.
is yellow more gas is required. open the control valve.
Silver brazing can be easily done if the correct procedure
- The size of the torch tip or nozzle determines the size is followed.
of the inner cone. use a cone size that gives the
Clean the inside and outside of the tube end using sand
required amount of heat.
paper of wire brush. Fit the joint closely and support the
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Propane turbo torch (Fig 2): (Danger: Propane is very joint. Apply flux required for the brazing rod. (Flux is
inflammable. Do not allow anyone to smoke while you
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are brazing)
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The flux used for soldering refrigeration fittings is made of
alcohol and resin.
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- This gives a smaller outside flame. The tip of the inner
cone is much hotter than an acetylene flame of the There are various silver alloys in the market. The rod used
same size. Always work with a smaller flame than to join copper pipes is called copper to copper brazing
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acetylene. rod'. These have 35 to 45 percent silver content. This

- Connect, adjust and use this torch in the same way material melts at 1120°F and flows 1145°F
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as acetylene described above, check all connections

Precautions: Do not apply the solder at the
for gas leaks with soap water before lighting the torch.
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joint if it is not red hot

- Follow exactly the instruction supplied with the torch.
Any oxy-acetylene torch is excellent heat
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1 This is the cylinder that holds the gas for brazing source for silver brazing. While using blow
2 Check the connections for leaks at each end of this lamp the joint is to be heated longer time.
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hose with soap water. To join copper pipe to steel pipe and any pipe
3 Use the torch control valve to control the gas flow. to the compressor dome only oxy acetylene
torch can be used. This torch can also used
4 Fit a torch tip which gives the correct flame. for refrigerator cabinet patch work.
5 This is an acetylene flame suitable for pipe brazing While brazing keep away the flame from
6 The bright cone is the hottest part of the flame work rubber plastic parts and insulating materials
with the tip of the cone. of the refrigerator or AC.
7 The high bright cone is the hottest part of the flame The pipes joined by brazing can be separated
with the tip of the cone by heating it again.
Flux: Flux is a substance which works as an agent help

the solder to flow easily. It cleans the surface and prevents
oxidation. Melting point of flux is much less than that of
solder.
Various types of flux and their uses are given below. Braze copper with ms tube: In most tube and fitting
connections are made by either soldering or silver brazing.
Ammonium chloride NH4CI - For soldering cast iron
Soldering joints are used for water pipes and drains. silver
Hydrochloric acid HCL - For soldering G.I sheets brazed joint are used for refrigerant pipes and rubbing.
Zinc chloride ZnCI2 - For soldering mild iron The best methods of making leak proof connection while
sheets providing maximum strength is to silver braze the joints.
These joints are very strong and will stand up under the
Tallow - For soldering lead and
most extreme temperature condition.
electrical joints
An oxyacetylene torch is an excellent heat source for
Resin - For soldering electrical
silver brazing. The proper silver brazing temperature will
joints
be indicated by the colour of green shade.
Phosphoric - For soldering stainless
steel
Braze a copper tube with swaged joint
Fit two pipes to braze. If it is a loose fit the joint will be
weak. Insert the end of one pipe into the swage of the
other. Apply a small amount of flux to the surfaces to be
joined, with the help of blow torch heat the joint. The
brazing rod must be meted by the heat. Complete ring of
brazing material can be seen at the end of the swage
remove the torch and allow the joint to cool.
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Mechanic Diesel - Electrical and electronics
Electricity principles
• describe an atom
• describe electricity
• describe electron flow
• describe conductors
• describe insulators
• describe semlconductors
• describe shielding.
Introduction
Electricity is one of today’s most useful sources of
energy. Electricity is of utmost necessity in the modern
world of sophisticated equipment and machinery.
Electricity in motion is called electric current. Whereas
the electricity that does not move is called static electricity.
Examples of Electric current
- Domestic electric supply, industrial electric supply.
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Examples of static electricity
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Shock received from door knobs of a carpeted room.
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Attraction of paper of the comb.
It is a small particle revolving round the nucleus of an
Structure of matter atom as shown in (Fig 2). It has a negative electriccharge.
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To understand electricity, one must understand the The electron is three times larger in diameter than the
structure of matter. Electricity is related to some of the proton. In an atom the number of protons is equal to the
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most basic building blocks of matter that are atoms. All number of electrons.
matter is made of these electrical building blocks, and, Neutron
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therefore, all matter is said to be ‘electrical’.

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies
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space. A matter is made of tiny, invisible particles called

molecules. A molecule is the smallest particle of a
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substance that has the properties of the substance. Each

molecule can be divided into simpler parts by chemical
means. The simplest parts of a molecule are called atoms.
Basically, an atom contains three types of sub-atomic
particles that are of relevance to electricity. They are the
electrons, protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons
are located in the centre, or nucleus, of the atom, and the
electrons travel around the necleus in orbits.
Atomic Structure
The Nucleus
A neutron is actually a particle by itself, and is electrically
The nucleus is the central part of the atom. It contains neutral. Since neurtons are electrically neutral, they are
the protons and neutrons of an atom as shown in Fig 1 not too important to the electrical nature of atoms.
Protons Energy Shells
The proton has a positive electrical charge. (Fig 1) It is In an atom, electrons are aranged in shells around the
almost 1840 times heavier than the electron and it is the nucleus. A shell is an orbiting layer or energy level of one
permanent part of the nucleus; protons do not take an or more lectrons. The major sheel layers are identified by
active part in the flow or transfer of electrical energy. numbers of by letters starting with ‘K’ nearest the nuclues
Electron and continuing alphabetically outwards. There is a
171
maximum number of electrons that can be contained in Electron distribution
each sheel. (Fig 3) illustrates the relationship between
The chemical and electrical behaviour of atoms depends
the energy shell level and the maximum number of electrons
on how completely the various shell and sub-shells are
it can contain.
filled.
Atoms that are chemically active have one electron more
or one less than a completely filled shell. Atoms that
have the outer shell exactly filled are chemically inactive.
They are called inert elements. All inert elements are
gases and do not combine chemically with other elements.
Metals possess the following characteristics
• They are good electric conductors.
• Electrons in the outer shell and sub-shells can move
more easily from one atom to another.
• They carry charge through the material.
The outer shell of the atom is called the valence shell and
its electrons are called valence electrons. Because of
their greater distance from the nucleus, and because of
the partial blocking of the electric field by electrons in the
If the total number of electrons for a given atom is known,
inner shells, the atrracting force exerted by nuclues on
the placement of electrons in each shell can be easily
the valence electrons is less. Therefore, valence electrons
determined. Each shell layer, beginning with the first, is
can be set free most easily. Whenever a valence electron
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filled with the maximum number of electrons in sequence.
is removed from its orbit it becomes a free electron.
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For example, a copper atom which has 29 electrons would
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Electricity is commonly defined as the flow of these free
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have four sheels with a number of electrons in each shell
electrons through a conductor. Though electrons flow from
as shown in (Fig 4).
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negative terminal to positive terminal, the conventional
current flow is assumed as from positive to negative.
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Conductors Insulators and Semicondutors

Conductors
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A conductor is a material that has many free electrons

permitting electrons to move through it easily. Generally,
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conductors have incomplete valence shells of one, two or

three electrons. Most metals are good conductors.
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Some common good conductors are Copper, Aluminium,

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Zinc, Lead, Tin, Eureka, Nichrome, Silver and Gold.

Insulators
Similarly an aluminium atom which has 13 electrons has An insulator is a material that has few, if any, free electrons
3 shell as shown in (Fig 5). and resists the flow of electrons. Generally, insulators have
full valence shells of five, six or seven electrons. Some
common insulators are air, glass, rubber, plastic, paper,
porcelain, PVC, fibre, mica etc.
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that has some of the
characteristics of both the conductor and insulator.
Semiconductor have valence shells containing four
electrons.
Common examples of pure semiconductor materials are
silicon and germanium. Specially treated semiconductors
are used to produce modern electronic components such
as diodes, transistors and integrated circuit chips.
Earthing and its importance
• describe the necessity of earthing
• describe the reasons for system and equipment earthing.
• describe shielding
Necessity of earthing Earthing is essentially required for the protection of

buildings against lightning.
While working in electrical circuits, the most important
consideration for an Electrician is the safety factor - safety Reasons for earthing
not only for himself but also for the consumer who uses
An electric shock is dangerous only when the current flow
the electricity.
through the body exceeds beyond certain milliampere
Earthing the metal frames/ casing of the electrical value. In general any current flowing through the body
equipment is done to ensure that the surface of the beyond 5 milliamperes is considered as dangerous.
equipment under faulty conditions does not hold dangerous
Shielding
potential which may lead to shock hazards. However,
earthing the electrical equipment needs further Shielding is the (Fig 1) protective device layer over the
consideration as to ensure that the earth electrode insulated cable.
resistance is reasonably low to activate the safety devices
like earth circuit leakage breaker, fuses and circuit breakers
to open the faulty circuit, and thereby, protect men and
material.
Earthing of an electrical installation can be brought under
ed
the following three categories.
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System earthing
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Equipment earthing
Special requirement earthing Uses
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System earthing • It act as earth/ground for the electrical appliances.

Earthing associated with current - carrying conductors is • It protect the cables from moisture entering as well as
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normally essential to the safety of the system and it is flexible.

generally known as system earthing.
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• It also act as mechanical strength as well as flex

System earthing is done at generating stations and ible to the cables.
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substations.
• It protect the cable from all whether condition
Equipment earthing like water, oil, grease and heat.
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This is a permanent and continuous bonding together (i.e. Neutron

connecting together) of all non-current carrying metal parts
A neutron is actually a particle by itself, and is electrically
of the electrical equipment to the system earthing
neutral. Since neutrons are electrically neutral, they are
electrode.
not too important to the electrical nature of atoms.
‘Equipment earthing’ is provided to ensure that the exposed
metallic parts in the installation do not become dangerous
by attaining a high touch potential under conditions of
faults. It is also carry the earth fault currents, till clearance
by protective devices, without creating a fire hazard.
Special requirements for earthing
‘Static earthing’ is provided to prevent building up of static
charges, by connections to earth at appropriate locations.
Example, operation theatres in hospitals.
‘Clean earth’ may be needed for some of the computer
data processing equipments. These are to be independent
of any other earthing in the building.
Ohm’s Law
Objectives: At the end of the lesson you shall be able to
• describe an atom
• describe electricity
• describe electron flow
• describe conductors
• describe insulators
• describe semiconductors.
Electrical terms and definitions EMF and Pd An aid to remember the Ohm's law relationship is shown in
the divided triangle.(Fig 1)
The force tending to make electrons to move along a
conductor is called the potential difference (pd) in the
conductor and is expressed in volts. This is also called the
electric pressure or voltage.
The voltage developed by a source such as a generator is
called as electromotive force. (emf)
When one ampere current flows through one ohm resistance
the p.d. across the resistance is said to be one “Volt”.
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Voltmeter is used to measure the voltage of a supply and Written as a mathematical expression, Ohm's Law is -
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is connected in parallel to the supply. EMF/Pd is denoted
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by letter “V”.
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Current
The flow of electrons is called current. Its unit is ampere.
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When one volt is applied across a resistance of one ohm

the amount of current passess through the resistance is
said to be one “Ampere”. It is denoted by “A”. Smaller units
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are milliampere and microampere. Ammeter should be

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connected in series with the load.

Resistance
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It is the property of a substance which opposes the flow of

electricity. Its unit is ohm. The resistance of a conductor,
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in which a current of one ampere flows when potential

difference of one volt is applied across its terminals, is said Of course, the above equation can be rearranged as:
to be one ohm.
An ohmmeter is used to measure the resistance of an
electric circuit. It is denoted by “Ω” Bigger units are Kilo
ohms and Mega ohms.
1 K Ω = 103 ohms
1 Mega Ω = 106 ohms (Refer Fig 2)
Ohmmeter should be connected in parallel with the load Example
and should not be connected when there is a supply. How much current( I ) flows in the circuit shown in
There is a definite relationship between the three electrical (Fig 3)
quantities of Voltage, Current and Resistance. Given:
Ohm's Law states Voltage(V) = 1.5 volts
`The current is directly proportional to the voltage and Resistance(R) = 1 k ohm
inversely proportional to the resistance' when the
temperature remains constant. = 1000 ohms.
174
Find: = VIt ( Q = IT).
Current(I)
Workdone Vit
Known: ∴
∴Electrical power P = =
time t
W = VI joules/secs. (or)
watts.
Solution: Wattmeter is used to measure the electrical power.
Electrical power in watts = Voltage in volts X current in
ampere
Answer: The digger units of electric power are kilowatts (KW) and
Megawatts (MW).
The current in the circuit is 0.0015 A
1 KW = 1000 watts(or) 103 watts
or
1 MW = 1000000 watts (or) 106 watts
the current in the circuit is 1.5 milliampere (mA).
Electrical Energy: (E)
(1000 milliamps = 1 ampere)
The total work done in an Electric circuit is called as
Electrical Energy.
Electrical Energy = Electrical power X time
= VI X t = VIT
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i.e.Electrical power multiplied by the time for which the
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energy. The meter used to measure electrical energy is
energy meter. The symbol for electrical energy is E.
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Electrical power (Fig 4)
The unit of electrical energy will depend upon the units
The rate which work is done in an electric circuit is of electric power and time.
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called electrical power.

(a) If power is in watts and time is in seconds then the unit
When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current to of Electrical energy will be watt-sec.
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flow through it or in other words it causes electrons or

charge through it, clearly certain amount of work is being i.e.Electrical energy in watt - secs. = Power in watts Time
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done in moving these electrons in the circuit. This work In secs.

done in moving the electrons in unit time is called as (b) If power is in watts and time is in hours then the unit of
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electrical power, From Fig 4. Electrical Energy will be watt-hours.

V = P.D. across xy in colts,
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i.e.Electrical energy in watt - hours = power in watts time

I = Current in amps. in hours
R = resistance between xy in (C) If Power is in kilowatts (10 watts (or)1000 watts) and
time is in hours then the unit of electrical energy will be
t = time in sec for which current flows. kilowatt - hour (Kwh).
The total charge flows in t secs is Q = I X T coulombs i.e.Electrical energy in kwh = power in kilowatt time in
hours
In practice the electrical energy is measured in kilowatt-
hours (KWh). The electricity bils are made on the basis of
∴
total electrical energy consumed by the consumer. 1KWh
of electrical energy is called as Board of Trade (B.O.T.) Unit
or simply 1 unit. i.e. 1KWh = 1Unit.
Thu when we say a consumer has consumed 75 units of
electricity means the electrical energy consumed by the
consumer is 75 KWh.
work work In and Electrical circuit if 100 watts (or) 1Kw of power is
As per earlier definition the P.d, V = = supplied for 1 hour then the electrical energy expended is
charge Q one kilowatt-hour (1KWH) or 1 electrical unit (Or) 1 unit.
∴
∴Work = VQ.
1Kwh = 1 Unit = power in watts time in sece (iii) current :
= Watts, secs (or) joules. I=V/R
= 1000 60 60 joules =P / V
= 36 105 joules (or) watt-sec.
=
1 calorie = 4. 186 joules (or)
(iv) Voltage :
1 kilo calorie = 4186 joules.
V= IR
1kwh = calories = 860009.557
= P/I
= 860000 calories = 860 103
calories =
= 860 kilo calories.
The formulae (or equations) to solve for unkown voltage,
∴1 kwh = 860 Kcal. current, resistance or power can be obained by combining
Ohm’s law and Power law. This is shown in (Fig 5).
Identification of AC and DC Meters
AC and DC meters can be identified as follows
1 By the symbol available on the dial / scale.
(a) Direct current
(b) Alternating current
2 By seeing the graduation on the dial / scale
ed
a) If the graduation of dial is uniform throughout, it is a
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D C meter.
ish
(b) If the graduation of dial is cramped at the beginning and
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at the end, it is an A.C. meter

3 By seeing the terminals
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(a) In the d C meter the terminals are marked with + and–

The positive (+) terminal is Red in colour and the
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negative (–) terminal is Black in colour.

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(b) In the A.C. meter there is no marking on the terminals

and no difference in colour.
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Basic types of electrical meters
• describe the connection of an ammeter in the circuit
• describe resistance symbols used in wiring diagram
• state the use of an ammeter
• describe the care to be taken of an ammeter
• describe the connection of a voltmeter
• describe the use of a voltmeter
• describe the care to be taken of voltmeters
• describe the connection of an ohmmeter
• state the use of an ohmmeter
• describe the care to be taken of ohmmeters
• describe the maintenance of meters
• state the simple electric circuit
• state the open electric circuit
• state the short electric circuit
• state the series circuits & parallel circuits
There are three basic types of meters used to test the Voltmeter
electric circuit and accessories. The following meters are
ed
used in automobiles. A voltmeter (2) is used to measure electrical voltage. It is
bl I not fitted permanently on the vehicle but used separately

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ish
– Ammeter whenever required. It is connected in parallel with the
circuit. Use DC voltmeter for automobiles.
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– Voltmeter
– Ohmmeter Uses of a voltmeter
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Ammeter (Fig 1) To measure the voltage at any point of circuit.

To measure the voltage drop in the circuit.
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To check the condition of the battery.

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Care
Select the voltmeter as per the required range.
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Do not connect the voltmeter in series in the circuit.

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Ohmmeter (Fig 2)
An ohmmeter (1) is also known as resistance meter.
The ammeter (1) is fitted on the vehicle panel board/
dashboard. It is not fitted permanently on the vehicle but is used
separately whenever required.
It is connected in series in the circuit as shown in the fig.1.
It has its own built-in power source. Hence the device/
Uses of ammeter
circuit being checked with the ohmmeter should be discon-
An ammeter is used to measure the amount of current nected from the power supply as shown in the figure, to
flowing in the circuit. prevent damage to the ohmmeter.
This is connected in series with the load. The unit of resistance is an ohm.
It is used to indicate the rate at which the battery is being Uses of ohmmeter
charged or discharged.
An ohmmeter is used:
Care
– to measure the resistance of any conductor
Do not connect an ammeter in parallel in the circuit.
Take care of “+” and “-” mark on terminals. – to measure the resistance of any load
Use DC meter for automobile charging system. – to check the continuity of the field coils.
Select and use an ammeter as per the required range.
177
Open circuit (Fig 4): In an open circuit, an infinite resist-
ance is provided, most of the time by the open switch (A).
Therefore no current can flow.
Short circuit : A short circuit will occur when two terminals

of the same circuit touch each other. A short circuit may
also occur if the insulation between the two cores of the
cable are defective. This results in a lower resistance. This
Care causes a large current to flow which can become a hazard.
Do not connect an ohmmeter to any part of a live circuit. Parallel circuit (Fig 5): In this circuit two or more loads are
connected. Each load is provided with its own path to the
Do not connect an ohmmeter across the terminals of a
source of supply.
battery.
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Maintenance of meters
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Handle the meters with care.
ish
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Keep the connections tight while the meters are in use.

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Use the meters within specified loads.
After use, keep the meters in a separate place.

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Electrical circuits Example

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Simple electrical circuit (Fig 3) A pair of head lights is connected in parallel circuit. When
wired in parallel the failure of one bulb will not effect the
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operation of the other bulb. Each load receives full system

voltage.
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The formula to calculate resistance in a parallel circuit is:
where
I = current
R = resultant resistance
R1, R2, R3 = resistance of each load.
Series circuit : This circuit consists of only one load and

one source of supply. It has one continuous path for the
A simple electric circuit is a complete pathway of the
flow of current. Hence the current flows through all the load
current flow from the battery via the switch and load and
in a sequence in circuit. If any of the parts fails the circuit
back to the battery. An electric circuit consists of :
breaks and the current stops flowing.
– a voltage source (1)
– connecting wires (conductors) (2)
– a load (lamp or motor) (3)
– switch (4).
Voltage = Current (I) x Resistance (R)
Types of resistance
Based on the ohmic value of resistance it is grouped as

low, medium and high resistance.
Low resistance
Range : 1 Ohm and below.
Uses : Armature winding, ammeter.
Medium resistance
Range : Above 1 Ohm up to 1,00,000 Ohm.
Uses : Bulbs, heaters, relay starters.
High resistance
Range : Above 1,00,000 Ohm (100 k.Ohms).
Use : Lamps.
ed
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Electrical symbols used in a wiring diagram (Fig 6):
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Automotive circuits are generally shown by wiring diagrams.
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The parts in those diagrams are represented by symbols.
Symbols are codes or signs that have been adopted by
various automobile manufacturers as a convention.
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Multimeter
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• state the function of multimeter controls
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• explain about the dial (scale) of the multimeter

• explain about zero adjustment during ohmmeter function
• state the function of digital multimeter
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• state the application of the multimeter

• state the precautions to be followed while using a multimeter.
A multimeter is an instrument in which the functions of an multimeters have internal resistances to the tune of 5 to
ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter are incorporated for 10 megohms, irrespective of the selected voltage range.
measurement of current, voltage and resistance
respectively. Some manufacturers call this a VOM meter There are several types of multimeters available in the
as this meter is used as volt, ohm and milli ammeter, market, manufactured by various manufactures. Each
Multimeters use the basic d’ Arsonval (PMMC) movement model differs from the others by the extra facilities available.
for all these measurements. This meter has facilities It is a versatile tool for all automobile. With proper usage
through various switches to change the internal circuit to and care, it could give service for many years.
convert the meter as voltmeter, ammeter or ohmmeter. Rectifiers are provided inside the meter to convert AC to
DC in the AC measurement circuit.
There are two major types of multimeters
Parts of a multimeter
1 Ordinary multimeters having passive components.
A standard multimeter consists of these main parts and
2 Electronic multimeters having active and passive com controls as shown in (Fig 1).
ponents. An electronic multimeter may be of the
analog type or digital type.
Most of the ordinary multimeters will have a sensitivity of
20k ohms per volt in the voltmeter mode whereas electronic
The scale is usually ‘backward’, with zero at the right.
Zero adjustment
When the selector switch is in the resistance range and
the leads are open, the pointer is at left side of scale,
indicating infinite (α) resistance (open circuit). When the
leads are shorted, the pointer is at right side of the
scale,indicating zero resistance.
The purpose of the zero ohm adjusting knob is to vary the

variable resistor and adjust the current so that the pointer
is at exactly aero when the leads are shorted. It is used
to compensate for changes in the internal battery voltage
due to aging.
Controls
The meter is set to the required current, voltage or Multiple range
resistance range - by means of the range selector switch. Shunt (parallel) resistors are used to provide multiple
in (Fig 2), the switch is set to DC, 25 volts. ranges so that the meter can measure resistance values
from very small to very large values. For each range, a
different value of shunt resistance is switched on. The
shunt resistance increases for the higher ohm ranges and
is always equal to the centre scale reading on any range.
These range settings are interpreted differently from those
ed
of the ammeter or voltmeter. The reading on the ohmmeter
scale is multiplied by the factor indicated by the range
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setting.
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Remember, when a multimeter is set for the

ohmmeter function, the multimeter must not
be connected to the circuit with the circuit’s
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power is on.
Scale of multimeter
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Digital multimeter (DMM)

Separate scales are provided for :
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In a digital multimeter the meter movements is replaced

- resistance by a digital read - out. (Fig 4) this read-out is similar to
that used in electronic calculators. The internal circuitry
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- voltage and current. of the digital multimeter is made up of digital integrated

The scale of current and voltage as uniformly graduated circuits. Like the analog-type multimeter, the digital
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(Fig 3) multimeter has also a front panel switching arrangement.

The quantity measured is displayed in the form of a four
digit number with a properly placed decimal point. When
d quantities are measured, the polarity is identified be
means of a + or - sign displayed to the left of the number.
The scale for resistance measurement is non-linear. That

is, the divisions between zero and infinity (α) are not
equally spaced. As you move from zero to the left across
the scale, the division become closer together.
Fuse
• state the need of a fuse in the circuit
• state the construction of a fuse
• list out the types of fuses
• describe the working of fuses
• describe the circuit with and without a fuse
• describe the circuit breakers.
Introduction The fuse is assembled in a fuse carrier of glass or ceramic

material.
A fuse is a protective device. It is a weakest portion in the
electrical circuit. Nowadays fuse elements assembled in glass tubes, called
cartridges, are widely used in automobiles.
An electric current heats the wire when the current passes
through it. The amount of heat depends upon the current It consists of a glass tube (1) with metal end caps (2) &
and resistance in the wire. (4).
In automobiles, this heating effect is utilized in heaters, A soft fine wire or strip (3) carries the current from one cap
bulbs and gauges etc, to another (4).
The heating effect in the circuit is limited by the fuse. If
ed
The conductor (3) is designed to carry a specific maximum
this limit is not controlled, the circuit of accessories will current.
bl I
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be overloaded causing severe damage to them.
ish
Working
Purpose of fuse (Fig 1)
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The current flows through the conductor (3) between two
metal caps (2) & (4) and then to the equipment.
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If the current value exceeds the limit prescribed on the

fuse, the fuse element (3) melts and opens the circuit and
prevents the equipment from damage.
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Identification of blown fuse

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If you look at the burnt fuse and if the element is broken

the fuse is burnt due to overloading (Fig 2).
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The glass is foggy white or black the fuse is blown out due
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to short circuit.
A fuse opens the circuit by blowing out when current Circuits protected with fuse
(overload) flows in the circuit to prevent severe damage to
- Headlight circuit
the accessories.
- Tail - light circuit
The flow of excess current in a circuit may be caused by a
short circuit. - Number -plate circuit
Construction - Panel lamp circuit
Fuse elements are of lead-tin or tin-copper alloy wire in - Interior lamp circuit
strip of correct amperage for each circuit.
- Side indicator circuit
- Horn circuit
- Wiper circuit
- Dashboard / panel instruments circuit
- Heater and air conditioner circuit
- Charging circuit
- Radio / Audio / Video circuit
181
- Cigarette lighter Circuit Breakers - Automotive
- Reverse lamp Automotive circuit breakers provide a resettable and
reusable alternative over standard fuses for circuit
Circuits without fuse
protection, and can altogether replace fuses and fusible
- Starting circuit links in most applications.
- Ignition circuit Circuit breakers come in 3 types:
- Fuel pump circuit Type 1
- Stop - light circuit This type are auto resettable, and once tripped, will attempt
- Oil pressure lamp circuit to reset the circuit, as the internal elements of the breaker
cool down.
- Ignition warning lamp circuit.
Type 2 (trip and hold)
Fuse rating and colour
This type are called modified reset, and will remain tripped
Rating Colour until the power is removed from the breaker.
3 Amp Violet Type 3 (circuit breakers)
5 Amp Tan This type are manual resettable, and require that a button
10 Amp Red or lever be pushed in order to reset breaker.
20 Amp Yellow Ballast (Choke): The ballast is basically a coil of many

turns wound on a laminated iron core (Fig 4). It steps up
25 Amp White the supply voltage to start the fluorescent tube conducting.
Once the tube is conducting, it regulates the flow of current
ed
30 Amp Light green
to the tube cathodes to keep them from burning out.
Fusible link and circuit breakers:
bl I
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Fusible link (Fig 3)
ish
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An electrical fusible link is a type of electrical fuse that is

constructed simply with a short piece of wire typically four
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standard wire gauge sizes smaller than the wiring harness

that is being protected.
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Electrical fusible links are common in high -current

automotive applications. The wire in an electrical fusible
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link is covered with high-temperature fire-resistant Circuit diagram: The method of connecting the starter,
insulation to reduce hazards when the wire melts and also ballast and the tube’s electrodes at its either end is shown
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encased in special materials that are designed to not catch in Fig 5.

on fire when exposed to high temperatures. Function of the various parts in a fluorescent light circuit.
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Fusible links can be found in a variety of places in cars

and truck, but they are commonly used in high-amperage
applications. Such as starter motors, alternator where load
exceeds rated amps.
When this type of fusible link blows, the vehicle will no
longer start, but the risks of fire are eliminated.
Cable colour codes and size

• describe automobile cables
• state the needs of colour coding in wiring
• state the use of colours in various circuits.
Description of cables Colour code in cables
The cable consists of multi - strand copper conductor In automobiles a number of electric circuits are connnected
covered with good quality PVC insulation. to the battery which is quite complicated.
The current to the various electrical accessories is carried The large number of cables are braided into a single
through cables. har ness assembly.
The various cables used in wiring are : The automobile manufactures use cables of different
colours and usually follow the Lucas colour code system.
- Starting system cable It consists of basic colours (main colours) and combination
of colours to identity individual circuits. (Refer of Fig 1).
- General purpose cable
ed
- High tension cable The distinction between wires in a group is done by the
bl I use of a coloured bracer on the main colours of the insulator

pu M
ish
The specification of the cable refers to the number of stands
and diameter of each strand. Eg. 25/012 indicates, the
of each wire.
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cable consists of 25 strands of 0.012” gauge diameter of Purpose of colour code

each strand.
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For easy identification of each circuit.

The size of the cable depends upon the current rating of
the accessories connected in that circuit. A thick cable To help to locate the defect easily in a particular circuit
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can carry more current and is used in the starting system. and to rectify the same quickly.
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183
ed
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ish
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Law of Resistances
• state the Laws of Resistance, compare resistances of different materials
• state the formula giving the relationship between the resistance and dimemsions of a conductor
• state the effect of temperature on resistance and describe the temperature cofficient of resistance
• calculate the resistance of a conductor.
Laws of resistance (Fig. 1): The resistance R offered by Comparison of the resistance of different materials:
a conductor depends on the following factors. (Fig 2) gives some relative idea of the more important
– The resistance of the conductor varies directly with its materials as conductors of electricity. All the conductors
length. have the same cross-sectional area and the same amount
of resistance. The silver wire is the longest while that of
– The resistance of the conductor is inversely proportional copper is slightly short and that of aluminium is shorter still.
to its cross-sectional area. The silver wire is more than 5 times longer than the steel
– The resistance of the conductor depends on the material wire.
with which it is made of.
– It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
Ignoring the last factor for the time being,we can say that
ed
PL
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R=
a
ish
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where r is a constant depending on the nature of the

material of the conductor, and is known as its specific
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resistance or resistivity.
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Since different metals have different conductance ratings,

they must also have different resistance ratings. The
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resistance ratings of the different metals can be found by

experimenting with a standard piece of each metal in an
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electric circuit. If you cut a piece of each of the more

common metals to a standard size, and then connect the
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pieces to a battery, one at a time, you would find that

different amounts of current would flow. (Fig 3)
If the length is one metre and the area, 'a' = 1 m2,

then R = r.
Hence, specific resistance of a material may be defined as
`the resistance between the opposite faces of a metre cube
of that material'. (sometimes, the unit cube is taken in
centimetre cube of that material).
We have
In the SI system of units

The bar graph (Fig 4) shows the resistance of some
common metals as compared to copper. Silver is a better
conductor than copper because it has less resistance.
Nichrome has 60 times more resistance than copper, and
copper will conduct 60 times as much current as Nichrome,
if they were connected to the same battery, one at a time.
Hence the unit of specific resistance is ohm metre (Wm).

185
Wire - wound resistors
Wire-wound resistors are manufactured by using
resistance wire (nickel - chrome alloy called Nichrome)
wrapped around an insulating core, such as cerami
porcelain bakelite pressed paper etc (Fig 4). The bare wire
used in the unit is generally enclosed in insulating material.
Wire wound resistors are used for high current application.
They are avilable in wattage ratings from one watt to 100
watts or more. The resistance can be less than 1 ohm
and go up to several thousand ohms. They are also used
where accurate resistance values are required.
One type of Wire-wound resistor is called as fusible resistor
enclosed in a porcelain case. The resistance is designed
to open the circuit when the current through it exceeds
certain limit.
Resistors : This type of ballast resistor is used in the automobile

vechile flasher unit. Due to which the the indicator lamp
These are the most common passive component used in flash at the regulation of 70-100 times / min.
electronic circuits. A resistor is manufacture with a specific
value of ohms resistance. The purpose using a resistor in
circuit is either to limit the current to speciifc value or to
provide desired voltage drop (IR) The power rating of resistors
may be from O.1.W. to hundred of Watts.
ed
bl I
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Resistors and Capacitors
ish
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• name the types of resistors
• state the meaning of tolerance in resistor
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• give examples to find the value of a resistor

Fixed resistors are manufactured using different materials
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Fixed value resistors

and by different methods. Based on the material used and
Its ohmic value is fixed. This value cannot be changed by
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their manufacturing method/process, resistors carry differ-

the user. Resistors of standard fixed values are manufac- ent names.
tured for use in majority of applications.
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Fixed value resistors can be classified based on the type

of material used and the process of making as follows.
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Carbon composition resistors

Construction
These are the simplest and most economical of all other
types. Brief constructional detail of the simplest type of
carbon composition resistors commonly called carbon
resistor is shown in (Fig 1).
A mixture of finely powdered carbon or graphite(A), filler Selection of a particular type of resistor is possible based
and binder is made into rods or extruded into desired on its physical appearance. The resistance value of a
shapes. Leads(B) made of tinned copper are then attached resistor will generally be printed on the body of the resistor
to the body either by soldering or embedding(C) in the either directly in ohms as shown in (Fig 3a) or using a
body. A protective layer/tube(D) of phenolic or Bakelite is typographic code as shown in (Fig 3b) or using a colour
moulded around the assembly. Finally its resistance value code as shown in (Fig 3c).
is marked on the body.
Power rating
As already discussed, when current flows through a
resistor, heat is generated. The heat generated in a resistor
will be proportional to the product of applied voltage (V)
across the resistor and the resultant current (I) through the
resistor. This product VI is known as power. The unit of
measurement of power is watts.
Colour band coding of resistors

Colour band coding as shown in (Fig 3c) is most commonly
used for carbon composition resistors. This is because the
physical size of carbon composition resistor is generally
small, and hence, printing resistance values directly on the
ed
resistor body is difficult. Refer Table 1.
bl I
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The physical size of a resistor should be sufficiently large Tolerance
ish
to dissipate the heat generated. The higher the physical In bulk production/ manufacturing of resistors, it is difficult
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size, the higher is the heat that a resistor can dissipate. and expensive to manufacture resistors of particular exact
This is referred to as the power rating or wattage of values. Hence the manufacturer indicates a possible
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resistors. Resistors are manufactured to withstand differ- variation from the standard value for which it is manufac-
ent power ratings. tured. This variation will be specified in percentage toler-
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(Fig 2) illustrates comparative physical sizes of different ance. Tolerance is the range(max -to- min) within which the
wattage resistors. If the product of V and I exceeds the resistance value of the resistor will exist.
t t rig
maximum wattage a resistor can dissipate, the resistor Typographical coding of resistors
gets charred and loses all its property. For instance, if the
applied voltage across a 1 watt resistor is 10 volts resulting In the typographical coding scheme of indicating resist-
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in 0.5 Amps of current through the resistor, the power ance values, the ohmic value of the resistor is printed on the
dissipated (VI) by the resistor will be 5 watts. But, the body of the resistor using an alpha-numeric coding scheme.
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maximum power that can be dissipated by the IW resistor

is much less. Therefore, the resistor will get overheated and Some resistance manufacturers use a coding
gets charred due to overheat. scheme of their own. In such cases it will be
necessary to refer to the manufacturer’s guide.
Hence, before using a resistor, in addition to its ohmic
value, it is important to choose the correct wattage rating. Applications
If in doubt, choose a higher wattage resistor but never on
the lower side. The power rating of resistors are generally Carbon composition, fixed value resistors are the most
printed on the body of the resistor. widely used resistors in general purpose electronic circuits
such as radio, tape recorder, television etc. More than
Resistor values - coding schemes 50% of the resistors used in electronic industry are carbon
For using resistors in circuits, depending upon the type of resistors.
circuit in which it is to be used, a particular type, value and
wattage of resistor is to be chosen. Hence before using a
resistor in any circuit, it is absolutely necessary to identify
the resistor’s type, value and power rating.
TABLE 1 1, 2 and 3: 1st, 2nd and 3rd significant figures ;
Resistor Colour Code M : Multiplier ; T : Tolerance ; Tc : Temperature co-efficient
Colour Significant Multiplier Tolerance Types of resistor leads
figures Resistors are available with different types of lead attach-

ment as shown in Fig 4. This make it easy for the user to
Silver - 10-2 ± 10% mount the resistors in different ways on lug boards, PCBs
and other types of circuit boards.
Gold - 10-1 ± 5%
Black 0 1 -
Brown 1 10 ± 1%
2
Red 2 10 ± 2%
Orange 3 103 ± 3%
Yellow 4 104 ± 4%
5
Green 5 10 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 106 -
Violet 7 - -
Grey 8 - -
White 9 - -
ed
(None) - - ± 20%
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ish
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Capacitors
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• state and describe a capacitor

• state and explain charging of a capacitor
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• state and explain capacitance and unit of capacitance

• state and describe the factors determining the capitance
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• state and describe the different types of capacitors

• explain the defects in capacitors
No py
• state and describe the testing of capacitors.

Capacitors Function
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A device designed to posses capacitance is called a In a capacitor the electric charge is stored in the form of an
capacitor. electrostatic field between the two conductors or plates,
Construction due to the ability of dielectric material to distort and store
energy while it is charged and keep that charge for a long
A capacitor is an electrical device consisting of two parallel period or till it is discharged through a resistor or wire. The
conductive plates, separated by an insulating material unit of charge is coulomb and it is denoted by the letter `C'.
called the dielectric. Connecting leads are attached to the
parallel plates. (Fig 1) How a capacitor stores charge?
In the neutral state, both plates of a capacitor have an equal
number of free electrons, as indicated in (Fig 2a). When the
capacitor is connected to a voltage source through a
resistor, the electrons (negative charge) are removed from
plate A, and an equal number are deposited on plate `B'.
Plate A becomes positive with respect to plate B as shown
in (Fig 2b).
The current enters and leaves the capacitor, but the
insulation between the capacitor plates prevents the current
from flowing through the capacitor.
As electrons flowing into the negative plate of a capacitor
have a polarity opposite to that of the battery supplying the
current, the voltage across the capacitor opposes the
battery voltage. The total circuit voltage, therefore, consists
of two series-opposing voltages.
As the voltage across the capacitor increases, the effective
circuit voltage, which is the difference between the battery
voltage and the capacitor voltage, decreases. This, in turn,
causes a decrease in the circuit current. When the voltage
across the capacitor equals the battery voltage, the effective
voltage in the circuit is zero, and so the current flow stops.
At this point, the capacitor is fully charged, and no further
current can flow in the circuit.
Capacitance (Fig 2c)
The ability to store energy in the form of electric charge is
called capacitance. The symbol used to represent
capacitance is C.
Unit of capacitance
The base unit of capacitance is farad. The abbreviation for
farad is F. One farad is that amount of capacitance which
stores 1 coulomb of charge when the capacitor is charged
to 1 V. In other words, a farad is a coulomb per volt (C/V).
ed
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A farad is the unit of capacitance (C), and a coulomb is the
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unit of charge(Q), and a volt is the unit of voltage(V).
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Grouping of capacitors
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• state the necessity of grouping of capacitors

• list the conditions for connecting capacitors in parallel
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• determine the values of capacitance and voltage in parallel combination

• list the conditions for connecting capacitors in series
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• determine the values of capacitance and voltage in series combination.

Necessity of grouping of capacitors analogous to the connection of resistance in parallel or
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cells in parallel.
In certain instances, we may not be able to get a required
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value of capacitance and a required voltage rating. In such Total capacitance

instances, to get the required capacitances from the
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total
available capacitors and to give only the safe voltage
capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances,
across capacitor, the capacitors have to be grouped in
because the effective plate area increases. The calculation
different fashions. Such grouping of capacitors is very
of total parallel capacitance is analogous to the calculation
essential.
of total resistance of a series circuit.
Necessity of parallel grouping
By comparing (Fig 2a and 2b), you can understand that
Capacitors are connected in parallel to achieve a higher connecting capacitors in parallel effectively increases the
capacitance than what is available in one unit. plate area.
General formula for parallel capacitance
The total capacitance of parallel capacitors is found by
adding the individual capacitances.
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 +.............+ Cn
where CT is the total capacitance,
C1,C2,C3 etc. are the parallel capacitors.
The voltage applied to a parallel group must not exceed the
lowest breakdown voltage for all the capacitors in the
Connection of parallel grouping parallel group.
Parallel grouping of capacitors is shown in (Fig 1) and is
Conditions for series grouping
—
If different voltage rating capacitors have to be con-
nected in series, take care to see that the voltage drop
across each capacitor is less than its voltage rating.
—
Polarity should be maintained in the case of polarised
capacitors.
Connection in series grouping
Series grouping of capacitors, as shown in (Fig 3) is
analogous to the connection of resistances in series or
cells in series.
Example: Suppose three capacitors are connected in

parallel, where two have a breakdown voltage of 250 V and
one has a breakdown voltage of 200 V, then the maximum
voltage that can be applied to the parallel group without Total capacitance
damaging any capacitor is 200 volts.
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capaci-
ed
The voltage across each capacitor will be equal to the tance is less than the smallest capacitance value, be-
applied voltage.
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Charge stored in parallel grouping
ish – the effective plate separation thickness increases
Re NI
Since the voltage across parallel-grouped capacitors is the – and the effective plate area is limited by the smaller
same, the larger capacitor stores more charge. If the plate.
be @
capacitors are equal in value, they store an equal amount

The calcualtion of total series capacitance is analogous to
of charge. The charge stored by the capacitors together
the calculation of total resistance of parallel resistors.
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equals the total charge that was delivered from the source.
By comparing (Fig 4a and 4b) you can understand that
QT= Q1+ Q2 + Q3+.....+ Qn
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connecting capacitors in series increases the plate sepa-

where QTis the total charge ration thickness, and also limits the effective area so as to
equal that of the smaller plate capacitor.
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Q1,Q2,Q3.....etc. are the individual

charges of the capacitors in parallel.
Co
Using the equation Q = CV,

the total charge QT = CTVS
where VS is the supply voltage.
Again CTVS = C1VS + C2VS + C3VS
Because all the VS terms are equal, they can be
cancelled.
Therefore, CT = C1 + C2 + C3
General formula for series capacitance
Series grouping
The total capacitance of the series capacitors can be
Necessity of grouping of capacitors in series calculated by using the formula
The necessity of grouping capacitors in series is to reduce
the total capacitance in the circuit. Another reason is that
two or more capacitors in series can withstand a higher
potential difference than an individual capacitor. But, the
voltage drop across each capacitor depends upon the
individual capacitance. If the capacitances are unequal,
you must be careful not to exceed the breakdown voltage
of any capacitor.
If there are two capacitors in series Likewise, the smallest capacitance value will have the
largest voltage.
The voltage across any individual capacitor in a series
connection can be determined using the following formula.
If there are three capacitors in series
where
Vx - individual voltage of each capacitor
If there are `n' equal capacitors in series
Cx - individual capacitance of each capacitor
Vs - supply voltage.
The potential difference does not divide equally if the
Maximum voltage across each capacitor capacitances are unequal. If the capacitances are unequal
you must be careful not to exceed the breakdown voltage
In series grouping, the division of the applied voltage among of any capacitor.
the capacitors depends on the individual capacitance value
according to the formula Example: Find the voltage across each capacitor in
Fig 6.
The largest value capacitor will have the smallest voltage
ed
because of the reciprocal relationship.
bl I
pu M
ish
DC series - parallel - series and parallel combination circuits
Re NI

• identify the series connection and determine the current in the series circuit
be @
• determine the voltage across elements in a series circuit

• determine the total voltage in a circuit when the voltage sources are in series
• state the uses of a series connection.
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The series circuit A and point B. Fig 2(b) shows four resistors are in series.
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It is possible to connect two incandescent lamps in the way Of course, there can be any number of resistors in a series
shown in (Fig 1). This connection is called a series connection. Such connection provides only one path for
No py
connection, in which the same current flows in the two the current to flow.
lamps. Identifying series connections
Co
The lamps are replaced by resistors in Fig 2. Fig 2 (a)

In an actual circuit diagram, a series connection may not
shows two resistors are connected in series between point
always be as easy to identify as those in the figure. For
example, (Fig 3(a), 3(b), 3(c) & 3(d)) shows series If there are a number of resistances is series, they all
resistors drawn in different ways. In all the above circuits oppose the flow of current through them.
we find there is only one path for the current to flow.
The 2nd characteristic of a DC series circuit could be written
Current in series circuits as follows.
The current will be the same at any point of the series The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum
circuit. This can be verified by measuring the current in any of the individual resistances around the series circuit. This
two points of a given circuit as shown in (Fig 4 (a) and 4(b)). statement can be written as
The ammeters will show the same reading.
R = R1+ R2+ R3+.......Rn
The current relationship in a series circuit is
where R is the total resistance
I = IR1 = IR2 = IR3. (Refer Fig 4)
R1, R2 , R3,.......Rn are the resistances connected in series.
We can conclude that there is only one path for the current
to flow in a series circuit. Hence, the current is the same When a circuit has more than one resistor of the same
throughout the circuit. value in series, the total resistance is R = r x N
Total resistance in series circuit where 'r' is the value of each resistor and N is the number
of resistors in series.
You know how to calculate the current in a circuit, by
Ohm’s law, if resistance and voltage are known. In a circuit Voltage in series circuits
consisting of two resistors R1 and R2 we know that the In DC circuit voltage divides up across the load resistors,
resistor R1 offers some opposition to the current flow. As depending upon the value of the resistor so that the sum of
the same current should flow through R2 in series it has to the individual load voltages equals the source voltage.
overcome the opposition offered by R2 also.
The 3rd characteristic of a DC circuit can be written as
ed
follows.
bl I As the source voltage divides/drops across the series

pu M
ish resistance depending upon the value of the resistances
Re NI
V = VR1 + VR2 + VR3 + ........

the total voltage of a series circuit must be measured
be @
across the voltage source, as shown in (Fig 5).

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Co
Voltages across the series resistors could be measured

using one voltmeter at different positions as illustrated in
(Fig 6).
When Ohm’s law is applied to the complete circuit having
an applied voltage V, and total resistance R, we have the
current in the circuit as
I = V/R
Application of Ohm’s law to DC series circuits
Applying to Ohm’s law to the series circuit, the relation
between various currents could be stated as below
Potential difference and polarity of I R voltage drops
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
• state the relation between the emf, potential difference and terminal voltage
• define I.R. drop (voltage drop) in a DC series circuit
Re NI
• identify polarity of voltage drops

• identify positive and negative grounds
be @
• mark the polarity of the voltage drop with respect to ground to determine the terminals of the voltmeter.
Definitions
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Electromotive force (emf)

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We have seen in Related Theory of Exercise 1.07, the

electromotive force (emf) of a cell is the open circuit
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voltage, and the potential difference (PD) is the voltage

across the cell when it delivers a current. The potential
Co
difference is always less than the emf.

Potential difference
PD = emf – voltage drop in the cell
Potential difference can also be called by another term, the
terminal voltage, as explained below. The total resistance of the circuit in (Fig 1) would be equal
to RT = 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 = 400 ohms.
Terminal voltage
The current flowing through the circuit would be
It is the voltage available at the terminal of the source of
supply. Its symbol is VT. Its unit is also the volt. It is given I = (100/400) = 0.25 amps.
by the emf minus the voltage drop in the source of supply, But point A has a potential of 100 volts and point B has
i.e. VT = emf – IR zero. Somewhere along the circuit between A and B, the
100 volts have been lost.
where I is the current and R the resistance of the source.
To find the voltage drop for each resistor is easy. First find
Voltage drop (IR drop) the current, which we have calculated as 0.25 amps, then
The voltage lost by resistance in a circuit is called the VR1 = 0.25 x 100 = 25 V
Voltage drop or IR drop.
VR2 = 0.25 x 100 = 25 V
Example 1
VR3 = 0.25 x 100 = 25 V
The resistances and applied voltage are known. (Fig 1)
VR4 = 0.25 x 100 = 25 V.
What are the voltage drops across the resistors
Add up all the voltage drops and they will total 100 volts Trace the complete circuit in the direction of current from
which is the applied voltage of the circuit. the + terminal of the battery to A, A to B, B to C, C to D,
and D to the negative terminal. Mark plus (+) where the
25 + 25 + 25 + 25 = 100 volts.
current enters each resistor and minus (–) where the
The sum of the voltage drops in a circuit must be equal to current leaves each resistor.
the applied voltage.
The voltage drops indicate (Fig 3) Point A is the nearest
VTotal = VR1 + VR2 + VR3 + VR4. point to the positive side of the terminal; so voltage at A with
respect to ground is
Polarity of voltage drops
VA = +95 V.
When there is a voltage drop across a resistance, one end
There is a voltage drop of 10 V across R1; so voltage at B
must be more positive or more negative than the other end.
is
The polarity of the voltage drop is determined by the
direction of conventional current. In (Fig 2), the current VB = +85 V.
direction is through R1 from point A to B.
An open circuit results whenever a circuit is broken or is
incomplete, and there is no continuity in the circuit.
In a series circuit, open circuit means that there is no path

for the current, and no current flows through the circuit.
Any ammeter in the circuit will indicate no current as
shown in (Fig 4).
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
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Therefore, the terminal of R1 connected to point A has a

more positive potential than point B. We say that the
be @
voltage across R1 is such that point A is more positive than

point B. Similarly the voltage of point B is more positive
than point C. Another way to look at polarity between any
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two points is that the one nearer to the positive terminal of

the voltage source is more positive; also, the point nearer
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to the negative terminal of the applied voltage is more

negative. Therefore, point A is more positive than B, while
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Causes for open circuit in series circuit

C is more negative than B. (Fig 2)
Co
Example 2 Open circuits, normally, happen due to improper contacts

of switches, burnt out fuses, breakage in connection wires
Find the voltage at the points A,B, C and D with respect to
and burnt out resistors etc.
ground.
Mark the polarity of voltage drops in the circuit (Fig 3) and Effect of open in series circuit
find the voltage values at points A, B, C and D with respect
to ground. a No current flows in the circuit.
b No device in the circuit will function.
c Total supply voltage/ source voltage appear across the
open.
How can we determine where a break in the circuit

has occurred?
Use a voltmeter on a range that can accommodate the

supply voltage; connect it across each connecting wire in
turn. If one of the wire is open as shown in (Fig 4), the full
supply voltage is indicated on the voltmeter. In the absence
of a current, there is no voltage drop across any of the
resistors. Therefore, the voltmeter must be reading full
supply voltage across the open. That is
Voltmeter reading • locate open and short circuit faults in a series circuit
= 18 V – VR1 – VR2 – VR3 • repair series-connected decoration bulb sets.
= 18 V – O V – O V – O V = 18 V.
If the circuit was open due to a defective resistor, as shown

in (Fig 5) (resistors usually open when they burn out), the
voltmeter would indicate 18 V when connected across this
resistor, R2.
Alternatively, the open circuit may be found using an

ohmmeter. With the voltage removed, the ohmmeter will
show no continuity (infinite resistance), when connected
across the broken wire or open resistor. (Fig 5)
Practical application
With the knowledge gained from this lesson:
DC parallel circuit
• explain a parallel connection
• determine the voltages in a parallel circuit
ed
• determine the current in a parallel circuit
bl I
• determine the total resistances in a parallel circuit
pu M
ish
• state the application of a parallel circuit.
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Parallel circuit
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It is possible to connect three incandescent lamps as

shown in (Fig 1). This connection is called parallel
connection in which, the same source voltage is applied
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across all the three lamps.

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Co
Voltage in parallel circuit

The lamps in (Fig 1) are replaced by resistors in (Fig 2).
Again the voltage applied across the resistors is the same
and also equal to the supply voltage.
We can conclude that the voltage across the parallel circuit

is the same as the supply voltage.
(Fig 2) could also be drawn as shown in (Fig 3).

Current in parallel circuit
Mathematically it could be expressed as V = V1 = V2 = V3.
Again referring to (Fig 2) and applying Ohm’s law, the
individual branch currents in the parallel circuit could be
determined.
Current in resistor R1 = I1 = = . As V is the same throughout the equation and dividing the
above equation by V, we can write
1 1 1 1
Current in resistor R2 = I2 = = . = + +
R R1 R2 R2
The above equation reveals that in a parallel circuit, the
Current in resistor R3 = I3 = = reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual branch resistances.
as V1 = V2 = V3.
Special case: Equal resistances in parallel
Refer to (Fig 4) in which the branch currents I1, I2 and I3
Total resistance R, of equal resistors in parallel (Fig 5) is
are shown to flow into resistance branches R1, R2 and R3
equal to the resistance of one resistor, r divided by the
respectively.
number of resistors, N.
The total current I in the parallel circuit is the sum of the
individual branch currents. r
R=
Mathematically it could be expressed as I = I1 + I2 +I3 N
+ .... In.
Applications of parallel circuits
Resistance in parallel circuit (Fig 4)
An electric system in which section can fail and other
sections continue to operate in parallel circuits. As previ-
ously mentioned, the electric system used in homes
ed
consists of many parallel circuits.
bl I
pu M
ish
An automobile electric system uses parallel circuits for
lights, horn, motor, radio etc. Each of these devices
Re NI
operates independently.
be @
Individual television circuits are quite complex. However,

the complex circuits are connected in parallel to the main
power source. That is why the audio section of television
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receivers can still work when the video (picture) is inoperative.

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In a parallel circuit, individual branch resistances offer

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opposition to the current flow though the voltage across the

branches will be same.
Co
Let the total resistance in the parallel circuit be R ohms.
By the application of Ohm’s law
we can write
V V
R= ohmsorI = amps
I R
where
R is the total resistance of the parallel circuit in ohms
V is the applied source voltage in volts, and
I is the total current in the parallel circuit in amperes.
We have also seen

I = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V
R= + +
or R1 R2 R2
Series parallel combination
• compare the characteristics of series and parallel circuits
• solve the series-parallel circuit problems
• calculate the current in series-parallel circuits.
Comparison of characteristics of DC series and parallel ciruits
Series circuit Parallel circuit
1 The sum of voltage drops across the individual The applied voltage is the same across each branch.
resistances equals the applied voltage.
2 The total resistance is equal to the sum of the The reciprocal of the total resistance equals the sum of
individual resistances that make up the circuit. the reciprocal of the resistances. The resultant resistance
Rt = R1+R2+R3+... etc is less than the smallest resistance of the parallel
combination.
3 Current is the same in all parts of the circuit. The current divides in each branch according to the
resistance of each branch.
4 Total power is equal to the sum of the power (Same as series circuit) Total power is equal to the sum
dissipated by the individual resistances. of the power dissipated by the individual resistances.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Formation of series parallel circuit circuit. However, in one of the branches it has two
resistances in series R2 and R3 . To find the total resistance
Re NI
Apart from the series circuit and parallel circuits, the third
of this series -parallel circuit, first combine R2 and R3 into
type of circuit arrangement is the series-parallel circuit. In
an equivalent 20-ohm resistance. The total resistance is
this circuit, there is at least one resistance connected in
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then 20 ohms in parallel with 10 ohms, or 6.67 ohms.

series and two connected in parallel. The two basic
arrangements of the series-parallel circuit are shown here.
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In one, resistor R1 and R2 are connected in parallel and this

parallel connection, in turn, is connected in series with
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resistance R3.(Fig 1)
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Co
Combination circuits
Thus, R1 and R2 form the parallel component, and R3 the A series-parallel combination appears to be very complex.
series component of a series-parallel circuit. The total However, a simple solution is to break down the circuit into
resistance of any series-parallel circuit can be found by series/or parallel groups, and while solving problems, each
merely reducing it into a simple series circuit. For may be dealt with individually. Each group may be replaced
example, the parallel portion of R1 and R2 can be reduced by one resistance, having the value equal to the sum of all
to an equivalent 5-ohm resistor(two 10-ohm resistors in resistances.
parallel).
Each parallel group may be replaced by one resistance
Then it has an equivalent circuit of a 5-ohm resistor in value equivalent to the combined resistance of that group.
series with the 10-ohm resistor(R3), giving a total resistance Equivalent circuits are to be prepared for determining the
of 15 ohms for the series-parallel combination. current, voltage and resistance for each component.
A second basic series-parallel arrangement is shown in
(Fig 2) where basically it has two branches of a parallel
Example
36 R a × Rb 6×6
Determine the combined resistance of the circuit shown in
Rc = =
(Fig 3). 12 R a + Rb 6+6
36
= 3 ohms.
12
6) Draw the equivalent circuit. (Fig 6)
PROCEDURE
1) Combine R6 and R7.
Ra = R6 + R7
Ra = 2 + 4
Ra = 6 ohms. 7) Combine R2 and Rc and call the equivalent resistance
ed
2) Draw an equivalent circuit with resistance Ra. (Fig 4) Rd.
bl I
pu M
3) Combine R4 and R5 of Fig 4. Rd = R2 + Rc
Rb = R4 + R5
ish Rd = 1 + 3 Rd = 4 ohms.
Re NI
Rb = 3 + 3 8) Draw an equivalent circuit. (Fig 7)

be @
Rb = 6 ohms.
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t t rig
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Co
4) Draw an equivalent circuit as per Figure 5.

9) Now combine R3 and Rd and call it Re
5) Combine Ra and Rb and call the equivalent resistance
value as RC. (Fig 5) R3 × Rd 2× 4
Re = =
R3 + Rd 2+4
8 4
= = = 11/3 ohms.
6 3
10)Draw an equivalent circuit. (Fig 8)

11) Combine R1, Re, and R8.
Rt = R1 + Re + R8
1
Rt = 1 +5 +5
3
1
Rt = 9 = ohms.
3
1
The total combined resistance of the circuit is 9 ohms.
3
However, as soon as another resistor (load) is added as in
Application (Fig 10), there is a further change. The load resistor serves
to drop the total resistance of the lower part of the voltage
Series-parallel circuits can be used to form a specific divider. Use this formula for finding the equivalent resistance
resistance value which is not available in the market and (Req) of resistors of equal value in a parallel circuit:
can be used in the voltage divider circuits (Fig 9).
ed
r
R eq =
bl I N
pu M
ish R eq =
15
= 7.5ohms,
Re NI
2
be @
The equivalent resistance of these two 15 ohm resistors in

the lower part of the voltage divider is 7.5 ohms. What will
happen to the current and voltage in the circuit as a result
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of this resistance change?

t t rig
Remember that, as resistance goes down, current goes

up. Therefore, with the addition of the load resistor, the
No py
circuit will now carry higher amperage but the voltage

between points A and B as well as A and C changes. It is
important, then, when constructing a voltage divider circuit,
Co
to watch the resistance values which change both voltage

and current values. Study Figure 10 carefully to make sure
Voltage divider you understand how a voltage divider works.
To have different voltages for different parts of a circuit,
construct a voltage divider. In effect, a voltage divider is
nothing more than a series-parallel circuit.
A good voltage divider cannot be designed without first
looking at the load resistance. Note in (Fig 9) that a voltage
divider is made with three 15 ohm resistors to get 10 volts
drop across each one.
Battery
• state the classification of cells
• describe the primary cells
• describe the secondary cells
• describe the construction of a lead acid battery
• describe the chemical action during discharging
• describe the chemical action during charging
• describe the maintenance of a battery
• describe the testing of a battery.
A cell is an electrochemical device consisting of two

electrodes and an electrolyte. The chemical reaction
between the electrodes and the electrolyte produces a
voltage.
Cells are classified as:
– dry cells
ed
– wet cells.
bl I
pu M
Dry cells : A dry cell has paste or gel electrolyte. It is semi-
sealed and could be used in any position.
ish
Re NI
Wet cells : It consists of two plates and a liquid electrolyte.

These cells have vent holes to allow the gases to escape
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during charging and discharging. The most common wet

cell is the lead acid cell; wet cells can be recharged for
reuse.
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Primary cells : Primary cells are those cells which are not
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rechargeable. Chemical reaction that occurs during

discharge is not reversible. The following types of primary
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cells are used.

– Voltanic cell
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– Carbon zinc cell

– Alkaline cell
– Mercury cell
– Silver oxide cell
– Lithium cell.
Secondary cell (Lead acid battery) : These cells can be
recharged by supplying electric current in the reverse
direction to that of a discharged battery.
Lead acid battery (Figs 1 & 2): This battery is an
electrochemical device for converting electrical energy into
Construction: The automobile battery’s plates are
chemical energy and vice versa. The main purpose of the
rectangular. They are made of lead. Antimony alloy is used
battery is to store electrical energy in the form of chemical
to provide them strength.
energy. It provides supply of current for operating various
electrical accessories, when the engine is not running. The group of plates, which are connected to the positive
When the engine is running it gets electric supply from the terminal of the cell, consists of grids filled with a paste of
dynamo/alternator. It is also known as accumulator and lead peroxide. This lead is brown in colour. The group of
storage battery. plates, which are connected to the negative terminal of the
cell, consists of grids filled with metalic lead which is
spongy in nature. This lead is dull grey in colour.
200
Each a group of plates is held together by a post strap, to When the battery is charged (Fig 4) by passing current
which individual plates are welded. The post strap is through a dynamo or charger in the opposite direction, the
extended up to the cell cover to provide battery terminals. reverse chemical reaction takes place. The lead sulphate
The positive and negative plates are arranged alterna-tively, on one plate becomes lead peroxide (+ve plate). The lead
and in between the plates, seperators are used to prevent sulphate on the other plate (-ve plate) becomes spongy
contact of the positive and negative plates. Separators are lead and the electrolyte becomes more concentrated
made of specially treated wood, hard rubber, resin, because of the increased amount of sulphuric acid.
integrated fibre or in combination with rubber or mats of
PbSO4 + 2H2O + PbSO4 PbO2 + 2H2SO4 + Pb
glass fibres. The container in which the plates are placed
is made of hard rubber which is not affected by the (+ve) (water) (-ve) (+ve) (Electrolyte) (-ve)
electrolyte. A solution of sulphuric acid and distilled water
Maintenance of battery : Batteries are expensive items
is added until the level of the liquid in the container is about
to replace. They should be serviced regularly as
1/4" to 3/8" above the top of the plates. A filler cap with air
recommended by the manufacturer. If maintained properly,
vents is provided to allow gases to escape From battery
they can be used for longer periods. The following aspects
cells..
are to be checked to maintain the battery in good condition.
Chemical Reactions
Check and top up electrolyte level every week. Electrolyte
Discharging (Fig 3): During discharging, the sulphuric should be 10 mm to 15 mm above the plates.
acid is broken into two parts, hydrogen (H2) and sulphate
Check the specific gravity of the battery with a
(SO4). The hydrogen is liberated at the lead peroxide plates
hydrometer.(Fig 5) If the specific gravity falls below 1.180
(PbO2) reducing them to lead oxide (PbO) which combines
then add a few drops of sulphuric acid.
with parts of the sulphuric acid to form lead sulphate
(PbSO4) and water (H2O). The SO4 is liberated at the
spongy lead plate (Pb) and combines with them to form
ed
lead sulphate (PbSO4). During this process the electrolyte
bl I
becomes less concentrated due to absorption of the
pu M
ish
sulphate by the lead plates.
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PbO2 + 2H2SO4 + Pb PbSO4 + 2H2O + PbsO4
(+ve) (electrolyte) (-ve) (+ve) (water) (-ve)
be @
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Sp. gravity readings and the state of charge of the battery

are as follows.
Charging (Fig 4) Sl.No. Specific State of charge

of the battery
1 1.260 - 1.280 Fully charged
2 1.230 - 1.260 3/4 charged
3 1.200 - 1.230 1/2 charged
4 1.170 - 1.200 1/4 charged
5 1.140 - 1.170 About run down
6 1.110 - 1.140 Discharged
Check the voltage across the cell terminals of each cell by 120 Amps 12V 6 Ltrs Diesel HCV
using a cell tester. Cell voltage is 2 to 2.3 volts per cell for
180 Amps 12V 6 Ltrs Diesel passenger
fully charged condition.
Battery rating
If the voltage of each cell is less than specified, then the
battery should be recharged. Ampere-hour rating: The ampere-hour rating provides a
measure of how much current a battery at 800F (270C) will
While charging do not overcharge the battery.
deliver for a fixed period of time without the cell voltage
Keep the battery terminals always tight and clean. dropping below 1.75V (10.5 total terminal volts). Due to a
specified 20 hour time period, this test is sometimes
To prevent formation of corrosion on the terminals smear
referred to as the “20 hour test”. The rating number is
petroleum jelly on it.
determined by multiplying the current delivered by 20. If a
Voltage check of battery : With the help of a voltmeter battery can deliver 3A for the 20 hour period, it receives a
the voltage of battery is tested. This will commonly vary 60 ampere-hour rating. If a battery can deliver 5A for the 20
from 12-13V hour period, it receives a rating of 100 ampere-hour.
Battery selection (Fig 6): Most cars in current production CONVENTIONAL BATTERIES
are equipped with a 12V battery. When a manufacturer BATTERY CAPACITY DISCHARGE RATE
installs a battery in a new car that battery is chosen to
(AMPERE HOURS) (AMPERES)
meet the requirements of that particular car. Prime
importance is the battery’s ability to crank and start the 36 155
engine. The current required to crank on engine can range
41 145
from 150A to over 1000A depending on the size of the
engine, the temperature and the viscosity of the oil in the 45 190
engine. Those factors are all considered in battery selection.
ed
53 175
The number and type of electrical options installed in the
bl I 54 225
pu M
car are also considered.
ish 68 220
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77 228
be @
MAINTENANCE-FREE BATTERIES
BATTERY CAPACITY DISCHARGE RATE
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(AMPERE HOURS) (AMPERES)

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53 200
63 215
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68 235
Co
Battery charging: A discharged battery in good condition

can be charged and retuned to service.
Many types of battery in use, but all chargers operate on
the same principle. They apply an electrical pressure that
The lead acid batteries are made for different vehicle forces current through the battery to reverse the electro
application to suit the electrical demands, While the chemical action in the cells.
voltage of the battery remains same for all application, the Charging rates: The amount of charge a battery receives
ampere-hour rate changes as per demand. is equal to the rate of charge, in amperes, multiplied by the
amount of time, in hours, that the charge is applied. As an
The following examples reveal the importants of ampere- example, a battery charged at the rate of 5A for a period of
hour of a battery. 5 hours would receive a 25 ampere-hour charge. To bring
Vehicle type Battery applicable a battery to a fully charged condition.
2.5 Amps 12V Two wheeler without starter Initial rate for constant voltage taper rate charger.
7 Amps 12V Two wheeler with starter motor To avoid damage, charging rate must be reduced or
temporarily halted if:
35 Amps 12V 800CC - 1000 car petrol
1 Electrolyte temperature exceeds 125oF.
40 - 45 Amps 12V 1300CC Diesel vehicles
2 Violent gassing or spewing of electrolyte occurs.
60 Amps 12V 2.5 Ltrs LCV
80 Amps 12V 4 Ltrs medium
Battery is fully charged when over a two hour period at a low charging rate is too high and should be reduced. Since a
charging rate in amperes all cells are gassing freely and no high charging rate and the resultant high temperature can
change in specific gravity occurs. For the most satisfactory damage a battery, a battery should be charged at the
charging, the lower charging rates in amperes are recom- lowest possible rate.
mended.
Full charge specific gravity is 1.260 - 1.280 corrected for
temperature with electrolyte level at split ring.
Slow charging (Fig 7): Slow charging consists of charg-
ing a battery at a rate of about 5A for a time sufficient to
bring the specific gravity of the electrolyte to its highest
reading. Slow charging many require from 12 to 24 hours
of time. A battery that is sulphated may require even more
time. During the charging period, the electrolyte tempera-
ture should not exceed 1100F (430C). If the electrolyte
temperature rises above 1100F (430C), the charging rate
should be decreased.
A conventional battery with vent plugs is considered fully
charged when the electrolyte is gassing freely and when no
further rise in the specific gravity is noted at intervals of 1
hours. a sealed battery should be slow charged until the
green dot appears in the built-in hydrometer. in some
instances, a sealed battery must be slightly shaken to
allow the green dot to appear.
ed
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ish
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Features of sealed maintenance free battery

• No need for checking electrolyte level and tapping
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throughtout the life.

• Seal construction ensures no leakage of electrolyte
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from terminal or casing.

Benefits
• Saving of 100 litres of distilled water through out its life
time as compared to convention batteries.
• Saving of man power for regular topping up & cleaning
Fast charging (Fig 8): Fast charging will not fully recharge corroded terminals as in conventional batteries.
a battery, it will restore the charge sufficiently to allow the
• No damage of flooring by spoilage of batteries acid or
battery to be used.
water during maintenance.
Fast charging consists of charging a battery at a rate from
• No need of separate battery room.
10 to 50A. The exact charging rate depends on the
construction of the battery, the condition of the battery and • It indicates the battery current charging rate through
the time available. The temperature of the electrolyte inbuilt indictor.
provides an indication of the current charging rate. If the
electrolyte temperature rises above 1250F (650C), the
Electricity effects
• state the electro chemical process
• state the effect of an electric currents.
• state the thermo couple
• state the thermo electric energy
• state the piezo electric energy.
• state the photo voltaia energy.
Chemical sources (Electro chemical process) (Fig 1) Chemical effect (Fig 3)

If two electrically conducting materials (metals) are
immersed in salt solutions, an electric charge is produced
between the two metals (electrodes, poles). Two examples
are given below.
When a current is applied to a battery from a battery charger

various chemical reactions are produced which enable the
ed
electrical energy to be stored in a chemical form.
bl I
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ish
The process is called charging a battery by electrolysis
method (using electric current).
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Copper and Zinc in salt solution is one combination
Heating effect (Fig 4)
Lead and sulphuric acid is another combination.
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This arrangement is known as wet cell and gives direct

current. The second combination is used in a Lead Acid
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Battery for Motor vehicles.

Dynamic electricity (Fig 2)
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When a current is applied to a bulb filament (fine wire) it

becomes white hot and thus produces light.
Magnetic effect (Fig 5)
- If a soft iron bar is placed in a coil of wire and a current
is passed through the wire, the iron bar becomes
The current is produced by A/C or D/C generators, by magnetised. If the current is withdrawn the bar with
conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy. retain some magnetism depending on the materials.
The generation of electric current is based on the fact - If a bar magnetic is moved in a coil of wire, to and fro
when a conductor is moved in a magnetic field an E.M.F then Current flow is occurred in the coil of wire. This
is set up in the conductor. When a large number of can be find by connecting a “Galvanometer”.The current,
conductors are moved in a powerful magnetic field, high will flow only when the bar magnet is moving actually.
voltages and current are produced. This is the Principle of Because, the turns of coil of wire should cut the lines
Dynamo. of force.
The effect of an electric current
Let us now study effects of an electric current. When an
electric current flows through a circuit, its presence could
be analysed by its effects. They are stated below.
into a holes into the cylnider head.Glow plug is a in-built
miniature piezo-electric sensor.
Photo voltaic energy:

Photo volatile (PV) is a term which covers the conversion
of light into electricity by using semiconducting materials
that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. This effect is seen in
combination of two layers of semi conductor materials,
one layer of this combination will have it depleted number
of electrons.
When sunlight strikes on this layer, it absorbs the photons
of sunlight ray and consequently the electrons are excited
Shock effect and jump to the other layer. This phenomenon creates a
If the current flow through Human body, it may give a severe charge difference between the layer and resulting to a tiny
stock or cause even death of the individuals so one must potential difference between them.
be careful in dealing with electrical current during work. The unit of such combination of two layers of semi
Note : conductor materials, for producing electric potential
deference in sunlight is called solar cell. Silicon is normally
In motor vehicle trade application, the following effect
used as solar cell. For building cell, silicon material is cut
electric current are widely used
and very thin wafers. Some of these wafers are doped with
- Chemical effect-for battery. impurities. Then both doped and undated wafers are and
switched together to build solar cell. A metallic strip is
- Heating effect-Head lamp bulbs for lighting.
reached to two extreme layers to collect current.
ed
- Magnetic effect-Electro magnets in relays and cuts.
bl I A desired number of solar cell are connected together in
pu M
ish
Thermocouple (Fig 6) both parallel and series to form a solar module for
producing desired electricity.
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The solar cell can also work in cloudy weather as well is

moon light but the rate of production of electricity low as
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and it depends up on intensity of incident light ray.

Fig 1 describes the typical system of solar panels,
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controller, energy storage, inverter for converting DC into

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AC and how the system is connected to power grid.

Solar panels installation may be ground, rooftop or wall
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mounted. The solar panels mount may be fixed a solar

tracker to follow the sun across the sky.
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Photo voltaic systems have long been used in specialized

applications and stand alone and grid-connected PV
This is such an arrangment where circuit is closed by
systems have been in use since the 1990. After hydro and
wires of different metals. One metal wire is kept at low
wind powers, PV is the third renewable energy source in
temperature and the other at high temperature. In this
term of global capacity. The PV energy covering
way thermo-electro motive force is created which can be
approximately two percent of global electricity demand. It
seen by galvanometer. This works on the effect of
is an environmentally clean source of energy and it is free
seebake.
and available in adequate quanties in all the parts of world.
Thermo electric energy
Advantages of solar photo voltaic: Solar panels once
Thermo electric energy is the electrical energy produced installed. Its operation generates no pollution and no green
by waste heat of an IC engine using seeback effect. house gas emissions it is simple salability in respect of
Thermo electric generation can convert waste heat from power needs and silicon has large availability in earth
an engine coolant or exhaust into electricity. Disadvantages of solar photovoltaic (Fig 7) : The power
Piezo - electric energy output is dependent on direct sunlight. That 10-25% is
lost, if a tracking system is not used. Dust, clouds and
Piezo electric sensor is a device that uses the piezo electri other obstruction in the atmosphere also diminish the power
effect to measure the changes in pressure, acceleration output. Solar photovoltaic power needs to be stored for
or force, by convertring them to an electrical charge. later use.
Application
It is used to initiate combustion in the IC engine mounted
Electromagetic induction, self-induced emf - inductors
Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
ed
• state the principle and law of electromagnetic induction.
bl I
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Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction are also
ish
According induced emf can be produced either by moving
applicable for conductors carrying alternating current. the conductor in a stationery magnetic field by changing
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magnetic flux over a stationery conductor. When conductor

What are Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction? moves and produces emf, the emf is called as dynamically
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Faraday’s First Law states that whenever the magnetic induced emf Ex. generators.
flux is linked with a circuit changes, an emf is always
induced in When changing flux produces emf the emf is called as
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statically induced emf as explained below. Ex: Transformer.

The second Law states that the magnitude of the induced
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emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.

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Tracing auto electrical components in circuit - Solenoid & relay

• define a realy
• classify relays according to the operating force and function
• describe the function of current sensing relay & Voltage sensing relay
• state the function of solenoid.
Relay : A realy is a device which opens or closes an Voltage sensing relay : A voltage sensing relay is used
auxiliary circuit under predetermined conditions in the main where a condition of under - voltage or over - voltage may
circuit. cause a damage to the equipment. For example, these
types of relays are used in voltage stabilizers. Either a
Relays are extensively used in electronics, electrical
proportional AC voltage derived from a transformer or a
engineering and many other fields.
proportional DC derived from a transformer and rectifier is
The relays are sensitive to conditions of voltage, current, used for this purpose.
temperature, frequency or some combination of these
Solenoid
conditions.
Solenoid is a coil wound into a tightly packed to a long
Relays are also classified according to their main operating
thin loop of wire, often wraped arrouned a metalic core,
force as stated under
which produces a uniform magnetic field in a volume of
- Electromagnetic relays space. (Fig. 2)
ed
- Thermal relays
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ish
Electromagnetic relay : A relay switch assembly is a
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combination of movable and fixed low - resistance contacts
that open or close a circuit. The fixed contacts are mounted
on springs or brackets, which have soem flexibility. The
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movable contacts are mounted on a spring or a hinged

arm that is moved by the electromagnet int he relay as
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shown in (Fig 1).

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Application
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Need for solenoid switch: The solenold switch is a strong

electromagnetic switch. It is used to operate the over
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running clutch drive pinion to engage with the fly wheel

ring gear. It also acts as a relay to close the contacts
between the bettery and the staring motor.
Construction fo solenoid switch (Fig 3) : In a solenoid
there are two windings, a pull-in winding (1) and a hold - in
winding (11). The pull - in winding (10) is wound with thick
wires (series winding) and the hold - in winding (11) is of
thin wires ( shunt winding). The pull-in winding (10) is
connected to the starter switch (3) in the solenoid.
The other types of relays coming under this group are as The hold in winding (2) is connecteed across the switch
follows. terminal and ground. The two windings are wound around
Current sensing relay : A current sensing relay functions a hollow core (4). An iron plunger (5) is placed inside the
whenever the current the coil reaches an uppe limit. The core (4). The other end of the plunger moves a shift lever
difference between the current specified for pick up (must (7) to engage the pinion (8) with the fly wheel ring gear (9).
operate) and non - pick up (must non operate) is usually
closely controlled. The difference in current may also be
closely controlled for drop out (must release) and non -
drop out (must not release).
207
Function of solenold switch : When the starter switch
(3) is turned, current flows from the battery to the solenoid
windings (1) and (2). This energises the windings which
pull the plunger (5). The plunger (5) operates are shift lever
(7) to engage the pinion (8) on the flywheel ring gear (9).
Then it closes the circuit between the battery (10) and the
starting motor.
Primary and secondary winding, transformers, stator and rotor coil.

• define the primary and secondary of a transformer
• state the constructional features of a power transformer and the function of each part
• state the reasons for laminated silicon steel being used as core material.
ed
Two- winding transformers is lost when transforming power from one voltage level to
bl I another. Typical efficiencies are int he range of 92 to 99%.

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A transformer in its simplest form consists of two stationary
ish
coils coupled by a mutual magnetic flux (Fig 1). The coils
The higher values apply to the large power transformers.
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There is no change in frequency of voltage.
are said to be mutually coupled because they link a
common flux. Transformer
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A transformer is an electrical device that transforms the

AC voltage between two circuit through an electromagnetic
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induction.
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A transformer may be used as a safe and efficient voltage

convertor to change the AC/DC voltage and its to a higher
/ lower voltage its ouput without changing the frequency
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and power.
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Types
1. Step up transformer
Laminated steel core transformers are used in power 2. Step down tranformer
applications. As shown in Fig 1, the current flowing in the
coil connected to the AC source is called the primary Application
winding or simply primary. The primary is the input to a Transformer is used in (1) ignition coil in petorl engine
transformer. It sets up the flux in the core, which varies igrition system and battery charger.
periodically both in magnitude and direction. The flux links
the second coil, called the secondary winding or simply Ignition coil (Fig. 2)
the secondary.
It is used to step up low voltage to high voltage to generate
The flux is changing; therefore, it induces a voltage in the sparks. It consists of two windings, one wound over soft
secondary by electromagnetic induction. Thus the primary iron core. The secondary winding (1) is wound over the
receives its power from the source while the secondary core (2). It consists of about 21,000 turns. One end of the
supplies this power to the load. This action is known as winding is connected to the secondary terminal (3) and
transformer action. There is no electrical connection the other end to the primary winding (4). The primary winding
between these two coils. (4) is wound over the secondary winding (1) and consists
of about 200-300 turns. The ends are connected to the
Transformers are afficient and reliable devices used mainly external terminal (5,6) of coil. The bakelite cap (7) insulates
to change voltage levels. Transformers are efficient the secondary terminal from the container and primary
because the rotational losses are absent; so little power terminals.
The drive end frame supports a pre - lubricated sealed
sliprimgs in which the drive end of rotor shaft rotates.
The rotor and its shaft is mounted and encased between

drive end frame and slip ring end frame.
The rotor assembly (Fig 4)
This consists of a steel shaft which carries the driving

pulley and cooling fan, a cylindrical iron core, and two
stationary part which is held between two end covers.
(Fign 5)
Rotor
ed
Rotor is the moving part of a rotary electric motor, electric
bl I
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generator alternated which rotates because the wire and
ish
magnitive field of the motor are arranged so that them to
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develop about the rotar axis.
Description of parts of an alternator

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Drive end frame (Fig 3)

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Diodes
• state the meaning of semiconductors
• state how P and N materials are formed
• state the unique property of a PN junction
• list the different classifications of diodes
• state the polarity
• list a few type numbers/code numbers of diodes.
Semiconductors 2) P-type semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical property When a trivalent material like Gallium(Ga) is added to a
lies between that of Conductors and Insulators. Because pure Germanium or pure Silicon crystal, one vacancy or
of this fact, these materials are termed as semiconductors. deficit of electron results per bond as shown in Fig 2a. As
In conductors the valence electrons are always free. In an every gallium atom creates one deficit of electron or hole,
insulator the valence electrons are always bound. Whereas the material is ready to accept electrons when supplied.
in a semiconductor the valence electrons are normally Hence gallium is called acceptor impurity. Since vacancy
bound but can be set free by supplying a small amount of for an electron is available, and as this vacancy is a hole
energy. Several electronic devices are made using which is of Positive charge, the material so formed is known
ed
semiconductor materials. One such device is known as as P-type material.
Diode.
bl I When a P-type material is connected across a battery as
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1) N-type semiconductors
ish shown in Fig 2b, current flows due to the availability of free
holes. As this current is due to flow of holes, the current is
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When a pentavalent material like Arsenic (As) is added to
called hole current.
a pure Germanium or pure Silicon crystal, one free electron
results per bond as shown in Fig 1a. As every arsenic atom
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donates one free electron, arsenic is called the donor

impurity. Since a free electron is available and since the
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electron is of a Negative charge, the material so formed by

mixing is known as N type material.
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P-N junction
When a P-type and a N-type semiconductors are joined,
a contact surface between the two materials called PN-
junction is formed. This junction has a unique characteris-
tic. This junction, has the ability to pass current in one
When a N-type material is connected across a battery, as direction and stop current flow in the other direction. To
shown in Fig 1b, current flows due to the availability of free make use of this unique property of the PN junction, two
electrons. As this current is due to the flow of free
electrons, the current is called electron current.
210
2 Based on their principal application, diodes can
be classified as,
– Signal diodes
low power diodes used in communication circuits
such as radio receivers etc. for signal detection
and mixing
– Switching diodes
low power diodes used in switching circuits such
as digital electronics etc. for fast switching ON/
OFF of circuits
– Rectifier diodes
medium to high power used in power supplies for
electronic circuits for converting AC voltage to DC.
Polarity marking on the diodes
The cathode end of a diode is usually marked by a circular
band or by a dot or by plus (+) sign. In some diodes the
symbol of the diode, which itself indicates the polarities, is
printed on the body of the diode.
Type number or diode code number
ed
Unlike resistors, capacitors or inductors, the diodes do not
have any value that can be printed or coded on its body.
bl I
pu M
The other reason for this is, there are almost innumerable
ish
terminals one on the P side and the other on the N side are
types of diodes with varied current handling and other
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attached. Such a PN junction with terminals attached is
specifications. Hence, instead of printing its specifications
called a Diode. The typical symbol of a PN-junction diode
on its body, all diodes will have a type number printed on
is shown in Fig 3a.
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their body. This type number carries a set of specifications

Types of diodes which can be found out by referring to a diode data manual.
Diode data manuals give data of several thousands of
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The PN junction diodes discussed so far are commonly

diodes from different manufacturers. Some of the popular
referred to as rectifier diodes. This is because these
type numbers of diodes are
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diodes are used mostly in the application of rectifying AC

to DC. OAxx, xx - from 70 to 95. examples:
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Classification of Diodes OA79, OA85 etc.,

1 Based on their current carrying capacity/power
Co
BYxxx, xxx- from 100 examples:

handling capacity, diodes can be classified as
onwards, BY127, BY128 etc.
– low power diodes
can handle power of the order of several milliwatts DRxxx, xxx- from 25 examples:
only onwards. DR25, DR150 etc.,
– medium power diodes
1Nxxxx examples: 1N917 1N4001, 1N4007
can handle power of the order of several watts only etc.
– high power diodes
can handle power of the order of several 100’s of
watts.
Transistors and classification
• state the two main uses of transistors
• list the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes
• list the important classifications of transistors
• state the use of a transistor data book
• state the names given to the leads of a transistor
• state the functions of the three sections of a transistor
• state the uses of putting sleeves to transistor leads
• describe the two tests to be conducted on a transistor before using it.
Introduction to Transistors Other important application of transistors is its use as a
Transistors are the semiconductor devices having three or solid state switch. A solid state switch is nothing but a
four leads/terminals. Fig 1a shows some typical transis- switch which does not involve any physical ON/OFF
tors. Fig 1b shows the symbols used for different types of contacts for switching.
transistors. Transistors can be thought of as two PN junction diodes
connected back to back as shown in Fig 3.
ed
bl I
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ish
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Before the transistors were invented (1947), there was

vacuum tubes which were used in amplifiers. A typical
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vacuum tube is shown in Fig 4a.

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Transistors are mainly used for enlarging or amplifying

small electric/electronic signals as shown in Fig 2. The
circuit which uses transistors for amplifying is known as a
transistor amplifier.
Compared with the present day transistors the vacuum
tubes were big in size , consumed more power, generated
lot of unwanted heat and were fragile. Hence vacuum tubes
became absolute as soon as transistors came to market.
Transistors were invented by Walter H. Brazil and John
Barlow of Bell Telephone Laboratories on 23rd Dec. 1947.
Compared to vacuum tubes (also known as valves),
transistors have several advantages. Some important
advantages are listed below;
– Very small in size (see Fig 4b)
– Light in weight
– Minimum or no power loss in the form of heat
– Low operating voltage
– Rugged in construction.
To satisfy the requirements of different applications, several

types of transistors in different types of packaging are
available. As in diodes, depending upon the characteristics,
transistors are given a type number such as BC 107, 2N
6004 etc., The characteristics data corresponding to these
type numbers are given in Transistor data books.
Classification of Transistors
ed
1 Based on the semiconductor used. Low power Medium power High power
– Germanium transistors
bl I transistors transistors transistors
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– Silicon transistors
ish (less than (2 to 10 watts) (more than
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Like in diodes, transistors can be made, using any one of 2 watts) 10 watts)
the above two important semiconductors. However, most
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of the transistors are made using silicon. This is because,

silicon transistors work better over a wide temperature
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range (higher thermal stability) compared to germanium

transistors.
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Transistor data books give information about the

semiconductor used in any particular transistor.
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2 Based on the way the P and N junctions are

Medium power and high power transistors, also known as
organized as shown in Fig 5.
Co
large signal amplifiers are used for achieving medium to

– NPN transistors high power amplification. For example, signals to be given
– PNP transistors to loudspeakers etc. High power transistors are usually
mounted on metal chassis or on a physically large piece
Both NPN and PNP transistors are equally useful in of metal known as heat sink. The function of heat sink is
electronic circuits. However, NPN transistors are preferred to, take away the heat from the transistor and pass it to air.
for the reason that NPN has higher switching speed
compared to PNP. Transistor data books give information about the power
handling capacity of different transistors.
Whether a transistor is PNP or NPN can be found with the
help of transistor data book. Thyristor and the characteristics of SCR
3 Based on the power handling capacity of transistors Introduction: Thyristors are four layer device which can be
as shown in Table below (Fig 6). switched ‘on’ or ‘off’ electronically to control relatively large
amounts of current for motors and other electrical
Low power transistors, also known as small signal equipments. The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) and
amplifiers, are generally used at the first stage of the triac are examples of thyristor. Almost all electronic
amplification in which the strength of the signal to be controls used in modern industries consist of electronic
amplified is low. For example, to amplify signals from a circuits with thyristors.
microphone, tape head, transducers etc.,
Working of SCR: The SCR is a four-layer device with three gate is removed, the meter still continues to read the same
terminals, namely, the anode, the cathode, and the gate. value of 30 and 40 Ohm.
When the anode is made positive with respect to the
This means that the SCR is in good working condition. If
cathode (Fig 7), junction J2 is reverse-biased and only the
the meter does not show any reading, the SCR is faulty.
leakage current will flow through the device. The SCR is
When the gate is given a small forward bias, the gate
then said to be in the forward blocking state or off-state.
switching the SCR and the internal resistance of the
When the anode-to-cathode voltage is increased, the
junction is low, so the current can flow easily from the
reverse-biased junction J2 will break down due to the large
cathode to the anode. Once the SCR is conducted, even
voltage gradient across the depletion layers. This is the
if the gate’s forward bias is removed, the SCR anode-to-
avalanche breakdown. Since the other junctions J1 and J3
cathode current will flow through the meter, and the
are forward-biased, there will be free carrier movement
multimeter will continue to read a low resistance, ie 30 to
across all the three junctions, resulting in a large anode-to-
40 Ohm.
cathode forward current IF. The voltage drop VF across the
device will be the ohmic drop in the four layers, and the
device is then said to be in the conduction state or on-state.
ed
bl I
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ish Thermistor: It is also semiconductor device used in most
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vehicles today. They are named because they are actually

a temperature sensitive resistor. It is made of powdered
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nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and manganese which has

been fused together at a higher temperature. The electrical
resistance of a thermistor changes greatly with temperature.
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In the on-state, the current is limited by the external

impedance. If the anode-to cathode voltage is now Thermistors are used to detect various temperatures or
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reduced, since the original depletion layer and the reverse- changes in temperature. Their most frequent use involves
biased junction J2 no longer exist due to the free movement the measurement of engine coolant temperature, or inlet air
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of the carriers, the device will continue to stay on. When temperature.
the forward current falls below the level of the holding
In the most common type of thermistor, the resistance
current Ih, the depletion region will begin to develop around
Co
decreases as the temperature increases. This type is

J2 due to the reduced number of carriers, and the device
called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
will go to the blocking state. Similarly, when the SCR is
Some thermistors are of the positive temperature coefficient
switched on, the resulting forward current has to be more
(PTC) type. This means that the resistance of the thermistor
than the latching current IL. This is necessary for maintaining
increases with temperature. NTC type thermistors are
the required amount of carrier flow across the junctions;
used in automobiles as engine coolant temperature sensors
otherwise, the device will return to the blocking state as
as shown in Fig 9.
soon as the anode-to-cathode voltage is reduced. The
holding current is usually lower than, but very close to the
latching current; its magnitude is in the order of a few
milliampere(mA). When the cathode is made positive with
respect to the anode, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse-
biased, and a small reverse leakage current will flow
through the SCR. This is the reverse blocking state of the
device.
Set the multimeter to a low range. Adjust to zero and
infinity with the adjustment knob. Connect the SCR as
shown in Fig 8. The meter will not indicate any reading.
Even the test prods are interchanged because of the Thermistors can also be used to detect the temperature of
junctions. The multimeter shows infinite resistance. the air. Many of the computer controlled fuel system in use
Connect the SCR as shown in Fig 8. When the gate is utilize air temperature as an input. These are easily
touched momentarily with the anode prods, the meter installed and wired into the computers and will have their
reads low resistance between 30 and 40 Ohm. When the resistance changes seen as temperature changes.
Uni-junction transistor (UJT)
• explain the construction, equivalent circuit and symbol of an UJT
• state the application of UJT.
The Uni-junction transistor (UJT): The uni-junction 1b). The emitter (P-type) form a PN junction with the n-type
transistor consists of a bar of lightly doped n-type silicon silicon bar and this junction is represented by a diode in the
with small piece of heavily doped P-type material joined to equivalent circuit (Fig 1b). The circuit symbol is shown in
one side at 60% of height from the base as shown in Fig Fig 1c.
1a. The end terminals are named as base 1(B1) or Cathode
Application of UJTs: UJTs are employed in a wide variety
(K) and base 2(B2) or anode (A) and the P-type material as
of circuits involving electronic switching and voltage or
emitter (E). The highly doped n-type material has a high
current sensing applications.
resistance and can be represented by two resistor rB1 and
rB2. The sum of rB1 and rB2 is designated as RBB (Refer Fig
ed
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ish
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Field effect Transistors

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• explain the difference between bi-polar transistors and field effect transistors
• write the basic construction and symbol used.
Co
• explain the theory of operation of FETs

• explain a typical FET a.c voltage amplifiers.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)

The main difference between a Bi-polar transistor and a
FET is that,
Bi-polar transistor is a current controlled device.
In simple terms it means that the main current in a bi-polar
transistor is controlled by the base current.
FET is a voltage controlled device.
This means that the voltage at the gate controls the main
current.
In addition to the above, in a bi-polar transistor,the main
current always flows through N-doped and P-doped
semiconductor materials.Where as in a FET the main If the main current flow is only through the N-doped
current flows either only through the N-doped semiconductor material,then such a FET is reffered as a P-channel or P
or only through the P-doped semiconductor as shown in type FET.The current through the P-doped material in the
Fig 1. P-type FET is only by Holes.
Unlike in bipolar transistors in which the main current is FET notation listed below are essential and worth
both by electrons and holes.In contrast in FETs depending memorizing.
on the type(P or N type) the main current in either by
1 Source terminal: It is the terminal through which majority
electrons and holes and never both.for this reason FETs
carriers enter the bar (N or P bar depending upon the
are also known as Unipolar transistors or unipolar device.
type of FET).
Junctin Field Effect Transistor(JFET)
2 Drain terminal: It is the terminal through which majority
It is a three terminal device and looks similar to a bi-polar carriers come out of the bar.
transistor.The standard circuit symbols of N-channel and
3 Gate terminal: These are two internally connected
P-channel type FETs are shown in Fig2.
heavily doped regions which form two P-N junctions.
4 Channel: It is the space between the two gates through
which majority carriers pass from source to drain when
FET is working (on).
Working of FET
Similar to Bipolar transistors, the working point of adjustment
Construction and stabilization are also required for FETs.
As shown in Fig 3a, a N-channel JFET has a narrow bar of
n-type. To this,two p-type junctions are diffused on opposite
sides of its middle part fig 3a.These diffused junctions form
two PN diodes or gates.The N-type semiconductor area
between these junctions/gates is called the channel. The
diffused P regions on opposite sides of the channel are
ed
integrally connected and a single lead is brought out which
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is called gate lead or terminal.Direct electrical connections
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are made at the two ends of the bar. One of which is called
source terminal S and the other terminal,D is called drain-
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D.
A P-channel FET very similar to the N-channel FET in
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construction except that it uses P-type bar and two N-type

junctions as shown in Fig 3b.
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Biasing a JFET When gate is reverse biased with a negative voltage as
shown in Fig 4b,the static field established at the gate
The biasing arrangement of JFET is shown in Fig 4. In which
causes depletion region to occur in the channel as shown
the gates are always reverse biased. Therefore the gate
in Fig 4b.
current Ig is practically zero.
This depletion region decreases the width of the channel
The current source terminal is always connected to that
causing the drain current to decrease.
end of the supply which provides the necessary charge
carriers. For instance, in a N-channel JFET source terminal If Vgs is made more and more negative, the channel width
S is connected to the negative of the d.c power supply.And, decreases further resulting in further decreases in drain
the positive of the d.c power supply is connected to the current. When the negative gate voltage is sufficiently
drain terminal of the JFET. high, the depletion regions meet and block the channel
cutting off the flow of drain current as shown in Fig 4c.This
Where as in a P channel JFET,Source is connected to the
voltage at which this effect occurs is referred to as the
positive end of the power supply and the drain is connected
pinch off voltage, Vp.
to the negative end of the for the drain to get the holes from
the P-channel Where the holes are the charge carriers. Thus, by varying the reverse bias voltage between gate and
source (-Vgs),the drain current can be varied between
Where as in a N channel JFET, the drain is made positive
maximum current (with –Vgs=0) and zero current (with –
with respect to source by voltage Vds as shown Fig
Vgs=pinch off voltage).So,JFET can be reffered as a
4a.When gate to source voltage Vgs is zero, there is no
voltage controlled devices.
control voltage and maximum electron current flows from
source(S)-through the channel-to the drain (D).This electron P channel JFET operates in the same way as explained
current from source to drain is referred to as Drain current,Id. above except that bias voltages are reversed and the
majority carrier of channel are holes.
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Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET)
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• state the MOSFET’s operation principle and its types
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• list the special type of MOSFET

• explain the features of MOSFET.
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In MOSFETs, control is via an insulating layer instead of a channel, which produces an electrical connection between
junction (as in JFETS). This insulating layer is generally the source and drain without an external field-action. This
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made of silicon dioxide, from which the very name MOSFET channel is covered by an insulting layer of silicon dioxide
is derived(Metal Oxide Semiconductor). Some times the (SIO2), to which a metal electrode is applied as the gate
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MOSFETs are also referred to as Insulated-gate FET, for connection.

which the abbreviation used are IFET or IGFET.
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If a voltage UDS is applied between source and drain, at UGS

=)V an electron current flows from the source electrode via
Type of MOSFET
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the n-channel to the drain electrode. If, however, a negative

Depletion-type MOSFET voltage is applied to control electrode G, the electrons
present in the n-channel are forced out of the vicinity of the
Construction and mode of operation
gate electrode, so that a zone depleted of charge carriers
Fig 1 shows the construction of a depletion MOSFET of the is produced there. This causes a constriction of the n-
n-channel type. channel and consequently also a reduction of its
conductivity. If the gate voltage becomes more negative,
the conductivity of the channel is reduced, as is consequently
also the drain current I. Another peculiarity of depletion
type MOSFET s is that they can also be controlled with a
positive gate-voltage. charge carries are then drawn out of
the P- doped substrate into then-channel and its conductivity
is increased even further, compared with the conductivity
at UGS- OV
Designations and circuit symbols
The same designations are used for the connections of
MOSFETs as they are for JFETs, I,e. source, drain and
gate. MOSFETs, however, have another electrode, which
Here, two highly doped n-zones are diffused into p-doped is referred to as the substrate connection. Together, which
silicon plate, which is referred to as the substrate, and are is referred to as the substrate connection, Together with
provided with junction-free drain and source connections. the semiconductor material of the channel, this substrate
Between the two zones there is a thin weakly n-doped
forms a P-N junction, which can be used as a second Enhancement-type MOSFET
control- electrode. It is then led out of the casing. Like the
Construction and mode of operation
other electrodes is connected directly to the additional
control possibility. Enhancement-type MOSFETs have a similar technological
construction to the depletion types. Without the external
Fig 2 Shows the circuit symbols for depletion- type n-
action of a field. However no conducting channel exists
channel MOSFETs and p-channel MOSFETs. For the n-
between the drain connection and the source connection,
channel type, the arrow points towards the line representing
so that at UGS=)V, no drain current can flow, Fig 3. shows
the channel, in the case of the P-Channel type, on the other
the construction of an enhancement-type n-channel
hand, it points away from the line representing the channel.
MOSFET.
The continuous line representing the channel indicates
that it is depletion-type MOSFET.
N- Channel MOSFETs are operated with a positive drain-

source Voltage. They have a considerably greater practical
significance than p-channel MOSFETs, which require a
ed
negative drain-source voltage for their operation.
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Basic logic gates

• describe the AND, OR, NOT & NAND gate and their applications with simple digital circuits.
Logic circuits (Fig 1): Digital ICs are made up of many Similarly, in an actual AND gate, there will be an “on” signal
different elements. Most important of these are transistors. (often represented as the number 1) at the output terminal
This transistor circuits are called logic circuits or digital (C) only if there is a voltage at both input terminals (A and
circuits and are made up of combinations of different types B). If either A or B is zero (off) or if both are zero, C will also
of so-called gates. These gates have the special ability to be zero. These combination can be shown in a truth table.
logically process two or more signals. Thus they are also
AND - gate truth table
called logic gates.
Inputs Output
A B C
0 0 0
The “AND” Gate:
Logic circuits are usually indicated by a special symbol. 0 1 0
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Such a circuit, however is actually composed of semicon-
ductor elements as shown in (Fig 2). 1 0 0
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The “OR” Gate (Fig 4, 5 & 6)

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Fig 4 shown the symbol for an “OR” gate, its corresponding

semiconductor circuit, and an equivalent mechanical circuit.
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To make an AND gate easily understand, a simple me-

chanical circuit without the use of semiconductors is
shown in (Fig 3). In this circuit the switches A and B are
equivalent to (C). The light bulb lights only if both switches
A and B are closed. If either switch is open, the bulb will (or
it both are open), not come on.
219
If there is voltage at either input terminal (or if there is a “NAND” is a combination of “AND” gate and a “NOT” gate
voltage at both inputs) there will be voltage at the output as shown in (Fig 10).
terminal “OR” gate truth table is given.
The symbol for a “NOT” gate is shown in (Fig 7). A
corresponding semiconductor circuit and an equivalent
mechanical circuit are as shown in (Fig 8).
A zero will appear at the output terminal (C) only if there is

a voltage at both input terminals (A and B). If there is a zero
at either A or B, an “on” signal (number 1) will appear at C.
This can be observed in Truth Table as shown.
A “NOR” gate is a combination of an “OR” gate and a NOT
gate (Fig 11). For this reason, an “on” signal will appear at
the output terminal only if there is an “off” signal (zero) at
both input terminals. If there is an “on” signal at either A or
B, terminal C will zero as shown in the truth table.
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In the mechanical NOT circuit, the light bulb doesnot go on
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if switch A is closed. When switch A is opened the relay
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closes and the bulb is turned on.
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As can be seen in the truth table, the “NOT” gate inverts the
signal so that the output is always the opposite of the input.
For this reason it is called as “inverter”. (Fig 9)
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Mechanic Diesel - Arc & Gas Welding
Principles of arc welding brief description classification and applications

• state the principle of arc welding
• state the clasification of arc welding
• state the application of arc welding
Arc welding is a welding process, in which heat is

generated by an electric arc struck between an electrode
and the work piece.
Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two
electrodes through ionized gas.
• Power supply (AC or DC)
• Welding electrode
• Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode
and work piece to the power supply.
Carbon arc welding (Fig 3): Here the arc is formed
• Electric arc between the electrode and work piece
between a carbon electrode (non-consumable) and the
closes the electric circuit. The arc temperature may
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welding job.
reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion
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the work piece edges and joining them.
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A separate filler rod is used since the carbon electrode is

a non-metal and will not melt.
Classification and applications of Arc welding
Atomic hydrogen arc welding (Fig 4): In this process the
• Shield metal arc welding arc is formed between two tungsten electrodes in an
• Carbon arc welding atmosphere of hydrogen gas.
• Tungsten inert gas arc welding

• Gas metal arc welding
• Atomic Hydrogen are welding
• Submerged arc welding
• Electro slag welding
• Plasma arc welding
Shielded Metal arc welding (Fig 1,2): This is an arc

welding process in which the welding heat is obtained from
an arc, formed between a metallic (consumable) electrode
and welding job.
The metal electrode itself melts and acts as a filler metal.
221
The welding job remains out of the welding circuit.
A separate filler rod is used to add the filler metal.
Tungsten inert gas arc welding (TIG) (Fig 5): In this case
the arc is formed between the tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable) and the welding job in an atmosphere of an
inert gas (argon or helium).
A separate filler rod is used to add the filler metal.
This process is also called gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) process.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or Metal inert gas arc When the inert gas is replaced by carbon dioxide then it is
welding (MIG) (Fig 6): In this process the arc is formed called CO2 arc welding or metal active gas (MAG) arc
between a continuous, automatically fed, metallic con- welding.
sumable electrode and welding job in an atmosphere of
inert gas, and hence this is called metal inert gas arc The common name for this process is gas metal arc
welding (MIG) process. welding (GMAW).
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Submerged arc welding (Fig 7): Here the arc is formed sumable electrode and the welding job under a heap of
between a continuous, automatically fed, metallic con- powdered/granulated flux.
The arc is totally submerged in the flux (invisible).
Electro-slag welding (Fig 8): The arc is formed between
a continuous, automatically fed, metallic consumable
electrode and the welding job under a thick pool of molten
flux (slag).
This automatic process requires special equipment and is
used only in vertical position for the welding of heavy thick
plates.
Plasma arc welding: In this process the arc is formed
between a tungsten electrode and the welding job in an
atmosphere of plasma-forming gas-nitrogen, hydrogen and
argon.
A separate filler rod is used to add the filler metal in the joint,
if necessary. But normally no filler rod is used.
Arc-Welding machines
• state the function of arc-welding machines
• name the different types of arc-welding machines.
ed
In the arc-welding process, the source of heat is electricity
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(high ampere low voltage). This heat is supplied by the arc-
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welding machine which is the power source.
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Function (Fig 1)
The equipment is used to
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- Provide A.C. or D.C. supply for arc welding

- Change the high voltage of main supply (A.C.) to low
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voltage, heavy current (A.C. or D.C.) suitable for arc

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welding
- Control and adjust the required supply of current during
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arc welding - Engine generator set

- Rectifier sets.
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A.C.Machines
• Transformer sets
A.C. means Alternating Current. It changes or reverses its
direction of flow 50-60 cycles per second. (Fig 3)
Power sources (Fig 2)

Basically the power sources are
- Alternating current (A.C.) welding machine
- Direct current (D.C.) welding machine. D.C. means Direct Current. It flows steadily and constantly
These may be further classified as in one direction. (Fig 4)
D.C.Machines
- Motor generator set
A.C. Arc welding machine
• state the features of A.C. welding transformers
• state the advantages and disadvantages of A.C. welding machines.
A.C. welding transformer

An A.C.welding transformer is a type of A.C. welding
machine which converts the A.C. main supply into an A.C.
welding supply. (Figs 1 and 2)
ed
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The A.C. welding machine cannot be operated without the

A.C. main supply.
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Advantages
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• Less initial cost

• Less maintenance cost
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• Freedom from arc blow.

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Magnetic effect which disturbs the arc is called the arc

The A.C. main supply has high voltage - low ampere. blow.
The A.C. welding supply has high ampere - low voltage. Disadvantages
• Not suitable for the welding of non-ferrous metals, light
It is a STEP-DOWN transformer which reduces the main
coated and special electrodes.
supply voltage (220 or 440 volts) to the welding supply open
circuit voltage (O.C.V.), between 40 and 100 volts. • The A.C. cannot be used without special safety precau-
tions.
It increases the main supply low current to the required
output welding current in a hundred or thousand amperes.
D.C. Arc-welding machines
• state the features of a D.C. welding machine
• state its advantages and disadvantages.
Motor generator set (Fig 1) Rectifier set (Fig 3)

It is used to generate D.C. for arc-welding. It is used to convert A.C. into D.C. welding supply.
The generator is driven by an A.C. or D.C. motor. Basically it is an A.C. welding transformer. The output of
Main supply is a must to run the machine. the transformer is connected with a rectifier to change the
A.C. into D.C.
It may be designed to supply both A.C. and D.C. currents
for welding (called A.C.-D.C. rectifier set).
ed
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Engine generator set (Fig 2)

Equipment is similar to the motor generator set except that
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the generator is driven by a pertrol or diesel engine.

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Its running and maintenance charges are higher.

It can be used anywhere in field work, away from electric
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lines.
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Advantages
Suitable for welding all ferrous and non-ferrous metals
using all types of electrodes
- Better heat distribution in the electrode and job due to
polarity in the welding current supplies constant main
load and accurate current setting.
It ensures safe working.
Disadvantages
• Initial cost is higher
• Maintenance cost is more
• Arc-blow trouble faced at certain times.
Edge preparation
• state the necessity of edge preparation
• describe the edge preparation for butt and fillet welds.
Necessity of edge preparation: Joints are prepared to TYPES OF EDGE PREPARATION AND SETUP
weld metals. The preparation of edges are also necessary
prior to welding in order to obtain the required strength to Different edge preparations generally used in arc welding
the joint. The following factors are to be taken into are shown in (Fig 1).
consideration for the edge preparation.
– The welding process like SMAW, oxy-acetylene welds,

Co2, electro-slag etc.
– The type of metal to be jointed, (i.e.) mild steel,
stainless steel, aluminium, cast iron etc.
– The thickness of metal to be joined.
– The type of weld (groove and fillet weld)
– Economic factors
The square butt weld is the most economical to use, since
this weld requires no chamferring, provided satisfactory
strength is attained. The joints have to be bevelled when the
ed
parts to be welded are thick so that the root of the joints
bl I
have to be made accessible for welding in order to obtain
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ish
the required strength.
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In the interest of economy, bevel butt welds should be

selected with minimum root opening and groove angles
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such that the amount of weld metal to be deposited is the

smallest. "J" and "U" butt joints may be used to further
minimise weld metal when the savings are sufficient to
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justify the more difficult and costly chamferring operations.

The "J" joint is usually used in fillet welds.
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A root gap is recommended since the spacing allows the

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shrinking weld to draw the plates freely together in the butt

joint. Thus, it is possible to reduce weld cracking and
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minimise distortion and increase penetration, by providing

a root gap for some welded joints.
Method of edge preparation: The joining edges may be
prepared for welding by any one of the methods mentioned
below.
– Flame cutting
– Machine tool cutting
– Machine grinding or hand grinding
– Filing, chipping
Mechanic Diesel - Arc & Gas Welding
Tools and equipment used in oxy-acetylene gas welding

Objectives : At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• compare the features of oxygen and acetylene regulators
• state the features of hose - pipes used in gas welding
• distinguish between the hose connections for oxygen and acetylene regulators and blowpipes
• state the features of a blowpipe and their functions
• state the features of a spark lighter
• state the use of a cylinder trolley.
Gas welding principle Dissolved acetylene cylinders (Fig. 2)
Gas welding is a most important type of welding process. This is painted maroon and has a storing capacity of 6m3.
it is done by burning of fuel gases with help of oxygen which The valve socket has left hand threads. It is used to store
form a concentrated flame of high temperature. This flame acetylene gas in a dissolved state with a pressure of 15-
directly strikes the weld area and melt the weld surface and 16kg/cm2.
filler materials. The melted part of welding plates diffused Pressure regulators for oxygen
one another and create a weld joint after cooling. This
welding method can be used to join most of common The regulator is used to reduce and control the oxygen
metals used in daily life. cylinder gas pressure to a suitable working pressure and
maintain constant rate of gas flow for the blowpipe. The
Oxy - acetylene gas welding
ed
regulator has right hand screws threads. (Fig. 3)
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The essential requirement for a beginner dealing with oxy
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- acetylene gas welding is to identify the tools and
equipment required and know their uses.
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Oxygen gas cylinders (Fig. 1)

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oxygen gas cylinder is black colour pointed steel bottle and

it has a storing capacity of 7m3 gas.
The valve socket has right hand threads.
The cylinder is used to store oxygen gas with a pressure
of 120 to 150 kg/cm2
227
Pressure regulators for acetylene Hose pipe connections for regulators
This is to reduce and control the acetylene cylinder gas This is a connecting union used to connect rubber hose
pressure to a suitable working pressure at a constant rate pipes with the regulators.
of flow for the blowpipe. This regulator has left hand screw
Oxygen connection has right hand threads while the
threads. (Fig 4)
acetylene connection has left hand threads. (Fig 6). The
nut used for the acetylene rubber hose connections will
have a notch at its corners.
Hose pipe connections for blowpipes

This has the shape of a connecting union and is fitted with
a non-return disc to prevent flash-back and backfire during
welding. (Fig 7)
ed
Both oxygen and acetylene regulators have a
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cylinder pressure gauge to indicate the cylinder
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gas pressure and a working pressure gauge to
indicate the working pressure required for the
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blowpipe. (Figs 3 & 4)

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Rubber hoses
The hose carries the gases from the gas regulators to the
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blowpipe. The hoses are made of strong canvas rubber and It is used to connect the rubber hose pipe with the
it having good flexibility. The hose pipe for the oxygen line blowpipe.
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is black in colour while that for the acetylene line is maroon The oxygen connection has right hand threads while the
colour. (Fig 5) acetylene one has left hand threads.
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Blowpipe set with nozzle (Fig 8)

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This is a device with a handle and inlet connection for

acetylene (left hand threads) and oxygen (right hand
threads). It has control valves for acetylene and oxygen
gas flow, a gas mizing chamber, and a neck - pipe with a
nozzle.
Always keep the working condition handy fire-fighting
equipment to put off fires (Fig 10)
ed
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Keep the work area free from any form of fire. Safety for regulators (Fig 11)
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Safety gas cylinders Prevent hammer blows to the gas cylinders and ensure that
Do not roll gas cylinders or use them as roller. water, dust and oil do not settle on the cylinders.
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Use a trolley to the carry the cylinders. Right hand threaded connection for oxygen and left hand
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threaded connection for acetylene.

Close the cylinder valves (Fig 9) when it is not in use or
empty. Safety for blowpipes
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Keep full and empty cylinders separately. When a blowpipe is not in use put away from the flame and
place the blowpipe in a safe place.
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Always open the cylinder valves slowly, not more than one
and a half turn. When flame snaps out and backfires, quickly shut off the
both valves in blowpipe (oxygen first) then acetylene and
Use the correct cylinder keys to open the cylinders. their dip in water.
Do not remove the cylinder keys from the cylinders while While igniting the flame, point the blowpipe nozzle in a safe
welding. It will help to close the cylinders quickly in the direction. (Fig 13)
case of a back-fire or flash-back.
Always use the cylinders in an upright position for easy
handling and safety.
Always check the cylinder valves to clean the valve sockets
before attaching regulators. (Fig 11)
Safety for rubber hose pipes (Fig 12)
Inspect the rubber hose pipes periodically and replace the
damaged ones.
Do not use old bits of hose pipes / tubes.
Do not replace the hose pipes for acetylene with the ones
used for oxygen.
Always use a black hose pipes for oxygen and

maroon hosepipes for acetylene.
While extinguishing the flame, shut off the acetylene valve
first and then the oxygen valve to avoid a backfire.
Systems of oxy-acetylene welding

• distinguish between high pressure and low pressure acetylene plants
• distinguish the features of low pressure and high pressure blowpipes.
Oxy-acetylene plants can be either high pressure or low In a high pressure system, a mixer type high pressure
pressure. blowpipe is used, this is not suitable for the low pressure
system. (Fig 3)
A high pressure plant utilizes acetylene under high pressure,
upto 1 kg/cm2. (Fig 1)
ed
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Dissolved acetylene (acetylene in cylinder) is a commonly

used source.
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A low pressure plant utilizes acetylene under low pressure

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(0.017 kg/cm2) produced by an acetylene generator only.

(Fig 2)
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High pressure and low pressure plants utilize oxygen gas

in compressed high pressure cylinders only.
The high or low pressure systems used in oxy-acetylene
welding refer only to the acetylene pressure.
Distinguishing features of blowpipes
For low pressure systems, a specially designed injector
type blowpipe is required. This can be used for high
pressure also. (Fig 3)
TIG Welding process and equipment

• state the principle of TIG welding process
• state the application of TIG welding
• identify the TIG welding equipment
• name the parts of TIG welding equipment
• state the purpose of different parts.
Introuction to TIG welding: The Gas Tungsten Arc (mixing or combining of molten metals) and it is provided by
Welding (GTAW) process fuses metals by heating them an arcing electric current between the tungsten electrode
between a non consumable (does not melt) tungsten and base metal.
electrode and workpiece. The heat is necessary for fusion
TIG welding equipment
– An AC or DC arc welding machine. (Fig 1 & 2)
– Shielded gas cylinders or facilities to handle liquid
gases
– A shielding gas regulator
– A gas flowmeter
– Shielding gas hoses and fittings
This type of welding is usually done with a single electrode. – A welding torch (electrode holder)
The tungsten electrode and the weld zone (area being – Tungsten electrodes
welded) are shielded from the atmosphere (air around it) by
an inert gas, such as argon or helium. Filler metal may or – Welding rods
may not be used. This process is also called TIG (Tungsten – A water cooling system with hoses for heavy duty
Inert Gas) welding. Gas tungsten arc welding, is particularly welding operations
used when welding stainless steel, aluminium, titanium
and many other non-ferrous metals. – Foot rheostat (switch)
– Arc timers
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Torch: There is a variety of torches available varying from As the thickness of plate to be welded increases, size of
light weight air cooled to heavy duty water cooled types. torch and electrode diameter must increase to deal with the
Fig.1 & 3. The main factors to be considered in choosing larger welding currents required.
a torch are:
Gas regulator, flowmeter (Fig 3 & 4): The gas regulator
– Current carrying capacity for the work in hand reduces the pressure in the argon cylinder from 175 or 200
– Weight, balanced and accessibility of the torch head to bar down to 0-3.5 bar for supply to the torch.
the work in hand. The flowmeter which has a manually operated needle valve,
The torch body which a top loading compression-type controls the argon flow from 0-600 litres/hour to 0-2100
collet assembly which accommodates electrodes of various litres/hour according to type.
diameters. They are securely gripped, yet the collet is
easily slackened for removal or reposition of the electrode.
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Basic equipment for a typical gmaw semiautomatic • Welding Gun - delivers electrode wire and shielding
setup (Fig 5). gas to the weld puddle.
• Welding Power Source - provides welding power. • Shielding Gas Cylinder - provides a supply of shielding
gas to the arc.
• Wire Feeders - controls supply of wire to welding gun.
• Supply of Electrode Wire.
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GMAW equipment and accessories

• state the power sources for GMAW
MIG welding power sources have come a long way from produces is controlled by the cross sectional area of the
the basic transformer type power source to the highly wire electrode and the wire speed, ie the higher the wire
electronic and sophisticated types we see around today. speed for each wire size, the higher the amperage the
power source will produce.
Even though the technology of MIG welding has changed,
the principles of the MIG power source have, in most Because the output of the MIG power source is DC (direct
cases, not. The MIG power sources use mains power current) the terminals on the front will have + positive and
and converts that mains power into CV (constant voltage), negative on the output side. The principles of electric
DC (direct current) power suitable for the MIG welding circuits states that 70% of the heat is always on the positive
process. side.
MIG welding power sources control voltage – this is done
by either voltage stepped switches, wind handles, or
electronically. The amperage that the power source
This means that the lead that is connected to Curve B (For GMAW): The open circuit voltage curve for
the positive side of the welder, will carry 70% a setting of 50 volts on the machine is shown as curve B in
of the total energy (heat) output. the Fig.1. The same 20 volt to 25 volt (25 percent) change
in the welding voltage will result in a drop in current from 142
The characteristics volt, ampere curves (A & B) are shown amps to 124 amps or 13.3 percent. This slower sloping volt
in Fig.1. ampere curve output causes a large change in amperage
with the same small change in voltage. A welder may wish
Curve A ( For SMAW): On the output slope or voltampere to have this slower sloping (flatter) volt-ampere output
curve A, a change from 20 volts to 25 volts will result in a curve.
decrease in amperage from 135 amps to 126 amps. With
a change of 25 percent in voltage, only a 6.7 percent This is called flat characteristic power source. Also called
change occurs in the welding current in curve A. Thus if the constant Voltage(CV)power source.
welder varies the length of the arc, causing a change in This type of power source is used in GMAW & SAW
voltage, there will be very little change in the current and process.
the weld quality will be maintained. The current in this
machine, even though it varies slightly is considered With a flatter output slope the welder can control the molten
constant. pool and electrode melt rate by making small changes in
the arc length. Control of the molten pool and electrode
This is called drooping characteristic power source. Also melt rate are most important when welding in the horizontal,
called constant current (CC)power source. vertical and overhead positions.
This type of power source is used in SMAW & GTAW
process.
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GMAW (MIG/MAG) torches

• state the types and functions of torches.
MIG/MAG Torch Connection MIG/MAG Torches

The torch connection is the system in which the MIG torch
is connected to the wire feeder. There are various types of
MIG torch connections. Different manufacturers can use
any one of many systems to connect their torch to the
wire feeder.
When ordering a new Torch tell the supplier
a) the type of torch you need, including amperage rating
b) the type of connection on the feeder so the Torch can
be supplied to match the connection
The Torch connection is also the area where the wire elec-
trode, welding current and welding gases are passed onto
the welding torch. This means these components should
be checked for damage or leaky seals etc, so the connec-
tion will do its job correctly.
The MIG Torch is connected to the wire feeder, and its job 2 Current rating. The operator must select the correct
is to deliver the wire electrode, shielding gas and the elec- size Torch. Using a torch that is not sufficiently rated
trical welding current to the welding area. There are a lot for the machine may result in the Torch overheating.
of different shapes and styles of MIG Torch out in the mar- This may result in a poor weld and damage to the
ketplace but they all have things in common. Torch . A Torch with an excessive rating will be larger
(Fig. 1 & 3). and heavier than the smaller Torch, which could result
in discomfort for the operator.
1 Aircooled (less than 200 Amps) or watercooled (above
200 Amps) (Fig 2) 3 They all have parts that will wear out (consumables eg
liners, tips, diffuser, nozzle, etc.)
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Let’s take a look at each part (Fig 4)

Liner The liner causes the most problems. First, they
have a life span that is approximately one to four rolls of
MIG wire depending on the quality of the liner and wire.
The life of the liner will also be increased if the operator
removes and cleans it by soaking in non-corrosive and a
non-toxic solvent. Each wire size needs to have the correct
wire size liner. Be aware some liners may fit more than
one size of wire.
There are also different materials for different types of wire
electrode, eg steel or stainless liners for solid wires and
Teflon liner for aluminium.
The liner length is most important. In the field it is very automatic welding and avoided in semi-automatic mode
common to find even newly fitted liners that have been cut because the end of the gas nozzle restricts the operator’s
too short. This results in the wire being able to move around view of the weld pool.
behind the welding tip and leading to bad wire feeding.
Synergic Control
The liner has to be fitted correctly and different MIG Torch
will often have a different way of ending up with a liner that The complexity of setting welding parameters in conven-
is the correct length. tional DC and pulsed GMAW promoted the development of
equipment with ‘Single-knob’ controls known as Synergic
Don’t just take out the old liner and cut the new one to the
control. These systems relied on selection of combina-
same length. It could end up with an incorrect result. Please
tions of present welding (e.g. Wire feed speed/mean
refer to MIG Torch manual.
current and voltage) by means of a single control.
All MIG Torch should be laid out straight ont he floor before
trimming the liner, to prevent the new liner being cut too
short. Do not cut the liner if the Torch lead is coiled up.
Gas Diffusers The gas diffuser’s job is to make sure that
the shielding gas is delivered to the shielding nozzle
correctly. It is designed to make the gas come out as
straight as possible and equally supplied around inside
the gas shield nozzle. Diffusers can be made of different
materials, eg copper, brass or fibre. Some diffusers will
also be the tip holder.
Contact Tip Holder This is the item which holds the weld-
ing tip in place. Again, tip holders can be very different in
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design and are very often unique to that brand of MIG
torch.
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Contact Tips The Contact tip/tube is the key to good
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welding. First of all, it is the way that welding amperage is
delivered to the welding wire electrode, often with a very
high amperage.
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Most contact tips are made of copper alloy, the better

the alloy the better the tip will pass current to the wire
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electrode and the less wear the MIG tip will have; also the This is possible now because of development of electronic
less the tip will oxidize. power regulation and micro processor control and
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programmable equipment which can supply a large number

The size is important. The right size contact tip must be of predetermined welding conditions as well as allowing
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selected contact . If the selected tip size is too large the users to record and retrieve their own customerised
wire electrode will not make a good contact, leading to parameters.
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poor welding performance.

Although in the pulsed GMAW process the optimum
If a contact tip selected is too small, the wire electrode welding parameters can be accurately predetermined, if a
will feed poorly and may even jam in the contact tip. change in mean current is required the control settings
Nozzle: Guns are available with a straight or curved must be recalculated and a number of the welding parameters
nozzle. The curved nozzle provides easy access to reset. This could impose significant practical problems
intricate joints and difficult-to-weld. including the possibility of error and resultant deterioration
in operating performance. Fortunately it is possible to store
Torch angle both the predetermined parameters and the control
The position of gun and electrode with respect to the joint equations in the equipment and automatically adjust the
affects the weld bead shape and penetration rather than output in response to a single input signal. This system is
arc voltage or travel speed. The gun is usually maintained known as Synergic Control (Fig. 6).
within 10 - 20º on either side of the vertical. Depending on Spot welding: This type of resistance welding machine is
which way the gun is incline, the technique is referred to most commonly used for resistance welding. The material
as forehead and backhand. The various electrode posi- to be joined is placed between two electrodes as shown in
tions and techniques and their effects are shown in (Fig 5). (Fig 7a). Pressure is applied after a quick shot of electricity
It is observed that as the electrode is changed from is sent from one electrode through the job to the other
perpendicular to the forehand technique, the weld bead electrode.
becomes shallower and wider and has less penetration.
1 The frame: It is the main body of the machine which
Backhand technique gives a more stable arc, less spatter differs in size and shape for the stationary and portable
and a narrower, more convex weld bead with deep types.
penetration. Perpendicular technique is used more in
2 Force mechanism: The compressed air cylinder and
the pivoted rocker arm gives the necessary high pressure
to the lever to which the upper electrode holder is Spot welding is made in three steps.
attached.
The first step is when the parts to be joined are clamped
3 The electric circuit: It consists of a step down trans between the electrodes. In the second step, a high current
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former which provides for the necessary current to flow is allowed to pass through the clamped members and is
at the point of weld.
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raised to the welding temperature. The third step sees the
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4 The electrodes: The electrodes include the mechanism current being cut off and high pressure being applied to the
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for making and holding contact at the weld area. joint and the joint completed. A nugget is formed as shown
in (Fig 7b).
5 The timing controls: The switches which regulate the
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value of current, current flow time and contact period A special copper alloy material has been developed for use
time as the timing controls. as electrodes.
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6 Water cooling system to circulate cooling water to the Cooling of the electrodes is accomplished by internally
electrodes. circulating water.
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This is the additional part consisting of a water reservoir

and flow system.
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Cutting processes - plasma arc cutting

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• state the principle of plasma arc cutting
• explain the process of variable plasma cutting
• state the advantages of plasma cutting.
Cutting processes - plasma arc cutting Principle of operation
Plasma arc cutting process, was introduced in the industry Plasma arc cutting is a process resulting from ionizing a
in the mid 1950s. The process is used to cut all metals column of gas (argon, nitrogen, helium, air, hydrogen or
and non-metals. The common oxy-fuel cutting process their mixtures) with extreme heat of an electric arc. The
(based on a chemical process) is suitable for cutting carbon ionized gas along with the arc is forced through a very
steel and low alloy steel cutting only. Materials such as small nozzle orifice, resulting into a plasma stream of
cpper, aluminium and stainless steels were earlier high velocity (speed up to 600 m/sec) and high temperature
separated by sawing, drilling or sometimes by power flame (up to 20000°K). When this high speed is reached, high
cutting. These materials are now cut using a plasma torch, temperature plasma stream and electric arc strike the
at faster rates and more economically. The Plasma cutting workpiece, and ions in the plasma recombine into gas
process is basically a thermal cutting process, free of any atoms and liberate a great amount of latent heat. This
chemical reaction, that means, without oxidation. In plasma heat melts the workpiece, vaporizes part of the material
arc cutting an extremely high temperature and high velocity and the balance is blasted away in the form of molten
constricted arc is utilized. metal through the heat (Fig 1).
where dry, clean compressed air is used as the cutting
gas, the electrode of hafnium or zirconium. In used
because tungsten is rapidly eroded in air. Wet and dirty
compressed air reduces the useful life of consumable parts
and produces poor quality.
Several process variations are used to improve the cut
quality for particular applications. Auxiliary shielding in
the form of gas or water is used (Fig 3) to improve the cut
quality and to improve the nozzle life. Water injection
plasma cutting (Fig 4) uses a symmetrical impinging water
jet near the constricting nozzle orifice to further constrict
the plasma flame and to increase the nozzle life. Good
quality cut with sharp and clear edges with little or no
dross is possible in water injection plasma cutting.
Plasma cutting system (Fig 2,3,4)

Plasma cutting requires a cutting torch, a control unit, a
power supply, one or more cutting gases and a supply of
clean cooling water (in case water-cooled torch is used).
Equipment is available for both manual and mechanical
cutting. A basic plasma arc cutting circuit is shown in Fig
1. It employs direct current straight polarity (DCEN). The
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nozzle surrounding the electrode is connected to the
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workpiece (positive) through a current limiting reisitor and
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a pilot arc relay contact.
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The pilot arc between the electrode and nozzle is initiated

by a high frequency generator connected between the
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electrode and nozzle. The orifice gas ionized by the pilot

arc is blown through the constricting nozzle orifice and
forms a low resistance path to ignite the main transferred
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arc between the electrode and the workpiece when the

ON/OFF switch is closed. The pilot arc relay may be
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opened automatically when the main arc ignites, to avoid

unnecessary heating of the constricting nozzle. The
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constricting nozzle is of copper and normally water cooled

to withstand the high plasma flame temperature (about
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20000°K) and to have longer life.
Process variables (Fig 5 & 6)

1 Torch design - constricting nozzle shape and size.
2 Process variation - dual gas flow, water injection, air
plasma.
3 Cutting gas type and its flow rate.
4 Distance between nozzle and job.
In conventional gas plasma cutting, discussed above, the 5 Cutting speed.

cutting gas can be argon, nitrogen, (argon + hydrogen), or 6 Plasma cutting current.
compressed air. For all the cutting gases other than
7 Power used during cutting.
compressed air, the non-consumable electrode material
is 2% thoriated tungsten. In air plasma cutting (Fig 2) 8 Manual/machine cutting.
9 Material to be cut and its thickness. Application of plasma cutting
10 Quality of cut required - rough or smooth. 1 Straight and sharp cutting of all metals and non-metals.
11 The bevel angle and round off corner etc. 2 Cutting of risers and gates for forging and casting.
Advantages of plasma cutting 3 Stack cutting of several sheets of 1.5 to 6 mm thickness.
1 All metals and non-metals can be cut due to the high 4 For making holes in thick sheets (by piercing
temperature and high velocity plasma flame. operation).
2 Cuts are of very clear form with little or no dross. 5 For gouging, rough machining etc.
3 High speed piercing is achieved. 6 For sizing the scarp.
4 Cutting of piled plates is possible, even with different Safety precautions in plasma cutting
materials.
The operator and persons in the vicinity of plasma cutting
5 Cutting cost is quite low as compared to other operation must be protected from:
processes, especially for stainless steels.
1 arc radiation and spatter - protect body and eyes
6 Cutting speed is high.
2 metal fumes and gases - use breathing mask, proper
7 Cutting is possible in all positions and locations ventilation
(underwater also).
3 noise - up to 115 dB - use ear plugs
4 electrical shocks - high operating voltage (180-400V)
and both anode and cathode in torch; input supply is
to be switched off before attending to the torch etc.
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Gases for Plasma cutting (Fig 7)
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• no need to promote oxidation & no preheat
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• “gases : air, Ar, N2, O2, mix of Ar + H2, N2 + H2

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• air plasma promotes oxidation and increased speed

but special electrodes need
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• shielding gas - optional

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• applications : stainless steels, aluminium and thin

sheet carbon steel.
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Heat Treatment
• state the importance of heat treatment
• list the stages of heat treatment
• state the type of Heat treatment process
• explain the process of Annealing, Normalising, Hardening and Tempering
• state the importance of case hardening
• explain the process of carbursing, Nitriding, Induction hardening and flame hardening.
• state the types of heat treatment and surface hardening used for production of automotive
components.
Introduction Stage b : Soaking (Holding) the metal at a given
temperature for a given and cooling the
The automobile is a typical industrial product that involves
metal to room temperature.
a variety of materials and technologies. Beginning with
raw metal products leading all the way to final component State c : Cooling the metal to room temperature.
assembly, various types of heat treatment and surface
engineering processes are applied in the manufacture of
automotive components.
Heat treatment impart the required strength or hardness
properties as dictated by the given component application.
Other processes involved in metal processing may include
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forming, machining as well as quench and tempering,
Annealing
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carburizing and hardening and nitriding during production.
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Surface modification, when properly applied, yields Annealing consists of heating a metal to a specific
optimum surface properties enhancing corrosion and wear temperature-based on the carbon content, holding it at
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resistance while improving frictional properties. that temperature for a set length of time, and then cool it
Definition of Heat Treatment (Fig 1) very slowly in the furnace
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Full annealing is used to obtain the following

properties:
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¾ To relieve the internal stresses and strains developed

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by various fabrication methods like forgings, castings

etc.
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¾ To improving properties of elasticity and ductility

¾ To reduce hardness
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Normalising
Normalising is a type of heat treatment applicable to ferrous
metals only. It differs from annealing in that the metal is
Some of the common industrial heat treatment operations
heated to a higher temperature and then remove from the
are as follows:
furnace for air cooling.
a) Annealing
Normalising may be employed to
b) Normalising
¾ to remove the internal stresses induced by heat
c) Hardening and Tempering treating, welding, casting, forging, forming, or machining
• Ferrous metals (metals with iron) are annealing, ¾ Refine the grain and provide homogeneous micro-
normalizing, hardening, and tempering. structure, to improve response to hardening treatment.
• Nonferrous metals can be annealed, but never ¾ Improve machining characteristics
tempered, normalized, or case-hardened.
Hardening
Stages of Heat Treatment (Fig 2) Hardening is a heat treatment process in which steel is
Stage a : Heating the metal slowly to ensure a uniform heated to an appropriate temperature based on the carbon
temperature. content of the steel and held at this temperature for
sufficient time to allow the steel to obtain a uniform
temperature throughout the section. Then the steel is When the carburized steel is heat-treated, the case
rapidly cooled through a cooling medium. Water, oil, becomes hardened and the core remains soft and tough.
molten salt or air may be used as a cooling medium
a) Pack Carburising
depending upon the composition of the steel and the
hardness required. Components are placed in a container along with solid
carburizing material like charcoal, wood charcoal energized
Carbon steels are usually quenched in brine or water, and
by sodium, potassium and barium carbonate. A lid is fitted
alloy steels are generally quenched in oil.
to the container made of heat resisting cast iron. The box
Purpose of Hardening with the contents is sealed with fire clay and is placed in
muffle furnace at 900° - 920° C as shown in (Fig 3) and
¾ To increases the hardness and strength of the held for a period of time depending upon the case and
steel,but makes it less ductile held for a period of time depending upon the case depth
Tempering : required (Fig 4).
Tempering consists of heating the steel to a specific After carburizing the component is hardened by re-heating
temperature generally below its hardening temperature, at 760 - 780° C followed by quenching in water or oil. Thus
holding it at that temperature for the required length of the case hardening improves surface hardness and the
time, and then cooling it, usually instill air. core toughness.
Purpose Of Tempering
Steels in its hardened condition, it is often harder than
necessary, generally too brittle and too severally strained
in the quenching operation. The aim of tempering is:
¾ To relieve the steel from internal stresses
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and strains.
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¾ To regulate the hardness and toughness
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¾ To decrease the brittleness and to restore some

ductility to induce shock resistance.
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Tempering immediately after quenching prevents

development of such destructive cracks
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Case Hardening
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Case hardening produces a hard, wear-resistant surface

or case over a strong, tough core. The principal forms of
casehardening are carburizing, cyaniding, and nit riding.
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Only ferrous metals are case-hardened.

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Importance of Case Hardening

Case hardening is ideal for parts that require a wear-
resistant surface and must be tough enough internally to
withstand heavy loading. The steels best suited for case
hardening are the low-carbon and low-alloy series.. In case
hardening, change the surface of the metal chemically by
introducing a high carbide or nitride content. The core
remains chemically unaffected. When heat-treated, the
Advantages : It requires no prepared atmosphere and is
high-carbon surface responds to hardening, and the core
economical process.
toughens.
While surface hardening by induction hardening and flame b) Gas Carburising
hardening does not change the chemical composition of
If a suitable carbonaceous furnace atmosphere namely
the material techniques like carburizing. Nitriding and
hydro carbon atmosphere or carbon monoxide atmosphere
carbonitriding change the surface composition.
can be provided, the components can be directly loaded
Carburising in the furnace so as to achieve gas carburizing. The time
and temperature can be compared to that of pack
Carburizing is a case-hardening process by which carbon
carburizing. Hydrocarbon atmosphere decomposes readily
is added to the surface of low-carbon steel. This results in
at the carburizing temperature at 95oC.
a carburized steel that has a high-carbon surface and a
low-carbon interior.
Advantage : It is used to carburise large number of This process is used to case harden items, such as gears,
components simultaneously thus saving cylinder sleeves, camshafts and other engine parts, that
the heat energy, labour and carburizing need to be wear resistant and operate in high-heat area
compound. Thus it supercedes pack
carburizing. It enables quicker handling Induction Hardening
by direct quenching.
When high frequency alternating current is passed through
Nitriding (Fig. 5) the heating coil an electromagnetic field is created around
it. It gives rise to eddy currents in the surface of the metal
Nitriding case-hardening method produces the hardest bar centered in the coil.
surface of any of the hardening processes it introduces
nitrogen into the surface of steel. Medium carbon steels Thus, the surface of the metal bar gets heated above the
are generally nitride. It differs from the other methods in critical temperature and subsequently gets hardened
that the individual parts have been heat-treated furnace during quenching.
that has an ammonia gas atmosphere as shown in (Fig 5)
No quenching is required so there is no worry about This method is employed for very long parts and normally
warping or other types of distortion. Time of nit riding is requires a cross sectional area that is uniform along the
long and will be about 70 hours. The case depth is less entire length of the hardened surface.
than 0.5 mm.
Flame Hardening
Flame hardening is another procedure that is used to
harden the surface of metal parts. When you use an oxy-
acetylene flame, a thin layer at the surface of the part is
rapidly heated to its critical temperature and then
immediately quenched by a combination of a water spray
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and the cold base metal. This process produces a thin,
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ish retain their original properties.
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Types of Heat Treatment And Surface Hardening Used For Production Of Automotive Components
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Types of heat treatment Typical components
Annealing Forged blanks for gearing and misc. parts
Normalizing Reduce hardness for machining
Quench and temper Fasteners, Rods and Arms
Case hardening : For fatigue and wear resistance Gears and shafts
Carburizing
Induction hardening Cam shafts, Drive shafts, steering knuckles
Nitriding : Cam shafts, oil pump gears, valves, Brake pad liner plates, A/T
gears
Mechanic Diesel - Hydraulics and pneumatics
Non - destructive testing methods
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to:
• state the definition of Non-Destructing Testing
• list the different type of NDT Methods
• explain the principle and process of Liquid penetrant testing Method
• state the Advantages and disadvantages of Liquid penetrant testing
• explain the principle and process of Magnetic Particle Testing Method
• state the Advantages and disadvantages of Magnetic particle Testing Method.
Importance of Non-Destructive Testing in Automotive This non-destructive testing technique can be used to find
Industry the cracks, pores and other surface defects.
Automobile companies face when accidents happen Basic Process of LPT
because of component failures, the stringent quality control
1 Clean & Dry Component
requirements expected by organizations or the high number
of human lives lost in accidents, the automobile industry Pre clean area, spray on cleaner, wipe off with cloth.
has reduced 'cutting' of its components and has transitioned
2 Apply Penetrant
into non-destructive testing for its automotive parts. A
malfunction of a component, however small, can have Spray Penetrant, allow short penetrant time 5-10 min
ed
catastrophic consequences. Hence NDT plays an
3 Remove Excess Penetrant
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important role in the quality control of a product. It is used
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ish
during all the stages of manufacturing of a product. It is
used to monitor the quality of the.
Spray cleaner on wiping towel and wipe surface
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4 Apply Developer
a) Raw materials which are used in the construction of Spray on thin uniform film of developer
the product.
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5 Visual Inspection
b) Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture
Inspect defects will show as bright red lines/dot in
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the product.
while developer background as pink colour
c) Finished product before it is put into service.
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Definition of NDT
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Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the use of physical

methods which will test materials, components and
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assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging

their future usefulness.
Types of NDT methods
The methods of NDT range from the simple to the
complicated. Which are commonly used are:
1 Visual or optical inspection
2 Dye penetrant testing
3 Magnetic particle testing
4 Eddy current testing
5 Radiographic testing and
6 Ultrasonic testing.
Liquid Penetrant Testing (Fig. 1)
A liquid penetrant dye is passed through the object to be
inspected. By capillary action, the liquid seeps into the
defects in the material. A developer is applied to the
material which pulls back the penetrant and forms an
indication on the surface of the material, which is much
easier to see than the crack itself.
243
Advantages Electromagnetic yoke
• Parts with large surface areas can be measured rapidly (c) Indicating medium selection and application.
at a low cost While maintaining the magnetic field the magnetic dry
• Low initial investment cost particles are applied to the area between the poles.
• Parts with complex shapes can be inspected
Disadvantages
• Can be applied only on nonporous materials
• Chemicals used could be toxic, and so precautions
need to be taken
• Cleaning necessary before and after material is tested
by this technique
Magnetic particle testing (MPT) (Figs 2 & 3)

Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials
which can be easily magnetized. This method is capable
or detecting open to surface and just below the surface
flaws.
In this method the test specimen is first magnetized either
by using a permanent or an electromagnet yoke or by
passing electric current through or around the specimen.
ed
Whenever minute magnetic particles are sprinkled onto (d) Interpretation of discontinuities. (Fig. 4)
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the surface of such a specimen, these particles are
ish
In magnetic particle testing an indication could be any
attracted by these magnetic poles to create a visual
magnetically held magnetic particle pattern on the surface
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indication approximating the size and shape of the flaw.
of the part being tested.
Basic Process of MPT
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(a) Preparation of the inspection surface.

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Surface preparation by grinding, machining, Cleaning may

be accomplished using detergents, organic solvents, de-
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scaling solutions, paint removers, sand or grit blasting

methods.
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(b) Magnetization of the inspection surface.

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The method of magnetization shall be done using either (e) Demagnetization

electromagnetic yoke or permanent magnet, with pole
Finished parts processed with wet inks should be
spacing to be between a minimum of 3 inches (76.2mm)
immediately cleaned and dried to prevent the chances of
and a maximum of 8 inches (203.2mm).
surface corrosion or wear between moving parts.
The Yoke shall be placed in contact with the surface to be
(f) Post cleaning
examined and energized.
Finished parts processed with wet inks should be
immediately cleaned and dried to prevent the chances of
surface corrosion or wear between moving parts.
Advantages
• Rapid inspection of large surface areas
• Surface and subsurface flaws can be detected
Disadvantages
• Can only be used for inspection of
ferromagnetic materials.
• A relatively smooth surface required for application of
this method.
• Non-magnetic materials like paints, coatings etc. affect
the sensitivity of this testing technique.
Introduction to the hydraulics and pneumatics
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to:
• define the term fluid power
• explain the working principle of pneumatic systems and advantages and disadvantages
• explain the working principle of hydraulic systems and advantages and disadvantages.
Fluid Power Systems energy can, then, be transmitted through the pressurised
oil medium, in a controlled manner, to an actuator to perform
Fluid power is the driving force in most industrial and mobile
some useful work.
applications. A bulldozer or excavator used for moving soil
where a new project is being built, and a brake used in a
Power Source Oil Control Actuator
car or truck are some examples of where fluid power is
(Pump) Value (Cylinder)
used. Fluid power involves the use of a fluid medium, such
as air or oil, in a controlled manner, to get some useful Hydraulic Systems
work. Two specialized areas cover the scope of the
A major advantage of hydraulic systems is that they can
definition of the term 'fluid power'. They are: (1) Pneumatics
easily generate linear motion through the basic actuator,
and (2) Hydraulics. Transmission and control of power by
cylinder. Operating pressures in hydraulics are generally
means of air is called pneumatics and transmission and
much higher than that used in pneumatics. Therefore, high-
control of power by means of liquid is called hydraulics.
pressure hydraulic systems are capable of generating large
Pneumatic Systems magnitude of forces economically to drive heavy loads.
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Speed control of an actuator can also be achieved easily
In a pneumatic system, energy in the form of compressed
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air is transmitted to an actuator, where work is to be done.
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The basic elements of the system are power source, control
control of speed even at low values is another advantage
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of hydraulic systems.
valves and actuators, as shown in Figure, Air compressor
is used as the power source to increase the pressure of Extensive use of hydraulics is due to the following facts
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the related air medium to the required level. However, the

process of pressure development in the system is quite • Oil is practically incompressible
slow. The slow response of the air compressor in developing • Oil can transmit high forces rapidly and accurately
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sufficient pressure necessitates storage of compressed

air in a receiver tank. The energy that is stored in the • Simple step-less control of speed, force or torque
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receiver tank can be transmitted, in a controlled manner,

to an actuator to perform some useful work. • Have simple over load protection
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Air
• Simple, compact and highly reliable
Power Source Control Actuator
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Hydraulic systems are used in the following subsystems

(Compressor) Value (Cylinder)
in modern Automobiles and related maintenance
Pneumatic Systems equipment
An important advantage of pneumatic systems is that they • Fuel injection system

can produce linear motion quite easily. They can also
produce high-speed operation. Speed control can also be
• Lubrication system
achieved easily by using simple flow control valves. • Brake system
However, pneumatic systems are not suitable for providing
uniform motion. Operating pressures in pneumatics are • Steering system
generally much lower than that used in hydraulics.
Therefore, pneumatic systems are ideal for applications
• Shock absorbers
that involve small magnitude of linear forces. • Adoptive suspension system
Hydraulic Systems
• Automatic transmission system
In a hydraulic system, energy in the form of pressurized
liquid (oil) is transmitted to an actuator, where work is to • Clutch actuating mechanism
be done. The basic elements of the system are power • Jack
source, control valves and actuators, as shown in Figure.
In the hydraulic power transmission, a pump is used as • Hoist
the power source to create flow and subsequently raise
the pressure of an enclosed incompressible oil medium • Bearing puller etc.
to the required level almost instantaneously. The hydraulic
245
Pascal's law - pressure viscosity
• state the Pascal's Law
• understand the concept of force multiplication
• state many functions of hydraulic fluids
• define the term viscosity.
Pascal's law (Blaisé Pascal, 1623-1662)

Pascal's law is the central law for the development of a
number of machines, such as hydraulic brakes, hydraulic
jacks, etc. The law states that 'pressure exerted on a fluid
is transmitted equally in all directions, acting with equal
force on equal areas'. The following sections explain how
a pressure is developed in a hydraulic system with the
application of a force through a pump mechanism and
how a force is developed with the application of the pressure
through an actuator mechanism.
Hydraulic Pressure
Pressure is the result of the resistance offered to Units of Pressure: There are many units of pressure, such
compression when an incompressible oil medium is as Pascal (Pa), bar, pounds per square inch (psi), Kg/
squeezed by the application of a force. This pressure is cm2, etc., used in industrial world. Some of the most im-
transmitted equally throughout the medium in all directions, portant units of pressure are highlighted below:
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according to the Pascal's law. 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
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1 bar = 100000 Pa = 105 Pa (100 kPa)
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1 bar = 1.02 kgf/cm2

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1 kgf/ cm2 = 0.981 bar

Hydraulic Force
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When a pressure (P) is applied onto the area (A) of a

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cylinder piston, a force (F) is developed. The amount of

force developed is equal to the area times the applied
pressure. That is,
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F=PxA
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Example 1: What will be the pressure required to lift 75000

N using a hydraulic cylinder with an effective area of 0.0103
Figure 1 shows a cylinder chamber with a definite volume m2?
of oil and a piston. A force (F) is applied to the oil through
the piston. When the oil is pushed, its pressure (P) Force, F = 75000 N
increases in direct proportion to the applied force and
inverse proportion to the piston area (A). Pressure can, Area, F = 0.0103 m2
therefore, be defined as the force acting per unit area.
That is, Pressure, P = F/A
F = 75000/0.0103 Pa
P=
A = 7281553 Pa = 72.8 bar
Exercise 1: Calculate the approximate force, a hydraulic
A typical Application of Pascal's Law cylinder can apply, if it has a diameter of 5.1 cm and is
A feature of hydraulic theory can be seen in the illustration connected to a 200 bar circuit.
in Figure 2. which demonstrates the pressure in the master
cylinder is transmitted equally to all wheel cylinders as
per the Pascal's Law.
Force Multiplication Exercises 2: A hydraulic car lift used in a service station
has an input pump piston and an output plunger to support
Figure 3 shows an arrangement of two cylinders with piston
a loading platform. The pump piston has a radius of 0.012
areas A1 and A2 (A2 > A1) respectively. These two cylinders
m and the loading piston has a radius of 0.15 m. The total
are interconnected by a pipeline. Oil is enclosed in the
weight of the car and the plunger is 25000 N. If the bottom
cylinder chambers and in the pipeline. When the plunger
surfaces of the piston and plunger are at the same level,
piston A1 is applied with a force F1, a pressure (say P1) is
what input force is required to lift the car and output plunger?
developed in the oil, which acts equally in all directions
What pressure produces this force? [Ans: 160 N, 3.536
through the oil. It means that the same pressure (P1) acts
bar]
on the ram piston A2. This causes the development of a
force (say F2). The governing equations for the forces
Oil Flow
developed in the cylinders are as follows:
A hydraulic system, with a pump pushing oil continuously
through a pipeline, produces a oil flow between any two
points in the pipeline as long as there is a pressure
differential between these two points.
Flow Rate
Flow rate of oil is a measure of the volume of the oil passing

a point per unit of time. It is usually measured in m3/ s or
litre per minute (lpm) or in other units.
Hydraulic Oil
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Hydraulic oil is the lifeblood of any hydraulic system. Its
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primary function is to transmit power from one part of the
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F1 = P x A1
system to the other part. Apart from this function, it has to
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F2 = P x A2 lubricate the internal moving parts of system components,

seal clearance between the moving parts, and act as a
Therefore,
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heat transfer medium, as it flows through the system. Oil

F2 = F1 x (A2/ A1) is usually composed of base stock ad many additives.
Mineral-based oils (i.e., petroleum-based oils) are used in
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We can see that by controlling the area ratio (A2/ A1) a a majority of applications. The purpose of using additives
larger output force can be obtained from a smaller input in oil is to improve the performance of the oil for a give
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force. This principle is also used in many hydraulic application. Oil's resistance to flow, expressed in terms of
machines. For example, a hydraulic jack used to lift cars its viscosity, is an important parameter that must be
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at service stations, brakes in vehicles, etc., use the force considered.

multiplier principle for power amplification.
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Example 2 Hydraulic oils are susceptible to the problem of

contamination as they are generally used in harsh
To understand the idea of force multiplication, consider environments. Presence of particulates, water, air, and their
Fig 3 where applied force, F1= 25 N, cross sectional area reaction products in hydraulic oils can adversely affect
of plunger, A1 = 10 cm2, ram piston area A2 = 100 cm2. the performance of these systems. Therefore, the most
What will be the force F2 required to lift the car placed on important requirement of any hydraulic system is to
the ram platform? maintain its oil medium in a clean state. Hydraulic filters
Solution: are used to remove solid contaminants in hydraulic oil.
Pressure P1 = F1/ A1 = 25/10 = 2.5 n.cm2 Viscosity (Fig 4)
P1 = P2 = 2.5 n.cm2 Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow.
Thicker oil has more resistance to flow and possesses a
Therefore, F2 = A2 P2 higher viscosity. Viscosity is affected by temperature. Oil
viscosity decreases as the temperature of oil increases.
= 100 x 2.5 N
A property, that describes the difficulty with which oil moves
= 250 N
under the force of gravity, is called kinematic viscosity. It
is measured in terms of stokes.
Stoke (St): This is the CGS unit of kinematic viscosity,
equivalent to square centimeter per second (cm2/s.) The
more customary unit of kinematic viscosity is the
centistokes (cSt). One cSt is one one-hundredth of a
stoke. The relations amongst various units of kinematic
viscosity are summarized below:
* 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
* 1 cSt = 0.01 Stoke
* 1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
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Automobile Related Theory for Exercise 1.6.56 & 1.6.57
Hydraulics
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to:
• describe the hydraulic system
• understand the components of a hydraulic power pack
• explain the working of a hydraulic pump.
Hydraulic System for all system actuators. It is usually a compact and

portable assembly that contains components necessary
The hydraulic system is shown in the schematic diagram
to store and condition a given quantity of oil, and to push
of Figure 1. The system is a closed system and comprises
a part of the oil into the system. The essential components
a power pack, control valves, and actuators. The hydraulic
are reservoir (tank), pump, relief valve, pressure gauge etc.
power pack consists of a hydraulic pump coupled to
A reservoir is essentially a container that stores a sufficient
engine, a reservoir filled with oil, and a pressure relief valve
quantity of oil required for the system. A well-designed
(PRV). The pump pushes the oil into the closed system.
reservoir in a hydraulic system allows most of the foreign
It develops a high pressure, when the pump flow encounters
matter to drop out of the oil and assists in dissipating heat
some opposition. Therefore, the mechanical energy
from the oil.
provided by the prime mover of the pump is converted into
hydraulic energy. This energy is transmitted to hydraulic
actuators through the oil medium. Hydraulic actuators,
such as cylinders, are used to convert the hydrostatic
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energy back to mechanical energy. Hydraulic valves are
used to control the direction and the speed of the actuators.
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The pressure relief valve is used to limit the pressure in
the system.
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Oil Filter (Fig 3)

Impurities can be introduced into a system as a result of
mechanical wear, and external environmental influences.
For this reason filters are installed in the hydraulic circuit
to remove dirt particles from the hydraulic oil. The reliability
of the system also depends on cleanliness of oil.
All system components are interconnected through fluid

conductors, such as pipes, tubing and/or hoses, for the
leak-free transmission of the hydraulic power. The
pressurized oil media must be positively confined in the
system, through the use of effective seals, for the efficient
utilization of the power. Contaminants should not be allowed Pressure Relief Valve (Fig 4)
to accumulate in the system. Filters are used to remove
contaminants in the oil medium. A pressure relief valve (PRV) is used in a hydraulic system
to limit the maximum working pressure of the system to a
Reservoir (Fig 2) safe value in order to protect operating personnel against
A hydraulic power pack, employed in a hydraulic system, injury and system components against any damage.
transforms the power conveyed by its prime mover into
hydraulic power, at pressures and flow rates as required
249
The gears rotate in opposite directions when driven by the
prime mover, and mesh at a point in the housing between
the inlet and outlet ports. When the gears rotate in the
housing, the diverging teeth create an expanding volume
at the inlet side of the pump. This creates a partial vacuum
at the inlet chamber of the pump, which draws oil into the
chamber from the system reservoir (Fig 5a). The oil then
travels around the periphery of the rotating gears as two
streams (Fig 5b). Since the pump has a positive internal
seal against leakage, the oil is positively ejected out of its
delivery port (Fig 5c). Therefore, when run by the prime
mover, the intermeshing gears displace a fixed volume of
oil from the suction side to discharge side in one revolution
of the drive shaft and crate a flow.
Internal Gear Pump (Fig 6)
External Gear Pump (Fig 5) Figure 6 illustrates the operation of an internal gear pump
Figure 5 illustrates the operation of an external gear pump with the help of its schematic diagrams in three critical
with the help of its schematic diagrams in three critical positions. This pump consists of an outer rotor gear, an
positions. It is basically consists of two close-meshing inner spur gear, and a crescent-shaped spacer, all enclosed
identical gears, enclosed in a close-fitting housing. Oil in a housing. The inner gear with less number of teeth
chambers are formed in the space enclosed by the gear operates inside the rotor gear. The gears are set eccentric
teeth, pump housing, and side plates. Each of the gears to each other. The stationary crescent spacer is machined
is mounted on a shaft supported on bearings in the end into the space between these gears and separates them.
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covers. One of the gears - called the drive gear - is coupled The spacer divides the oil stream, and acts as a seal
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to a prime mover through its drive shaft. The second gear between the suction and discharge ports.
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is driven, as it meshes with the driver gear.
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supported on bearings. Both the gears rotate in the same
direction, when power is applied to the drive shaft. The
rotation of gears causes the teeth to un-mesh near the
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inlet port and consequently a partial vacuum is created at

the inlet chamber of the pump, which draws oil into the
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chamber from the system reservoir (Fig 6a). Oil trapped

between the inner and outer gear teeth on both sides of
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the spacer is carried from the inlet port to the delivery

port, as the gears rotate (Fig 6(b & c). Since the pump
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has a positive internal seal against any leakage, the oil is

positively ejected out of the delivery port.
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Hydraulic actuators, and valves
• explain different types of hydraulic actuators
• explain the symbol and working of hydraulic DC valves
• explain the symbol and working of non-return valve
• explain the symbol and working of an adjustable type throttle valve.
Hydraulic Actuators
A linear actuator, as used in hydraulic system, converts
hydraulic power into a controllable linear force and/or
motion.
Single-acting Hydraulic Cylinders
A single-acting cylinder is designed to exert force
hydraulically in one direction - either on its extension stroke
or on its retraction stroke. It utilizes some other force to
complete the motion in the other direction. It can be seen
that the single-acting cylinder is capable of performing
work only in one direction of its motion and hence the
name single-acting cylinder.
Cross-sectional view of a double-acting cylinder. (Fig 2)
The cross-sectional view of a single-acting cylinder is
shown in Figure 1. It consists of a barrel, a piston-and-rod A cross-sectional view of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder
assembly, a spring, end-caps, a set of seals, and a port. is given in Figure 2. It consists of a barrel, a piston-and-
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Oil chamber is formed in the cylinder with the barrel, piston, rod assembly, end-caps, a set of seals, and two ports.
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and the piston-side end-cap. The piston-and-rod assembly The double-acting cylinder has oil ports on both ends,
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is a tight-fit inside the barrel and is biased by the spring. namely piston-side port and piston-rod-side port.
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The port is integrated into its cap-end to permit or to relieve Application of a hydraulic pressure through the piston side
the system oil. Application of a hydraulic pressure through port extends the cylinder, provided that the pressure from
the port moves the piston-and-rod assembly in one direction the piston-rod side is relieved. In the same way, application
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to provide the working stroke. The piston-and-rod assembly of a hydraulic pressure through the piston-rod side port
moves in the opposite direction, either by a spring force or retracts the cylinder, provided that the pressure from the
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by gravity, or even by exerting an external force. In a cylinder piston side is relieved.

with a spring-assisted retraction, the spring is designed
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Double Rod-end Hydraulic Cylinders

not to carry any load, but, to retract the piston-and-rod
assembly with sufficient speed. A double rod-end cylinder has piston-rods extending out
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of the cylinder at both ends, as shown in Fig 3. It has

equal areas on both sides of the piston.
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A double rod-end hydraulic cylinder.(Fig 3)

2/2-way Directional Control (DC) Hydraulic Valve
Simplified sketches of a 2/2 - DC (way) valve are shown in
Fig 4. The valve consists of housing with a sliding spool, a
compression spring. The spool is designed to slide in a
A schematic diagram showing the cross-sectional view of close-fitting bore of the valve body. The groove between
a single-acting cylinder.(Fig 1) lands on the spool provides leak-free flow paths between
the ports. The operation of the valve is explained with the
Double-acting Hydraulic Cylinders
help of the two views of the valve in its normal and actuated
Double-acting hydraulic cylinders, like single-acting positions.
cylinders, are also linear actuators. A double-acting cylinder
can perform work in both directions of its motion, and hence
the name double-acting cylinder.
Fig 4 (a) Normal position Fig 4 (b) Actuated position
(Fig 4) Cross-sectional views of a 2/2-DC hydraulic valve in its normal and actuated positions.
In the normal position of the valve, as shown in Figure 3/2-Directional Control (DC) Hydraulic Valve
4(a), both the pressure port P and the working port A are
A 3/2-DC (way) valve has three ports and two switching
blocked. In the actuated position of the valve, as shown in
positions. The cross-sectional views of a spool type 3/2-
Figure 4(b), the working port A is open to the pressure port
DC valve in its normal position as well as actuated position
P. Once the actuating force is removed, the compression
are shown in the simplified sketches of Figure 5. The
spring brings the spool back to its normal position.
pressure port is blocked in the normal position of the valve,
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as shown in Figure 5(a). In the actuated position of the
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to the pressure port P and closed to the tank port T. The
3/2-way valves can be used to control single-acting
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hydraulic cylinders.
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(Fig 5) Cross-sectional views of a spool type 3/2-DC hydraulic valve (NC type) in its normal and actuated positions.
Example 1: A single-acting hydraulic cylinder is to clamp Solution
a component when a push-button valve is pressed. As
Two positions of the hydraulic circuit, for implementing
long as the push-button is pressed, the cylinder is to remain
the control task given in Example 1, in the normal and
in the clamped position. If the push-button is released,
actuated positions of the DV valve, are shown in Figure 6.
the cylinder is to retract to its home position. Develop a
The power supply unit consists of a hydraulic pump driven
hydraulic circuit to implement the control task using a
by an electrical motor, a reservoir and an integral pressure
fixed-displacement pump and a 3/2-Dc valve.
relief valve. The pump can be set by using a separate
pressure relief valve (PRV), as shown.
(Fig 6) Two positions of the hydraulic circuit for the direct control of a single-acting cylinder, and a typical structure of
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hydraulic circuits.
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The single acting cylinder can be controlled by using a Example 2 A double -acting hydraulic cylinder is to extend
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manually actuated 3/2 DC valve as shown in the figure. In and clamp a work - piece when a push - button valve is
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the actuated position of the valve, as shown in the Fig pressed. As long as the push - button is actuated, the
6(b), the valve allows the flow the pump to the cylinder. cylinder is to remain in the clamped position. If the push
The cylinder then extends to its forward direction. When button is released, the cylinder is to retract. Develop a
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system pressure reaches the setting of the relief valve, hydraulic control circuit to implement the control task. A
pump flow is bypassed over the relief valve against the full fixed -displacement hydraulic pump is used as the power
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system pressure. This maximum pressure limiting action source.

of teh relief valve serves to protect the system against
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Solution
over-pressurisation. In the normal position of the 3/2 - DC
valve a shown in Fig. 6(a), the valve blocks the flow from Two positions of the hydraulic circuit for the control task in
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the pump to the cylinder. The cylinder then retracts to its Example 2 in the normal and actuated positions of the
home position. A typical structure of hydraulic circuits is double -acting hydraulic cylinder are shown in Fig. 8. The
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given in the block diagram of Fig 6(c). double - acting cylinder can be controlled by using a
manually-actuated 4/2 DC valve. The power supply unit
4/2 Directional control (DC) Hydraulic valve
consists of hydraulic pump driven by an electricla motor,
A 4/2 - DC (way) valve has four ports and two switching a reservoir, and an integral pressure relief valve. The pump
positions. Simplified cross-sectional views of a manually delivers pressurized oil to the circuit with constant
actuated 4/2 DC valve with spool design, in its normal and displacement.
actuated positions, are shown in Fig. 7. In the normal
When the valve is actuate as shown in the Fig. 8(b) the
position of the valve, as shown in Fig. 7(a), paths from the
system oil flow is directed to the iston side port of the
pressure port P to the working port B and from the working
cylinder, and the cylinder extends in the normal position
port A to the tank port T are open. When the valve is
of the valve as shown in the Fig. 2(a) the oil flow is directed
actuated, paths from the pressure port P to the working
to the piston - rod side port of the cyliner and teh cylinder
port A and from the working port B to the tank port T are
retracts to its home position. The maximum / operating
open, as shown in Fig. 7(b). This valve can be used as the
pressure (say 100 bar) in the system can be set by using
main valve to drive a double - acting hydraulic cylinder or a
a separate pressure relief vave (PRV) as shown .
bi-directional hydraulic motor.
(Fig 7) Cross sectional views of a manually actuated 4/2 DC hydraulic valve in its normal and actuated position
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(Fig 8) Two positions of the circuit for the control of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder.
Non-return Hydraulic Valve
A non-return valve (NRV) is the simplest type of directional
control valve used in a hydraulic circuit. The value
preferentially permits flow through it in one direction and
blocks the flow in the reverse direction. The basic NRV is
the so-called check valve. A hydraulic check valve consists
of a valve body and a spring-biased ball poppet or cone
poppet, apart from inlet/outlet ports. The spring holds the
poppet against the valve seat. Cross-sectional views of
these two types of hydraulic check valves are shown in
Fig 9.
(Fig 9) Cross-sectional views of a check valve.
When the system pressure at the port A is high enough to
overcome the spring force, the poppet is pushed off its
seat allowing the system oil to flow freely through the valve
from the port A the port B with a low-pressure drop across
it. The flow through the valve is blocked when the intended
flow direction is from the port B to the part A, by poppet
reseating.
Flow Control (Throttle) Valve

A throttle valve is a device with a restriction that offers a
resistance to the system oil flowing through it. The throttle
valve regulates the flow rate of the system oil. According
to the type of restriction, throttle valves are of two types.
They are: (1) Fixed type and (2) Adjustable type. In a fixed
type throttle valve, the restriction is fixed, whereas in an (Fig 10) A cross-sectional view of an adjustable type throttle
adjustable type throttle valve, the area of the restriction valve
can be varied. These types of throttle valves are further
explained in the following sections. An adjustable throttle valve consists of an orifice whose
cross-section can be controlled by an externally adjustable
needle-shaped plunger. Oil flow passing through the
controlled cross-section can be regulated precisely by
the pointed needle. The cross-sectional view of the
adjustable throttle valve is given in Fig 10.
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Pneumatic System
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Objectives: At the end of this session you shall be able to:
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• appreciate a typical pneumatic system
• understand the working of a reciprocating compressor
• explain the functions FRL
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• explain the working of pneumatic cylinders.

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A Typical Pneumatic System Air compressor

A basic pneumatic system can be thought of consisting of The compressor is the most common industrial energy
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the following three main blocks: (1) Power source, (2) supply unit that converts mechanical energy into pneumatic
Control valves and (3) Actuators. A typical pneumatic energy. The vast of pneumatic systems use air as the
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system with a number of components is depicted in figure operating medium. It is designed to take in air at
1. The power source includes compressor, receiver tank, atmospheric pressure and deliver it into a closed system
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FRL etc. at a higher pressure, as per Boyle's Law.
Boyle's law
The relation between pressure and volume of a gas is
given by Boyle's law. It states that: "At constant
temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to the absolute pressure." Let V1 is the volume
of a gas at pressure p1. When this gas is compressed to
a volume V2 then the pressure will rise to a value of P2.
Mathematically,
P1V1 = P2V2 T, Constant
As air is compressed, energy used in this work is

dissipated as heat, i.e., the temperature will rise as the
air is reduced in volume. This is known as adiabatic
compression.
Reciprocating piston compressor Pneumatic actuators
Reciprocating piston compressors are very common and Pneumatic actuators are output devices for conversion of
provide a wide range of pressures. Piston compressors energy contained in compressed air to produce linear or
are employed where high pressures (4-30 bar) are needed. rotary motion or apply a force. Linear actuators convert
Figure 2 shows the basic single-cylinder reciprocating energy of compressed air into straight-line mechanical
compressor. As the piston moves down during the inlet energy. Single-acting and double-acting cylinders are the
stroke, the inlet valve opens and draws air into the cylinder. two basic types of pneumatic linear actuators.
During the upward motion of the piston air is compressed
Valves in fluid power systems
and discharged through the opened outlet valve.
In fluid power systems, power is conveyed and controlled
through a fluid under pressure within a circuit. Therefore,
pneumatic and hydraulic systems require valves to control
or regulate the flow of pressurised fluid from power source
to various actuators. According to their function, valves in
fluid power systems can be divided into the following groups.
• Directional control valves (way-valves) control the
direction of fluid flow.
• Non-return valves allow the fluid flow in only one direction
and block the flow in the other direction.
• Pressure control valves regulate or limit the fluid
pressure or generate a control signal when a set
pressure is reached.
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• Flow control valves restrict the fluid flow in order to
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reduce its flow rate.
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FRL or air service unit
Graphic representation
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Compressed air, which is dry and clean, is the most
important requirement for the satisfactory operation of any A symbol specifies only the function of the valve without
pneumatic system. As we are aware, compressed air in a indicating the design principle. Apart from that, a symbol
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pneumatic system is liable to be contaminated to a high also indicates the method of actuation and designations
degree. It is essential to remove fine dirt particles, to of ports of the concerned valve. Fluid power symbols are
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regulate the pressure, and perhaps to introduce a fine standardized and described in ISO 1219. This is a set of
mist of oil in the compressed air to aid lubrication. These basic shapes and rules for the construction of fluid power
t t rig
important functions can be accomplished through auxiliary symbols.

airline equipment, namely, filter, regulator and lubricator
No py
(FRL). A combined FRL unit and detailed and simplified

symbols are shown in (Fig 3).
Co
Line with arrow represents Working ports
direction of flow. Shult-off
position is shown by ‘T’ or 1.
Lines drawn on the outside
of the square in the normal
Symbols for valve actuations or initaial position represent
are shown on the left-hand ports
side or right-hand side only.
Switching positions are Normal position is the

shown by squanres and are switching position when the
drawn adjacent to each valve is not actuated
other.
pressure port Exhaust port/Tank port
Port markings
Ports of pneumatic values are designated using a number hydraulic valves are, however, designated using a letter
ed
system in accordance with ISO 5599. Letter system for system. Both systems of port marking are presented in
pneumatic valves is no longer used. Port markings of table below.
bl I
pu M
ish
Table: Port markings of directional control valves
Re NI
Port Letter system Number system Comment

be @
Pressure port P 1 Supply port

Working ports A,B 2,4 4/2 or 5/2 dc valve
o ht
Exhaust (tank) ports R,S(T) 3,5 5/2 dc valve, T for tank

t t rig
Pilot port Z,Y 10,12,14 Pilot line

No py
Ports and positions A few more examples of valve representation are given in
(Fig 4) to make the idea more clear.
Co
Directional control valves are described by the number of

port opening or "ways" which are to be controlled. For
example: a 2-way or 3way. Or 4-way valve. A 2-2ay valve is Actuated position Normal position
a simple on-off valve used to control power supply through
2/2-directional
the pressure port and the working port of the valve. A 3-
control valve
way valve controls air supply through the pressure port,
the working port and the exhaust port of the valve.
3/2-directional
Directional control valves are further described by the
control valve
number of switching positions available in the valve.
(Normally closed)
Directional control valves are specified according to the
number of controlled connections and number of switching 3/2-directional
positions. For example, in a 3/2-way valve, there are 3 control valve
ports and 2 switching positions. In the case of valves with (Normally open)
two switching positions, right-hand square usually
represents the normal position and left-hand square 4/3-directional
represents the actuated position. The lines for pressure, control valve
working and exhaust ports are drawn attached to the
square that represents the normal (initial) position.
4/2-directional
Graphic symbols for dc valves control valve
Graphic symbols serve as an aid to functional identification
of components in circuit diagrams of fluid power systems.
Method of valve actuation four basic methods. When the controlling spool of a valve
Another important feature of directional control valves is is held in one extreme position by the force of its resetting
their methods of actuation. These valves can be actuated spring, the spool is said to be "spring offset" and when the
manually or mechanically or hydraulically or pneumatically spool is held in the centre position by the spring, it is said
or electrically or by an appropriate combination of the above to be "spring-centred". Symbols for methods of valve
actuation are presented in (Fig 5)
Fig 5
Manual Mechanical Hydraulic
General Spring return Direct actuation
Pilot actuation
Pushbutton Spring-centered Pneumatic
Direct actuation
Plunger Pilot actuation
Foot pedal Electrical

Roller operated
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
No py
Co
Mechanic Diesel - Specifications and service equipments
Resent trends and developments

• state the history of auto industry
• state the leading manufacturers
• state the auto mobile industry, new product.
Auto industry - History, leading manufacturing In Indian some Industries are manufacturing the vehicle
In 1887 first car rolled out in the streets of Calcutta the next parts and assembling.
year there were four cars in the street of Bombay. Example: TATA, Hindustan Motor and ashok leyland etc.
1940 Indian company like Hindustan motors and premier In India some vehicle parts are importing and assembling
started to manufacture car of other firm, the same decade in the plants
started Mahindra and Mahindra also started utility vehicle.
Example: Ford, Hyundai, Audi etc.
1980 Hindustan Motors ambassador and premier were
challenged by a new entrant, maruti udyog limited. Development in automobile industry
The alliance between maruti and Suzuki was first joint Due to the recent developments in electronics and computers
venture between an Indian company. lots of changes have come in the automobile also a mini
2000-2010, almost every major car company establishing computer named ECM electronic control module takes the
control of
ed
manufacturing facilities across different parts of the country.
bl I
Chennai, Mumbai, pune, north NCR are majority of Indian Engine control, transmission control, Brake and steering
pu M
ish
car industry system controls, Safety controls, and infotainments.
Re NI
More no of sensors and transducers are employed in all
Top and major manufactures in Automobile industry systems to send information to their corresponding
electronic control units to achieve precise control on all
be @
• Maruti udyog
activities.
• General motors' India
Due to this precise controls we could achieve,
o ht
• Ford India
Fuel efficient engines, clean emission engine, Easy steering,
t t rig
• Eicher motors and anti locking brakes, keyless entry, Navigation and
• Bajaj Auto smart dash board etc.
No py
• Daewoo motors India Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

Co
• Hero motors Fuel is injected directly into the cylinders, not mixed with
• Hindustan motors air in the inlet manifold or inlet ports before being drawn into
the cylinders. The advantages of direct injection are that
• Hyundai Motor India. the fuel can be placed in the combustion space in a more
• Royal Enfield motors controlled manner than the conventional inlet injection
system.
• Telco
• Swaraj mazda Hybrid vehicles
• BMW Hybrid vehicle that combines a conventional internal
combustion engine with an electric propulsion system
The pioneer Mr. J.R.D. Tata's role in setting up the Tata (hybrid vehicle drive train). The presence of the electric
group (ERC). power train is intended to achieve either better fuel economy
than a conventional vehicle or better performance.
In India maruti 800, Car launched by SMT, Indira Gandhi -
In 1983. Electric vehicle (EV)
India in the largest three wheeler and two wheeler market India has plans to make a major shift to electric vehicles by
in the world and second largest tractor manufacture in the 2030.E-commerce companies, Indian car manufactures
world , fifth largest commercial vehicle manufacture in the like Rava Electric Car Company (RECC), and Indian app-
world and second largest producer of motorcycle in the based transportation network companies like Ola are
world after china. working on making electric cars in the near future.
259
The electric cars available in India are: Driverless cars combine a variety of techniques to perceive
Mahindra e2oplus their surroundings, including radar, laser light, GPS and
computer vision. Advanced control systems interpret
Mahindra e-Verito. sensory information to identify appropriate navigation paths,
Tata Tigor Electric as well as obstacles and relevant signage.
Mahindra e-KUV 100 The potential benefits of driverless cars include reduced
mobility costs and infrastructure costs, increased safety,
Tata Tiago Electric. increased mobility, increased customer satisfaction, and
reduced crime. And also potentially significant reduction
Fuel cells in traffic collisions, resulting injuries and related costs,
The fuel cell as used in space-craft, reverses this reaction including less need for insurance.
combining hydrogen and Oxygen to release electrical Waymo is a self-driving technology development company
energy with pure water as a byproduct. and it is a subsidized by Google.
The attraction of using in an internal combustion engine, is Alternate fuel.
that the fuel cell is very efficient indeed, achieving 45 to 60%
efficiency versus petrol engine 15 to 35%. Bio fuels are also considered a renewable source. Although
renewable energy is used mostly to generate electricity, it
A danger involved in fuel cell is the hydrogen is an explosive is often assumed that some form of renewable energy of a
gas that is difficult to store and handle. percentage is used to create alternative fuels. Research is
going on the search of more suitable bio fuel crops and
Lean burn engines improving the oil yields of these crops, Using the current
This engine are designed for Lean-burning, They have yields, Vast amount of land and fresh water in needed to
higher compression ratios and thus provide better produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage.
performance, efficient fuel usage and low exhaust Alternative fuels, known as non -conventional and advanced
hydrocarbon emissions compare with the conventional fuels, any materials or substances that can be used as
gasoline engines. Lean mixtures with very high air-fuel fuels, other than conventional feels like; fossil fuels
ratios can only be achieved by direct injection engines. (Petroleum (oil), coal, and natural gas.
Some well-known alternative fuels includes biodiesel, bio
Driverless Cars alcohol (Methanol, ethanol), vegetable oil, propane and
This is a vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment other biomass sources.
and navigating without human input.
Classification of vehicles
• classify the vehicles.
Classification of vehicles Based on drive

Based on central motor vehicle act Front engine rear wheel drive (Sumo, Omni, Ambassador,
• Motor cycle etc) (Fig 1)
• Invalid carriage Rear engine rear wheel drive (Tata Nano, Bajaj auto, Valvo
bus etc) (Fig 2)
• Three wheelers
Front engine front wheel drive (Alto, Ertiga, santro, Tiago
• Light motor vehicle etc) (Fig 4)
• Medium passenger motor vehicle Four wheel/ All wheel drive (jeep, Scorpio, Gypsy etc )
• Medium goods vehicle (Fig 3)
• Heavy passenger motor vehicle Based on position of engine
• Heavy goods vehicle Front transverse engine (Example ; Maruti 800)
• Any other motor vehicle of a specified description Front longitudinal engine (Example ; Maruti Omni)
Based on wheel Rear Transverse engine (Example ; Volvo bus)
Two wheeler Based on steering
Three wheelers Conventional manual steering
Four wheelers Power steering hydraulic
Six wheelers Power steering electric
Multi axles
Based on transmission
Based on fuel used Manual transmission
Petrol vehicle
Automatic transmission
Diesel vehicle
This is transmission that uses a torque converter, planetary
Gas vehicle (CNG & LPG) gears set and clutches or bands to shift a vehicle's forward
Electric vehicle gears automatically.
Automated manual transmission (AMT)
Based on body
This is an automated manual transmission it employs a
Saloon (BMW,AUDI) mechanical clutch, but the action of the clutch is not
Sedan (Maruti ciaz, ambassador etc) controlled by the driver's clutch pedal. Gears shifts done by
using automated electronic, pneumatic or hydraulic
Hatch back (Alto, i10, santro, Tata Tiago)
controls.
Convertible (Jeep, maruti gypsy)
Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
Station wagon (Innova, Ertiga, etc)
This transmission has a continuously variable drive ratio
Van ( Omni, Touristor)
and uses belts, pulleys and sensors rather than gears to
Special purpose (Ambulance, Milk van, etc) maintain a steady acceleration curve with no pauses for
gear changes. Because of this, a CVT can keep the engine
in its optimum power range, thereby increasing efficiency
and gas mileage.
261
Ministry of road transport & high ways

• state the function of ministry of road transport & highways
• state the function of NATRIP
• state the function of ARAI
Ministry of road Transport & Highways policy on road safety and by preparing and implementing
the Annual road safety plan.
This is an apex organization under the central Government,
is entrusted with the task of formulating and administering, • Collects, compiles and analyses road accident statistics
in consultation with other central Ministries/Departments, and takes steps for developing a road safety culture in
State Governments/ UT Administrations, organisations the country by involving the members of public and
and individuals, policies for Road transport, National organizing various awareness campaigns.
highways and transport research with a view to increasing
• Provides grants-in-aid to non-governmental Oranisations
the mobility and efficiency of the road transport system in
in accordance with the laid down guidelines.
the country. The ministry has two wings: Roads wing and
Transport wing. National automotive testing and R&D infrastructure
project (NATRIP)
Roads wing
The largest and one of the most significant initiatives in
Deals with development and maintenance of National Automotive sector so far, represents a unique joining of
Highway in the country hands between the Government of India, a number of state
Governments and Indian Automotive industry to create a
Main Responsibilities: state of the art testing, Validation and R&D infrastructure
• Planning development and maintenance of national in the country.
Highways in the country
The project aims at creating core global competencies in
• Extends technical and financial support to state Automotive sector in India and facilitate seamless integration
Governments for the development of state roads and the of Indian Automotive industry with the world as also to
roads of inter-state connectivity and economic position the country prominently on the global automotive
importance. map.
• Evolves standard specifications for roads and bridges in
Create state- of - art research and testing infrastructure to
the country.
drive India into the future of global automotive excellence.
• Serves as a repository of technical knowledge on roads
and bridges. (NATRIP) aims at setting up of seven-of-the-art
automotive testing and R&D centers across the country
Transport wing and thereby;
Deals with matter relating to Road transport • Creating core global competencies.
Main Responsibilities: • Enhancing competitive skills for product development

leading to deepening of manufacturing.
• Motor vehicle legislation
• Synergizing Indias unique capabilities in information
• Administration of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 technology with the automotive sector.
• Taxation of motor vehicles. • Facilitating seamless integration of Indian automotive
• Compulsory insurance of motor vehicles. industry with the world to put India strongly on the global
automotive map.
• Administration of the Road transport corporations Act,
1950.
• And promotion of transport co-operatives in the field of
motor transport
• Evolves road safety standards in the form of a national
263
Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) Automotive research association of India
The Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) has ARAI has been providing various services to the Indian
been Playing a crucial role in assuring safe, less polluting Automotive Industry in the areas of design & development
and more efficient Vehicles. ARAI provides technical and know-how for manufacture & testing of components/
Expertise in R & D, testing, certification, homologation and system to national /international standards. ARAI shall
framing of vehicle regulations. strive to achieve international recognition in these areas.
ARAI is research association of the Automotive Industry ARAI shall seek the valuable guidance and support from
with Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, association members, from time to time to achieve growth
Government of India, It works in harmony and complete and stability.
confidence with it members, customers and the Government With the globalization of economy and business, ARAI
of India to offer the finest services, which earned for itself shall enlarge its scope of services to meet the requirements
ISO 9001,ISO 14001, OHSAS 18001 and NABL of automotive industries anywhere in the world.
accreditations.
ARAI strongly believes that satisfaction of the customer
ARAI has a strong base of state-of-the-art technology needs on continuing basis is of prime importance to earn
equipments, laboratory facilities and highly qualified and the loyalty of the customers. Therefore, emphasis shall be
experienced personnel. With these assets, ARAI has on meeting and exceeding the customer needs through
goals, strategies and action plans to achieve fullest customer continuing quality improvement with active participation of
satisfaction. employees and also the customer.
These are
to compete in service with excellence
to cover global market
to obtain recognition and accreditation
to build commitment of all personnel
to develop team sprit and sense of belonging amongst all.
Uses of hoists, jacks and stands.

• state the function of vehicle hoists
• state the function of engine hoists
• sate the function of jacks
• state the function of axes stand standt.
The modern automobile service stations are used the

various types of equipments to lift the vehicles. They are
as follows.
Single post hydraulic car hoist
Two post car hoist
Four post car hoist
Engine hoist
Jacks
Stands
Single post hydraulic car hoist (Fig1) : It is facilitate the
servicing and reaper works conveniently. It is constructed
for dependable, trouble free performance and ensuring
smooth and safe operation. The post is made of high grade
steel. The car hoists are specially designed for resistant
to wear and damage during water wash. Single post type
is suitable for vehicle up to 6 tones.
Four post car hoist (Fig 3) : It is operate by electro

hydraulically and balancing the lifting vehicle. It is easy to
operate and maintain the moving parts. Four post hoists
is work as single and double post hoist it is suitable for lift
Two post hoist (Fig 2) : It is operated by electro -hydraulic the vehicle light and heavy vehicle.
system. it is easy to operate and maintain the double post
hoist and safety provision also provided to hold the vehicle.
Double post type suitable for vehicle upto 4 tones.
265
Engine hoist (Fig 4)
The engine hoist helps to lift an engine from a car/truck.
The hydraulic pressure converts power to a mechanical
advantage and lifts the engine from the car with less effort.
When using a block and tackles for lifting an engine, use
a lifting plate attached to the intake manifold or use a chain
bolted at each end of the block.
so on. They are operated by moving the handle up and
down. The other type of portable floor jack is the pneumatic
jack which uses compressed air to lift a car or truck. It is
mostly used in production side.
Never work under a car without safety stands or jack

stands.
On roads mostly mechanical jacks are used to lift the
car/vehicle for small jobs. These jacks work under the
principle of screw and nut.
Jacks: It is used to lift the vehicle, which are operated by

mechanically and hydraulically, Jack is designed to lift the
vehicle and hold the vehicle load during the repair works.
Jack is a standard accessory with many vehicles.
Types of jacks
• Light weight screw jack (Fig 5)
• Heavy duty bottle type hydraulic jack (Fig 6)
• Trolley types hydraulic jack (Fig 7)
In raising front vehicle end off the floor by jacking , be sure Axle stand (Fig 9): It is always injure safety before
to apply jack against front jacking bracket(1) (Fig 1). starting the work under the lifted vehicle, Jack report is not
enough, it could be dangerous. Always use axle stands
In raising rear vehicle end off the floor by jacking, be sure
for safety work. Different size of stands are used depend
to apply jack against the center portion of rear axle (2) .
upon the vehicle load.
To perform service with either front or rear vehicle end

jacked up, be sure to place safety stands (1) under body
so that body is securely supported. And the check to
ensure that body does not slide on safety stands and the
vehicle is held stable for safety's sake.
Caution: Never apply jack against suspension
parts (i.e., stabilizer, etc.) front bumper or
vehicle floor, Otherwise it may get deformed.
Warning: If the vehicle to be jacked up only at
the front or rear end, be sure to block the
wheels on ground in order to ensure safety.
After the vehicle is jacked up , be sure to
support it on stands. It is extremely dangerous
to do any work on the vehicle raised on jack
alone.

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MECHANIC DIESEL

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Copyright © 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

All rights reserved.

for their contribution in bringing out this publication.

New Delhi - 110 001

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. S. Devakumar _ Principal (Retd)

Shri. K. Thaniyarasu _ Principal

Shri. W. Nirmal Kumar _ Training Officer

Govt. I.T.I. Coonoor

Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assitant Manager,

the process of development of this Instructional Material.

Module 1 Safety workshop practice 25 Hrs

Module 2 Measuring, marking & workshop tools 100 Hrs

Module 3 Fastening and fitting 125 Hrs

Module 4 Electrical and electronics 100 Hrs

Module 5 Arc & Gas welding 75 Hrs

Module 6 Hydraulics and pneumatics 50 Hrs

Module 7 Specification and service equipments 25 Hrs

Total 525 Hrs

Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Module 1 : Safety workshop practices

1.1.01 Organization of ITI’s and scope of the mechanic diesel trade 1

Module 2 : Measuring, marking & workshop tools

1.2.19 Dial test indicators 78

1.2.20 Straight edges 80

1.2.22 Vacuum gauge 82

1.2.23 Tyre pressure gauge 83

1.3.25 Rivets - types & uses 84

1.3.26 Methods of removing broken studs 109

Drilling machines (Bench and pillar type) 131

Work - holding devices 133

Drill - holding devices 134

Drill Angles 137

1.3.32 Hand taps and dies 140

Tap drill size 141

Bending sheet metal 158

Grouping of capacitors 189

Potential difference and polarity of IR voltage drops 193

DC parallel circuit 195

1.4.44 - 1.4.47 Battery 200

Electricity effects 204

Edge preparation 226

1.7.59 Classification of vehicles 261

1.7.60 Ministry of road transport & high ways 263

On completion of this book you shall be able to

• Check & perform measuring & marking by using various

assemble circuit to ensure functionality of system.

• Join components by using Arc & Gas welding.

• Trace & test hydraulic and pneumatic components

opearte various service station equipment.

supervisory staff. Then deputy training officer (DTO)

Hostel Superintendent (H.S.) physical Education Trainer

Scope of the mechanic diesel trade

Do not unnecessarily interfere in other’s activities.

Knowledge of personal safety and safety precautions in handling diesel

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Categories of PPEs

to facilitate the plant management in maintaining an

provisions for effective use of appropriate types of PPE. Table1

Ways to ensure workplace safety and use personal No. Title

PPE2 Safety footwear

Types of protection Hazards PPE to be used

Head protection (Fig 1) 1. Falling objects Helmets