Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Research paper

Quantitative controls on the regional geometries and heterogeneities of the T

Rayda to Shu'aiba formations (Northern Oman) using forward stratigraphic
modelling
Marya Al-Salmia,1, Cédric M. Johna,∗, Nicolas Hawieb
a
Department of Earth Science and Engineering and Qatar Carbonate and Carbon Capture Research Centre, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
b
Beicip-Franlab, Rueil-Malmaison, France

ABSTRACT

The complex geometry of carbonate systems is influenced by a multitude of physical as well as biological processes. The Lower Cretaceous carbonates of Northern
Oman are characterised by a variability of regional-scale geometries with expected vertical and lateral facies variations. The main environmental and tectonic
controls acting on the depositional processes of the Lower Cretaceous ramps and platforms through space and geological time (in 4 dimensions) are only partially
understood. In this study, we use a 4D DionisosFlow Forward Stratigraphic Modelling (FSM) approach to explore the role of: (i) eustasy; (ii) subsidence; (iii) initial
paleobathymetry, and (iv) wave energy, to generate carbonate stacking patterns and heterogeneities. Carbonate production was maintained constant through
deposition. Multi-disciplinary and multi-scale datasets were used (i.e. seismic, well and field data) to constrain the FSM input parameters and sensitivity analysis was
carried out to validate or refute some depositional model hypotheses. Results show that basement topography and eustasy have the greatest influence on the
progradational geometries and the lateral continuity of clinoform architectures during the Tithonian to Valanginian second-order super-sequence. In the Valanginian
to Aptian super-sequence, subsidence was the primary control for the observed aggradational stacking pattern. Lateral and vertical stacking of carbonate lithologies,
textures as well as facies are thus apprehended through this FSM approach, leading to a better assessment of petroleum systems elements as reservoir, seal and trap.

1. Introduction
During Jurassic and Early Cretaceous times, an extensive carbonate
platform covered the eastern part of the Arabian Plate representing a
period of broad marine transgression (Murris, 1980). Several regional-
scale investigations were conducted to assess the stacking patterns and
lateral geometries of the Lower Cretaceous carbonates, combining both
outcrop and subsurface data (Masse et al., 1997; Pratt and Smewing,
1993; Van Buchem and Razin, 1996 and; Hillgärtner et al., 2003). The
Lower Cretaceous reservoirs have been producing in many fields along
Northern Oman and extend towards the northern part of the Ghaba Salt
Basin (Fig. 1) (Pratt and Smewing, 1993 and Van Buchem and Razin,
1996). Examples of such fields include the Yibal, Al Huwaisah, Lekh-
wair and Safah fields (Van Buchem et al., 2002), where the main pro-
ducing reservoir units are the shallow marine, peri-reefal Shu'aiba
Formation and the Kharaib Formation (Litsey et al., 1986).
The interior part of these carbonate ramp systems is usually imaged
as widespread shallow water sectors, where carbonates mainly aggrade.
Due to their negligible topography, deposition is generally assumed to
involve broad facies belts with laterally continuous, low-angle facies
(Droste, 2010). However, ramp systems interpreted through 3D seismic
data appear to be much more complex. They are characterised by dif-
ferentiated platforms with clear breaks in the slope and relatively steep
clinoforms (Droste, 2010). Seismic interpretation of the Early Cretac-
eous sequence of North and Central Oman highlighted complex pro-
gradation geometries (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). Moreover,
the Early Cretaceous platform margin, situated just north of the present-
day Oman Mountains (Pratt and Smewing, 1990), present complex
vertical and lateral facies mosaic and stacking patterns during the
Berriasian to the Aptian interval (Glennie et al., 1974 and Hillgärtner
et al., 2003). For example, the Lower Kahmah Group (Rayda, Salil and
Habshan) is restricted to areas north of ca. 21° latitude line. South of
this line the Lekhwair Formation lies directly in the Jurassic or older
strata (Haan et al., 1990). The Upper Kahmah (Lekhwair, Kharaib and
Shu'aiba formations) covers the southern area, but south of ca. 20° N, it
is progressively cut out beneath the basal Wasia Group (Glennie et al.,
1974).
The depositional patterns seen in the Lower Cretaceous of Oman are
largely controlled by the interplay of subsidence, eustasy, sediment
supply and transport, but these controls cannot easily and in-
dependently be constrained by looking at their product (i.e. the re-
sulting stratigraphic stacking pattern) (Hillgärtner et al., 2003). By

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cedric.john@imperial.ac.uk (C.M. John).
1
Now at: Petroleum Development Oman, Oman.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.09.030
Received 28 May 2018; Received in revised form 19 September 2018; Accepted 23 September 2018
Available online 26 September 2018
0264-8172/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Al-Salmi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

Fig. 1. A) Location map showing the study area in northern Oman (red box). B) Simplified tectonic provinces in northern Oman. Highlighted are some outcrop
locations in Jebel Akhdar and some major oil fields producing the Shu'aiba reservoir that are mentioned in the text. Modified from Glennie et al. (1974) and
Borgomano et al. (2002). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

contrast, forward stratigraphic modelling provides a quantitative way

to generate several realisations of carbonate deposition by simulating
the sedimentological and stratigraphic processes in time and space
(several tens to hundreds of kilometres) (Shafie and Madon, 2008), as
well as, identifying key factors, like production rate, subsidence and
eustasy that control the architecture of carbonates (Hawie et al., 2015b;
Huang et al., 2015).
In this paper, we use a numerical modelling approach to: (1) in-
vestigate the impact of initial bathymetry; wave energy and eustasy
curves on the depositional architecture and clinoform geometries of the
carbonate platforms of the late Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous of Oman
(Tithonian to Early Aptian); (2) to test if the prograding to aggrading
regional trends can be reproduced using eustasy alone or if changes in
regional subsidence rates are needed; and finally (3) to explore the
value of the model to reproducing the main depositional hetero-
geneities observed in the rock record. We adopt an experimental ap-
proach that allows testing conceptual geological models by producing
multiple stratigraphic scenarios. This study enhances facies predictions
for the Lower Cretaceous of Oman, and help understanding overall
controls on the deposition of carbonates.

2. Geological setting

Fig. 2. Plate reconstruction for the studied megasequence (149-92 Ma). The
The separation of the Arabian-Iranian terrains during the Triassic to
intra-cratonic rifting between Africa/Arabia and India/Australia led to the de-
Jurassic led to relaxation and rapid subsidence of the passive con-
velopment of the passive margin deposits in the Arabian Plate (Edited from
tinental margin of the Neo-Tethys Ocean that resulted in widespread Sharland et al., 2001).
flooding and carbonate deposition on the Arabian platform (Sharland
et al., 2001) (Fig. 2). This epeiric sea was bounded to the north and east
strata (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). The Early Cretaceous evo-
by a passive continental margin with the Neo-Tethys Ocean, and in the
lution of the eastern Arabian Plate is schematically shown in a regional
southwest by the Arabian shield that shed siliciclastic sediments to the
cross-section (Fig. 3). The stratigraphy is bounded by two regional
shelf (Davies et al., 2002). At the transition between the Arabian shield
unconformities linked to major tectonic events (Sharland et al., 2001).
and the epeiric sea, a mixed carbonate siliciclastic sedimentary system
The Late Jurassic basal unconformity is linked to the final opening of
was observed, termed ‘Migratory Carbonate Supressed Belt’ (Droste,
the Indian Ocean, while the upper megasequence unconformity
2010). During high sea-level, the clastic belts retreated westwards and
(∼92 Ma) is linked to the regional doming and erosion subsequent to
the carbonate dominated the shelf interior (Davies et al., 2002; Droste,
the formation of an intra-oceanic subduction along the Afro-Arabian
2010). During lowstands, the carbonate platforms were exposed and
Plate (Béchennec et al., 1995). This megasequence comprises 3 second-
carbonate deposition was restricted to the shelf margin (Droste, 2010).
order supersequences supersequences (Sharland et al., 2001): (i) the
The Cretaceous carbonate-platform in Oman is around 1200 m thick
older (in this paper referred to as ‘supersequence 1’ is Tithonian to
and 1000 m wide and it unconformably overlies Jurassic and older

46
M. Al-Salmi et al.
Fig. 3. Cross-section through the Lower Cretaceous carbonate platform in Oman, showing the lower and middle second-order supersequences (modified after Droste
and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). The location of the cross section is shown in Fig. 1.
Valanginian in age and is capped by the Late Valanginian Un-
conformity, (ii) the middle second-order supersequence is Valanginian
to Aptian in age ‘supersequence 2’ and is capped by a regional Late
Aptian Unconformity that was caused by a relative sea-level fall and
erosion in Northern Oman (Harris et al., 1984; Sharland et al., 2001);
(iii) the youngest supersequence ‘supersequence 3’ is Upper Aptian to
Turonian in age and comprises the Nahr Umr Formation (Sharland
et al., 2001). The first two supersequences, each lasting around 25 Ma,
can be linked to a large second-order sea-level cycles (Scott, 1990).
Supersequence 1 spans between 149 and 129 Ma, while supersequence
2 spans from 129 to 113 Ma. The focus of this study is the Khamah
Group that ranges from the late Berriasian to Aptian (Droste and Van
Steenwinkel, 2004). The Lower Khamah group shows an overall pro-
gradation of the Habshan-Salil-Rayda system. The platform edge pro-
graded around 250 km to the north and northeast in approximately
15 Ma (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). The progradational phase
was followed by a mainly aggradational trend, forming around 700 m
thick sediments of the platform interior during Barremian to early
Turonian (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). The transgressive cycles
are dominated by gently dipping ramp depositional profile with com-
plex internal geometries as shown from sequence stratigraphic studies
of Shu'aiba and Natih formations (van Steeninkel, 1992 and Van
Buchem et al., 2002). Table 1 summarizes the main lithology types
within supersequence 1 and 2.
3. Data set and methodology
3.1. Data set
A conceptual numerical deterministic model is built to test several
depositional hypotheses. The model of Droste and Van Steenwinkel
Table 1
Lithology and type of rocks description.
Formation lithology
Rayda Formation Pelagic, argillaceous lime- mudstone and wackstone
Salil Formation Argillaceous lime- mudstone and wackstone
Habshan Formation Oolitic and bioclastic grainstone that marks a shallowing
upward trend
Lekhwair Formation Interbedded grainstone, wackstone and peloidal and oncoidal
Kharaib Formation Argillaceous lime wackstones to packstones. It shows good
evidence of shoaling upward cycles.
Shu'aiba Formation Mudstone with deep water shales and redeposited grainstone
and packstones
47
Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60
(2004) (Fig. 3) was chosen as the reference case, as it is well accepted
by other authors and constrained by regional data that combines wells,
seismic and outcrop information. Published regional seismic lines in the
centre of Oman (Fig. 4) were used to infer the stacking patterns and
geometries observed in this model: the Lower Khamah Group is char-
acterised by a northward progradation and well-defined clinoform
geometries.
Seismic mapping shows that the clinoform dips range from less than
1° to more than 20° (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). Sections with
high-angle clinoforms comprise thick sequences of platform-derived
grainstones and packstones interpreted to have formed during relative
sea-level rise, while the low-angle clinoforms comprises finer-grained
sediments, formed during forced regression (Droste and Van
Steenwinkel, 2004). This clinoform interval is overlain by around
700 m thick package of strong, nearly parallel, horizontal reflections
that contains the platform interior (Lekhwair to Natih formations)
(Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). Well data from surrounding fields
are useful in obtaining a range of thicknesses for those facies and their
lateral and vertical facies trends. The Lower Khamah Group section was
penetrated by several wells in the subsurface of Oman (Haan et al.,
1990). Two examples are given from two separate fields: the Yibal and
Al Huwaisah fields, where a subdivision was made between Habshan
(∼150–220 m thick) and Rayda/Salil (∼150–250 m thick) (Fig. 5)
(Haan et al., 1990). Well data point to a shallowing upward facies trend
within a clinoform belt from the pelagic Rayda Fm to slope facies of the
Salil Fm into the shallow marine bioclastic shoal of the Habshan Fm
(Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004).
The Habshan Fm generally shows low gamma ray response com-
pared to the underlying Salil and Rayda formations that show a serrated
signal (Haan et al., 1990). Many other wells target the upper Khamah
Group within the Shu'aiba (∼90–160 m) and Kharaib formations
Interpretation References
Pelagic carbonates (deposited below storm Haan et al. (1990)
wave base).
Slope deposits Pratt and Smewing (1990)
Platform edge deposits Haan et al. (1990)
Lagoonal deposits in a broad shoal settings Alshahran and Narin (1986)
Platform carbonates Van Buchem et al. (2002)
Platform carbonates Droste and van Steenwinkel (2004), Masse
et al. (1998)
M. Al-Salmi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

Fig. 4. Seismic section showing the interpretation of the Lower Cretaceous units. Note the clear progradation pattern within the platform edge (Habshan Formation).
Modified from Droste and Van Steenwinkel (2004). See Fig. 1 for seismic location.

(60–150 m) (e.g. wells A and B in Fig. 5) (Van Buchem et al., 2002).
Exposures of Lower Cretaceous strata in the Jebel Akhdar tectonic
window, located around 100 km southwest of Muscat in the Oman
Mountains, allow reliable recognition of the geometry of the platform-
margin. Three representative lithological sections are shown in Fig. 6
and Table 2, located close to the depositional section of Droste and Van
Steenwinkel (2004): Wadi Bani Kharus, Wadi Sahtan, and Wadi Nakhr.
It is worth noting that various local changes in thicknesses are visible
between different outcrops (Pratt and Smewing, 1993). This include
thinning of the Upper Kahmah unit in Jebels Akhdar and Madar as a
result of differential subsidence i.e. the block underlying Jebel Akhdar
subsided less compared to the interior of Oman (Pratt and Smewing,
1993). Moreover, subsidence in the region could have been influenced
by salt withdrawal and the shelf margin has undergone complex tec-
tonic readjustments as the underlying Jurassic faults have experienced
reactivation (Hillgärtner et al., 2003). This implies that there is gen-
erally a greater complexity and higher uncertainty in the northern part
of the Droste and Van Steenwinkel (2004) model compared to the
southern part.
The stratigraphic complexity needs to be considered in the context

Fig. 5. Well logs of the Lower Khamah Group from Al Huwaisah and Yibal Fields (Left). Modified after Haan et al. (1990). Log correlation through the prolific
reservoirs of Shu'aiba and Kharaib Formations (right). Modified after Van Buchem et al. (2002). See Fig. 1 for well locations.

48
M. Al-Salmi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

Fig. 6. Outcrop sections of three Wadies, showing sedimentological observations and facies interpretations. See Fig. 1 for wadi locations. Modified after Pratt and
Smewing (1993).

Table 2
Thicknesses of facies at three Wadi sections in meters (Pratt and Smewing,
1993).
Location Rayda Salil Habshan Lekhwair and Kharaib Shu'aiba
Wadi Sahtan 83 485 75 240 55
Wadi Bani Kharus 74 295 70 165 125
Wadi Nakhr 37 275 70 165 125
of the proposed tectonostratigraphic evolution for this margin by Pratt
and Smewing (1993) for the Early Cretaceous platform (Fig. 7). A
uniform subsidence, typical of passive margins, dominated during the
Late Jurassic. This is followed by a major drowning event marking the
Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary that is associated with extensive erosion
following variable uplift of up to 300 m. The uplift is believed to be a
result of the compression from oceanic crust and tilting of the eastern
side of the platform (Pratt and Smewing, 1993). During the Early
Cretaceous, the area had subsided to below storm wave base, when the
Rayda Formation was deposited (Pratt and Smewing, 1993). During the
Valanginian-Hauterivian, thermal subsidence dominated the region
with no major tectonic influence. The second regional drowning event
during the Albian was associated with a great detrital influx sourced
from the uplifted Arabian Shield in the south and fringing exposures of
Palaeozoic sediments in the southwest (Droste, 2010). This has gener-
ated the Nahr Umr Formation that forms a good regional seal for the
prolific reservoirs of the Shu'aiba and Kharaib formations (Witt and
Gökdag, 1994).
3.2. Method
The DionisosFlow forward simulation software (hereafter
‘DionisosFlow’) is a process-based tool that simulates sediments pro-
duction, transport and deposition over geological time scales in terri-
genous and carbonate settings. Four-Dimensional multi-lithology
models simulating long-term (100 ky to 100 My) and large-scale
(10–100 km) evolution of sedimentary basins are achieved (Granjeon,
1996; Granjeon and Joseph, 1999; Hawie et al., 2015a).
The simulation is initiated from an initial paleo-topography/
bathymetry, and proceeds following a set of time steps, within a spe-
cified time interval. At every time step, three basic stratigraphic pro-
cesses are performed: (1) the addition or removal of accommodation,
defined by a user designed subsidence or uplift maps and a eustatic sea-
level curve; (2) the supply of sediment and/or carbonate in situ pro-
duction; and finally (3) the transport of sediments using diffusion
equations (Granjeon, 2014; Seard et al., 2013). The depositional para-
meters (e.g. water depth, wave energy, basin slope) and resultant se-
diment/lithology proportions are quantified at each time step (Seard
et al., 2013).
The FSM comprises the northern region of Oman, and incorporates
the carbonate platform interior and its edge (Fig. 1, A). A sector of
about 300 km × 300 km has been delimited with a grid size of
2 km × 2 km. The modelled Lower Cretaceous sequence spans from 149
to 113 Ma and the time steps used for the simulations was set at 0.2 Ma.
This provides a good basin scale stratigraphic resolution for the model
whilst still allowing for a fast computational speed. To obtain a rea-
sonable representation of the various generic facies across the model,
three different sediment types (grain sizes) were integrated in the
model: (i) coarse carbonate grains (0.5 mm), (ii) medium carbonate
grains (0.1 mm), (iii) carbonate muds (0.004 mm). Facies were gener-
ated by combining the proportion of grain sizes with the various
modelled depositional environments and physical parameters.
The main influencing parameters tested in this study are the initial
topography, wave energy, subsidence rates and eustasy. Carbonate
production was kept constant throughout the simulated deposition, a
reasonable assumption given that the type of carbonate producers and
climate regime did not markedly change throughout the Lower
Cretaceous in Oman. All assumptions are detailed and discussed in the
following paragraphs. For models simplicity, sediment compaction and
subsidence by sediment-load were not considered in this study.
To distribute sediments in the system, DionisosFlow solves a diffu-
sion equation that links the depositional slope and transport coefficient
to local gradients. This controls sediments erosion and transport
throughout the basin (Hawie et al., 2015a). In this study, Long-Term
Low-Energy transport parameters (LELT), were used to mimic con-
tinuous sediment transport through wave and gravity/slope at a large-
scale in a low gradient carbonate system.
The equation for the linear slope-driven diffusion is defined as such:
Q = Kslope*S (1)
where Q is the average sediment flux [km2ky−1], Kslope is the diffusion
coefficient and S is the slope [km2ky−1].
Wave transport depends on wave parameters, including wave

49
M. Al-Salmi et al.
Fig. 7. Schematic sections of the Arab Peninsula, presenting the main tectonostratigraphic events. Modified after Pratt and Smewing (1993).
energy and wave action depth. The equation for the wave-driven dif-
fusion is:
Q = kwave*Ewave*S
where Q is sediment flux [km2y−1], kw is the diffusion coefficient for
wave energy, Ewave is the wave energy, S is the local gradient of the
basin slope, [km2y−1] (Granjeon and Joseph, 1999).
Diffusive coefficients are directly related to the behaviour of sedi-
ments (Granjeon, 1996; Euzen et al., 2004; Hawie et al., 2015a,b),
where finer grain sediments are more diffusive than coarse grain sedi-
ments. For linear diffusion coefficient, a wide range of values have been
used in the literature, ranging from < 0.01 km2 ka−1 (Gawthorpe et al.,
2003) to more than 1.69 107 km2 ka−1 (Burgess et al., 2006). For ex-
ample, the diffusion coefficient is estimated to be 560 km2ky−1 in the
Mississippi delta (Kenyon and Turcotte, 1985) and 0.007 km2ky−1 in
pelagic strata on the flanks of the Galapagos spreading centre (Mitchell,
1996).
The sediment supply in the model mainly corresponds to in situ
carbonate production. The combination of the various grain sizes (i.e.
carbonate mud, medium- and coarse grain-sized carbonates) is a proxy
for the various carbonate producers within the depositional model. The
production of each type of carbonate grains is defined as a function of
Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60
time and water depth, and can be constrained to grow at a certain wave
energy range. Carbonate production is further modulated in
DionisosFlow using a bathymetry coefficient ranging between 0 and 1
(2)
that varies with water depths. Carbonate production at any given age is
a result of the multiplication of the several parameters:
Pi = Pref (t) . Pb.i . Pw.i . Pe.i (3)
Where Pi is the production rate (in m/My) for each sediment type, Pref
is the production of reference (in m/My); Pw.i is the wave influence (in
m/My); Pb.i is the bathymetric influence (in m) and Pe.i is the ecology
influence.
3.3. Assumptions
The carbonate production and transport coefficients were assumed
to be constant throughout sediment deposition, and this allows us to
test the influence of initial topography and choice of eustasy curves.
Initially, an average of 325 m/Ma for coarse and medium grains vs.
250 m/Ma for muds were used as the reference production rates. The
reason for this choice is that it led to a good fit between the expected
facies types in the model and the modelling results. Fig. 8 shows sedi-
mentation rates of the carbonate factories by Schlager et al. (1998) that
50
M. Al-Salmi et al.
Fig. 8. Sedimentation rate of carbonate T-factory. Calculated based on thick-
ness and stratigraphic ages of ancient deposit versus the length of the time of
observation (Schlager et al., 1998).
serves as a proxy for the tropical factory which is representative of the
Jurassic and Cretaceous period along the Arabian Plate. The values used
in this study plot within an intermediate range in the graph (below the
upper limit) and are similar to measured values of similar rock types in
previous studies (Table 3). Given that the Arabian Peninsula was lo-
cated in warm tropical water (i.e. 8° latitude, Murris, 1980), producers
are mainly autotrophic organisms such as rudists and algal limestones.
Therefore, the sedimentation rates used in our model consider that
maximum production of carbonates occurs in the shallow subtidal zone
and drops with increasing water depth. Two different production versus
depth profiles were used (Fig. 9): (i) for coarse and medium carbonate
grains, the highest production is in the upper 20 m of the water column
and rapidly decreases between 20 and 40 m, as light penetration drops,
(ii) for mud grains, the production is assigned 120 m/Ma in the upper
10 m and drops to 15 m/Ma below 60 m to represent the influence of
light penetration on pelagic sediments. Models can generally be more
complex than the reference case and to answer some important ques-
tions related to depositional environment, variable laws of production
can be added. In this study, the carbonate production in all models were
constrained by wave energies that results in maximum production
being focused vertically at shallow water depth, and laterally at various
locations depending on the energy setting of the platform (Table 4).
The diffusion coefficients used in the model runs are shown in
Table 5: coarser, more resistant lithologies such as rudist reefs are re-
presented by lower coefficients compared to finer unconsolidated car-
bonate muds. Another crucial factor in shallow waters (i.e. less than
40 m) influencing both carbonate production and transport is wave
energy. In shallow-water carbonates, wave energy is high and wave
reworking is intense, leading to greater heterogeneity in the facies re-
cord (Purkis et al., 2015). A constant wave base of around 20 m was
chosen for the studied period, which is a general average value for
shallow water environments (Coe et al., 2003). We chose a wave energy
of 250 kW/m2, and a wave direction of 360° taking into consideration
the orientation and position of the basin.
Table 3
Examples of carbonate production rates for rocks of similar age and type.
Carbonate production (m/Ma) Age of the sample/s Location
155 Early Cretaceous Shu'aiba Fm (Middle East)
Vary between 70 and 290 Early Cretaceous packstones and mudstones (Jura mountains in France)
Vary between 80 and 100 Cretaceous sediments Pelagic and deep water (North Sea, Italy, USA range)
51
Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60
In order to simulate supersequence 1, the basin floor geometry prior
to deposition must be defined. The initial topography here corresponds
to the unconformity between the older Jurassic deposits and the first
Cretaceous deposits (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). The bathy-
metry was assumed to range between zero meters, where the Habshan
slope edge has a southern limit at around 21° latitude, to a maximum
depth of 450 m in the basin where the pelagic Rayda Formation was
deposited. This is based on available regional data that suggests that the
depocenter of the Rayda Formation was deposited in few hundreds of
meters (Droste, 2010). The facies and microfossils found in the Salil and
Rayda formations support this interpreted water depth range as radi-
olarian are commonly found in deep water settings.
DionisosFlow is capable of accounting for sediment compaction is
an appropriate compaction law is supplied. However, in this study we
decided to not implement sediment compaction. This decision was
motivated by the fact that (1) finding an appropriate compaction law
for carbonates is complicated by early cementation, which reduce me-
chanical compaction and can occur at different times and with different
degree post-deposition for different lithology. This is thus a poorly
constrained effect in carbonates, (2) accounting for sediment compac-
tion greatly complicates calibration of the model, as sediment com-
paction could occur up to present day and thus the model should strictly
be run from basement up to modern sediment cover, and (3) also spe-
cific to carbonate is the importance of pressure-solution that can result
in decrease of sediment volume after mechanical compaction. Taken
together, these complicating factors imply that accounting for sediment
compaction is likely to reduce, not improve, uncertainties in the model.
As a consequence of not accounting for sediment compaction, volumes
of sediments used in this study represent fully compacted sediment
loads.
4. Results
4.1. Lower second-order supersequence (Tithonian -Valanginian)
4.1.1. Influence of initial bathymetry and wave energy on clinoformal
geometries
Two end models for the initial bathymetry were tested: (1) a gentle
topographic slope, with an average of 2 m/km (Fig. 10, Model A), and
(2) steeper topographic slope, with an average of 10 m/km, that passes
to flat bottomed basin ∼450 m (Fig. 10, Model B). Note that both
models have the same total bathymetric change of 450 m and all the
other simulation parameters are similar (Table 6).
The carbonate grains distribution and proportions is generally si-
milar in Models A and B. Carbonate coarse-grains dominate the plat-
form edge (> 60%) that then passes to medium-fine grained slope fa-
cies, and finally to basinal muds (> 60% mud grains). The inclination
of the clinoforms is around 8 m/km at the edge and drops to 5-3 m/km
at the slope. The slope shows a clear intercalation between fine,
medium and coarse carbonate grains. The thickness of the slope in
Model A increases gradually within 2 km from the southwest (∼50 m)
to the northeast (350 m) that then passes to the basin (200 m). Coarse-
carbonate grains dominates the first ∼10 km of the prograding clino-
forms. Whilst in Model B, there is relatively sudden break of slope and
thinner deep basin deposits (∼80 m). Moreover, results show that the
steepness of the initial bathymetry has an impact on the geometry of the
carbonates. Where a gentle slope is used, individual units can be
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Strasser and Samankassou, 2003
Enos, 1974
M. Al-Salmi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

Fig. 9. (A) Carbonate production with depth, typical to that of autotrophic organisms that mainly depend on light penetration (B) wave energy versus depth.

Table 4 Reducing the diffusion coefficient values (i.e. without wave-driven

Wave energy constraints. diffusion) to model supersequence 1 results in gentle clinoformal geo-
Sediment type Min constraint (kW/m) Max constraint (kW/m) metry that dip by maximum of 5 m/km and comprises mainly of in-
tercalated medium and mud carbonate grains that can be correlated for
Carbo-coarse grains 30 230 (Max) great distances. (Fig. 11, Model C). This is because the sedimentation
Carbonate medium -grains 15 110
rate is lower within the system and less coarse grain carbonates are
Carbo mud Min (0) 50
transported basinward as the wave energy is reduced, as shown in
Table 7.
Table 5 Model E was simulated using both wave and gravity diffusion, but
Diffusion coefficient values. with lower values compared to models A and B, as shown in Table 8.
The carbonate coarse grains dominate the composition of the slope,
Sediment type Gravity-driven diffusion Wave-driven diffusion
forming a steep gradient of around 15 m/km that gradually drops to
(km2/kyr) (km2/kyr)
6 m/km, then to a flat bottomed basin (Model D, Fig. 11). There is re-
Carbo-coarse grains 0.3 0.3 latively less grain-size intercalations within the clinoforms as the car-
Carbo-medium grains 0.65 0.6 bonate coarse grains are transported short distances away from the
Carbonate mud 0.95 0.9
platform edge (i.e. flat-topped, relatively steep margined platform with
an abrupt break of slope) (see Table 9).
correlated over a greater distance. For example, some inclined packages An increase in the wave base by 5 m causes the platform edge to be
transported further northward by at least 20 km, forming relatively
will downlap the base Cretaceous unconformity over a horizontal dis-
tance of 300 km within 0.5 myr in Model A, versus only 250 km in steeper clinoform (up to 9 m/km), compared to Model E (Fig. 11). High
value of wave-energy (> 250 kW/m2) induces intense reworking of
Model B.
The initial bathymetric surface of Model B is considered the base sediments above the storm wave base and causes the sediments to
prograde and fill in the basin. The slope is dominated by coarse-car-
case in our study for the following reasons: (1) the edge of the platform
in supersequence 1 had prograded around 250 km during the 20 Ma of bonate grains, with negligible carbonate muds. Varying the azimuth of
the wave propagation angle does not seem to have an impact on the
supersequence 1 based on seismic data (Droste and Van Steenwinkel
(2004). This is similar to findings in Model B where the progradation development or morphology of the carbonate system and that wave
energy plays an important role in distributing the sediments in the re-
rate is around 10 km/Myr, and contradictory to Model A where the
gion.
platform edge extends further northwards. This has generated a lat-
erally extensive back-reef lithology (∼2.5 km) in Model A compared to
Model B. (2) the water depths in front of the platform were estimated to 4.1.2. Influence of eustatic curve
be of a few hundreds of meters, where the Rayda Formation was mainly The depositional model (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004) shows
deposited (Droste and Van Steenwinkel, 2004). This deep water setting that the shelf-edge trajectory remained more or less constant at a re-
is reached sooner in Model B, which agrees with the southward extent gional scale in the first ∼ 20 Ma of deposition (Fig. 12), indicating: (i)
of the Rayda Formation available from outcrop data of Oman Moun- base level remained relatively constant, with tectonic subsidence and
tains (Fig. 6); (3) The inclination of the clinoforms of the Lower eustasy balancing each other out, and (ii) carbonate production and
Khamah Group is reported to range between 1° and 20°, as interpreted transportation had always exceeded subsidence rate. Therefore, a low
from seismic data and best captured in Model B; (4) Finally, the overall thermal subsidence rate was assigned for this interval of around 2 m/
thickness of the sequence (a combination of initial bathymetry, sub- Ma, a value calculated to compensate for the eustatic changes seen in
sidence and sedimentation) matches observation when using Model B. the Haq, (2014) eustatic curve.
(e.g. the thickness of the Rayda Formation increases laterally from the Three different eustatic curves have been tested, whilst keeping
south ∼70 m to the north ∼150 m as the bathymetry deepens). other environmental parameters constant. The eustatic curve from
Therefore, all other models presented below are based on the initial Miller et al. (2005) was used in the first scenario (Model F, Fig. 12). The
bathymetry of Model B. Miller et al. (2005) curve was established based on data from the

52
M. Al-Salmi et al.
Fig. 10. Model A shows the geometry of carbonates when a gentle slope is used, while Model B represents the impact of using steep slope passing to flat bottomed
basin. Rayda Formation is predicted where the carbonate mud percentage exceeds 50% and it has been described in Oman Mountain (Table 2).
eastern margin of North America (New Jersey margin) and proposes
changes of 100 ± 50 m during the Cretaceous. Model G (Fig. 11) uses
the Haq and Bersma, (1998) long-term sea-level curve. Despite un-
certainties, especially during the Cretaceous-Cenozoic, the Haq and
Bersma, (1998) curve has been used extensively in basin modelling,
often used as a reference for contrasting global versus regional sea-level
changes (Nystuen, 1998). Finally, the Haq (2014) short-term eustatic
curve was used to simulate Model H (Fig. 12). This curve is an updated
version of the Mesozoic eustatic curve of Haq et al. (1987), but the
recent work considers changes around the Arabian Peninsula and the
global eustatic curve.
Simulations show that the shelf-edge trajectory will differ based on
the sea-level curve used: Model F shows a low angle, slowly ascending
shelf-edge trajectory, while Model G shows that the shelf-edge remains
at the same level in the initial simulation time steps and rapidly rises
between 135 and 129 Ma. Model H shows that the first 20 km of the
shelf edge is partially eroded as a result of sea-level drop and the se-
diments were transported downslope. As the sea-level increases the
back-reef strata (< 40% carbonate coarse grains) onlap the shelf edge
as shown by the white arrows in Model H (Fig. 12). Moreover, carbo-
nate systems are highly sensitive to short-term eustatic amplitudes. In
particular, the position of the shelf-edge (rudist complex), with low-
stand packages intercalated with highstand package representing
shorter-term sea-level fluctuation, being best captured using the Haq
(2014) short-term curve. This is because it includes higher-frequency
changes and it is based on more recent data, in part derived from the
Arabian platform In contrast, less grain size intercalations are devel-
oped within the clinoforms where long-term Haq sea-level or Miller
et al. (2005) curves are used i.e. the platform edge is mainly composed
of coarse carbonate grains and hence the models underestimate the
heterogeneity within the slope.
53
Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60
4.2. Second second-order supersequence (Valanginian – Early Aptian)
Several models were designed to investigate the relationship be-
tween accommodation and stacking pattern in Oman. Four tests have
been conducted to examine subsidence role in carbonate geometries:
Model I. Simulations using eustatic curves (e.g. Haq, 2014; Miller
et al., 2005) with a similar subsidence rate as supersequence 1 (i.e. 2 m/
Ma) resulted in a continuous progradation of the clinoforms without
platform aggradation, as illustrated in Model I (Fig. 13). Results thus
confirm that eustasy alone cannot explain the aggradational stacking
pattern during supersequence 2, as the eustatic curves show no sig-
nificant increase throughout this period (129-113 Ma) (Model I,
Fig. 13). Hence, a change in regional subsidence is needed to create
sufficient accommodation for the ∼300 m thick back-reef sediments.
Model J. This model was simulated using uniform subsidence rates
across the whole platform (Model J, Fig. 13). A subsidence rate of 21 m/
Ma was used between 129 and 122 Ma and a rate of 50 m/Ma was used
between 122 and 113 m/Ma. This has generated a high progradation to
aggradation pattern in the first ∼20 km of the second second-order
supersequence. Between 122 and 113 Ma, a high aggradation to pro-
gradation pattern developed, where a barrier platform edge formed at
the highest energy part of the depositional system (160–230 kW/m),
comprising carbonate-coarse grains (100-80%(. The wave energy lat-
erally drops towards the back-reef (< 140 kW/m). Variable energy
belts developed vertically at the back-reef: the energy at the lower part
of the back-reef is less (< 40 kW/m) compared to the upper part
(40–140 kW/m), where the aggradation rate is higher. Areas with high
wave energy in the back-reef comprises > 40% carbonate-coarse
grains, whilst areas with low wave energy are dominated by medium
and mud-carbonate grains (30–40%). These models show no significant
lateral variations in the carbonate grains proportion.
M. Al-Salmi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

Models K and L. A second set of scenarios were simulated to test

basin
basin
basin
basin
basin
basin
basin
basin
basin

Steep slope passing to flat bottomed basin

Steep slope passing to flat bottomed basin
the influence of differential subsidence in the system. In Model K, a
maximum subsidence rate of 27 m/Ma was used at the landward end of
bottomed
bottomed
bottomed
bottomed
bottomed
bottomed
bottomed
bottomed
bottomed
the model that drops to 16 m/My at the basinward end of the grid, as
shown in Fig. 14. Note that the subsidence maps are kept simple to
flat
flat
flat
flat
flat
flat
flat
flat
flat
represent the general subsidence trend at a regional scale and to satisfy
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
Steep slope passing to
the thickness of the system (section 3.1). The high subsidence rate that
Gentle slope 2 m/km

was induced in the platform could be due to loading on the platform

Initial topography

interior related to the uplift of the Haushi-Huqf High and the Arabian
Shield. The subsidence decreases away from the load, towards the
basin. This has the impact of deepening the shallow water portion of the
profile in the back-reef. Therefore, the main carbonate production is
forced to be closer to the platform margin and decreases towards the
back-reef. As a result, lateral variation in carbonate grains proportion
and thicknesses can be seen in Model K between 129 and 124 Ma that
Haq and Boersma, (1998)

are also likely controlled by the energy of the back-reef. For Model L,
two differential subsidence maps were used for ages between 129-
Miller et al. (2005)

124 Ma and 124-113 Ma, as shown in Fig. 14. Both models show very
Sea-level curve

similar back-reef composition, but with relatively more lateral hetero-

Haq (2014)
Haq (2014)
Haq (2014)
Haq (2014)
Haq (2014)

Haq (2014)
Haq (2014)
Haq (2014)

Haq (2014)
Haq (2014)

geneity in Model L between 129 and 124 Ma. Moreover, Model L shows
a high progradation:aggradation ratio as the system progrades north-
wards and the back-reef thickness increases from 300 m basinward to
500 m landwards.
Sediment Transport

5. Interpretation

5.1. Controlling parameters

5
5
7
8
5
5
5
5
5
5

Table 5
Table 5
Tabel
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

The bathymetric gradient, or initial topography, plays a crucial role

when modelling carbonates because of its role in controlling the loci of
carbonate production, alongside wave energy distribution: the gentle
slope of Model A would imply a much larger area of intense carbonate
Max production rate (m/Ma)

production in shallow-waters, compared to Model B. This caused the

platform edge to prograde further in Model A. Outcrop and subsurface
observations favour Model B. An interesting result is that the gradient
of the initial topography is almost inherited by the gradient observed in
the modelled geometry in Model B. This is because of the reworking and
transport of sediments that prevents significant steepening of the plat-
form edge, and thus the maximum gradient of the slope does not exceed
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
325

325
325

the basement gradient value. Hence, initial topography plays a crucial

role in defining carbonate clinoform geometries.
Results indicate the importance of using a high transport system
combining wave-driven and gravity-driven coefficients, as shown in
Wave Base (m)

Model B. The high transport coefficients used in this study produces a

low-gradient ramp and slope system where most coarse sediments are
largely dispersed by normal marine processes and accumulate along the
20
20
20
20
25
20
20
20
20
20

20
20

slope. Such a transport-dominated system implies that carbonate fac-

tories produced sediments that are easily transported. This modelling
result is supported by empirical data from the Lower Cretaceous of
Subsidence rate (m/Ma)

Oman that show high energy, ooidal and reefal or bioclastic deposits of
Summary table of the input parameters in all models.

Salil and Habshan deposits of Jebel Akhdar and Madar outcrops (Pratt
and Smewing, 1993). Studies within the Quishn and Jurf Formations in
Differential subsidence (Map K)
Differential subsidence (Map L)

the Haushi-Huqf High (i.e. equivalent to the Kharaib are Shu'aiba

Formations) confirm that storm and wave reworking were the main
sedimentary processes influencing the tidal flats (Sena and John, 2013).
21
50
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

Also, results suggest that high production rates influence topographic

gradient by tending to steeper slopes, especially when transportation
rate is low, as shown in Model D. Hence, the interplay between in-situ
Period (m)

production and transport is crucial in determining the architecture of

149–129
149–129
149–129
149–129
149–129
149–129
149–129
149–129
149–113
129–122
149–114

sediments.

5.2. Relationship between accommodation and stacking pattern in Oman

H

Results of forward modelling confirm that the accommodation

D

G
A

Model K
C
B

E
F

Model L
J
I
Table 6

Model
Model
Model
Model
Model
Model
Model
Model
Model
Model

during the first second-order supersequence can be filled by the pro-

grading sediments using the specified production rates (Fig. 13) and

54
M. Al-Salmi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

Fig. 11. Model C shows the impact of using gravity-driven diffusion alone, while Model D test the influence of using less diffusion coefficient values for both gravity
and wave-driven diffusion. Model E shows the result of increasing the wave base by 5 m.

Table 7 clinoforms develop during lowstand by forced regression. Thus, using

Diffusion coefficient values for Model C. higher-resolution eustasy curve could have great implications in iden-
Sediment type Gravity-driven diffusion Wave-driven diffusion
tifying the distribution of various depositional environments such as
(km2/kyr) (km2/kyr) lagoon, slope/open-shelf. Model A shows ∼40 m shallow water deposit,
developed during sea-level rise, being truncated towards the south
Carbo-coarse grains 0.3 0 (Model H, Fig. 12). These deposits comprise < 40% carbonate coarse
Carbo medium -grains 0.65 0
Carbonate mud 0.95 0
grains and high proportion of fine carbonates.
Droste and Van Steenwinkel (2004) suggest that the change from
progradational to overall aggradational pattern along the platform
Table 8 during supersequence 2, is related to a eustatic sea-level rise. This is
Diffusion coefficient values for Model C. supported by a regional rise in sea-level that was recorded in different
areas bordering the Tethys Ocean (e.g. Hillgärtner et al., 2003). How-
Sediment type Gravity-driven diffusion Wave-driven diffusion
(km2/kyr) (km2/kyr) ever, we argue that the evolution of the platform margin records an
increase in subsidence during the second super-sequence. The platform
Carbo-coarse grains 0.1 0.15 edge acts as a wave-resistant barrier that generates a shelter to the
Carbo medium -grains 0.4 0.3
back-reef and the wave energy propagation decreases towards the
Carbonate mud 0.6 0.6
platform interior as shown in Model L (Fig. 14). The system, in turn,
distributes the grain size considering both; water depth and energy
transport coefficients (Table 2), and also reproduces short-term shifts in regime, which has caused the development of muddy and medium-
the position and geometries of the reef tract resulting from changes in grained back-reef facies (Model L). This highlights the importance of
eustasy alone (Fig. 11). This result support previous studies by Connally considering the hydrodynamic setting in reconstructing the platform
and Scott (1985) and Scott (1990) suggesting that the Early Cretaceous geometry and that over simplifying depositional models would under-
period witnessed eustatic rise in sea level, and to results from Pratt and estimate the heterogeneity in shallow water systems.
Smewing (1993) who suggest that the regional subsidence rate was very Using uniform subsidence results in laterally oversimplified back-
low during the Berriasian-Hauterivian with no significant tectonic load reef lithology, likely related to the diffusion-based smoothing for the
(Fig. 7). This is evidenced by the lack of change in water depth during distribution of sediments used in the modelling. Differential subsidence
deposition of the Rayda Formation and age equivalent Mayhah and causes some lateral energy variations that induces a laterally variable
Guweyza limestone units (Pratt and Smewing, 1993). Eustasy greatly carbonate grain-size distribution. Differential subsidence affecting the
impacts the clinoform geometries, their composition, lateral continuity Arabian platform margin were discussed by many authors: for example,
and stacking patterns. Model B confirms that the geometries suggested Alsharhan and Nairn (1986) and Pratt and Smewing (1993) mention
by Droste and Van Steenwinkel (2004): high-angle clinoforms develop that tilting and erosion of the western part of the Arabian Platform
during aggradation phase of highstand system tract and low-angle could have induced differential subsidence and instability in the region

Table 9
Facies interpretation in the model mainly based on grain size cut-offs and bathymetry.
Facies type Carbo- medium Carbo-medium Carbo-mud Carbo- mud Carbo-coarse Carbo-coarse Bathymetry (min) Bathymetry (max)
grains (min) grains (max) (min) (max) grains (min) grains (max)

Grainy back- 0 1 0 0.5 0.5 1 <0m 2m

reef
Muddy back- 0 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 <0m 2m
reef
Reef Facies 0 1 0 1 0.45 1 2m 80 m
Slope Facies 0.2 0.7 0 1 0 1 100 m 531 m
Basinal Mud 0 1 0.3 1 0 0.5 300 m 455 m

55
M. Al-Salmi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60

Fig. 12. Three scenarios showing the impact of eustasy curve choice: Model F uses Miller et al. (2005), Model G uses Long term Haq and Boersma, (1998) and Model
H uses Short-term Haq (2014). All other parameters were kept constant.

Fig. 13. Model I shows the result of using a sub-

sidence of 2 mMa−1 between 149 and 113 Ma.
Uniform subsidence rate of 21 m/Ma (129-122 Ma)
and 50 m/Ma (122-113 Ma) are used in Model J and
three models are shown (from top to bottom): (i)
coarse-grains proportion, (ii) medium-grains pro-
portion and (iii) mud-grains proportion. The dashed
line separates Supersequence 1 (S1) from
Supersequence 2 (S2).

56
M. Al-Salmi et al.
Fig. 14. Models K shows the result of using single differential subsidence map between 129 and 113 Ma. Model L uses two subsidence maps: 129-124 Ma (left) and
124-113 Ma (right). The dashed line separates Supersequence 1 (S1) from Supersequence 2 (S2).
due to periodic uplift of the Arabian Shield. However, further studies
are needed to constrain the timing, magnitude and spatial variations of
the subsidence. Using differential subsidence generates differentiated
bathymetry that impact wave energy propagation and hence laterally
variable carbonate grains distribution are generated.
5.3. General implication of the modelling results
As presented earlier, the modelling work helps understanding the
potential interactions between different parameters, such as sea-level
fluctuations and subsidence, in controlling the stratal architecture and
depositional patterns of carbonates. It is also considered a powerful tool
in generating some of the depositional heterogeneities observed in
subsurface and outcrop data, such as lithological variations within the
back-reef and the slope deposits. To illustrate this, the facies were de-
fined based on sediment proportions and ecological parameters (e.g.
bathymetry, wave energy, slope … etc.) (Table 8 and Fig. 15). Model k
(Fig. 13) was chosen for this purpose, as it provides satisfactory geo-
metries and reasonable thicknesses: Back-reef facies (300–400 m), slope
facies (400–500 m), platform edge facies (60–220 m), and Basinal Fa-
cies (50–180 m), compared to the published data (refer back to Figs. 6
and 5). The model shows a regional transition from grainy to muddy
57
Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60
slope facies with some alternations between coarse-grained and fine-
grained carbonates as a response of relative sea-level fluctuations. The
back reef facies are characterised by a relatively lower wave energy
compared to the platform edge and largely comprise of coarse to
medium-grained carbonates. During aggradation phase in super-
sequence 1 mud-carbonate grains are developed. This unit likely cor-
responds to the lower part of the lagoonal Lekhwair Formation in the
Droste and Van Steenwinkel (2004) model. It is also associated with the
slower sedimentation rate compared to the fast aggradation stacking
pattern dominating supersequence 2. Generally, the model shows
coarse-carbonate grains dominating the back-reef where the aggrada-
tion rate is high (Fig. 15). The model also shows streaks of relatively
higher mud content that correspond to periods of low energy setting in
the system. These can be correlated for at least 150 km and could en-
hance the heterogeneity of the back-reef reservoirs as it may form
barriers and baffles of vertical flow. The gentle slope in the carbonate
ramp means that flooding surfaces are generally diachronous. Due to
the fluctuations in relative sea-level, extensively exposed surfaces can
be detected from the bathymetry model (Fig. 16). Differential sub-
sidence, like Model L, causes differential exposure times of these sur-
faces and control their lateral continuity. It is expected that the het-
erogeneity induced by the fluctuations in sea-level and the thicknesses
M. Al-Salmi et al.
Fig. 15. A model showing facies interpretation that were distributed based on Table 8. Five main facies were assigned to describe the geometries and heterogeneities
within the carbonate system.
of these surfaces enhances reservoir heterogeneity within the back-reef
facies (e.g. karstification, fractures, dolomisation/cementation). Ex-
posure surfaces have been described at the Haushi-Huqf High, central
Oman (e.g. Sattler et al., 2005; Immenhauser et al., 2004). Differential
subsidence causes differential exposure times of the surfaces and con-
trol their lateral continuity as seen in Models K and L. At outcrops, they
show evidence of meteoric diagenesis, subaerial exposure and boring,
and could be traced laterally at least for 20–60 km and include laterally
extensive erosion surfaces, omission surfaces (hard and firm grounds),
and flooding surfaces (Hillgärtner et al., 2003). The model allows
simple extraction of facies belts and surfaces, as shown in Fig. 15, B.
This shows that the platform margin is the most sensitive recorder of
relative sea-level changes. Enhanced progradation during Berriasian to
Hauterivian times results from slow subsidence and continuous sedi-
ment supply. This changes to higher aggradation rates in the Late
Hauterivian to Barremian as the subsidence rate increased. Moreover,
the 3-D geometry of the platform edge allows a good visualisation of the
vertical and horizontal stacking of the coarse grained carbonates during
specified time intervals, which could, for example, enhance reservoir
productivity.
5.4. Potential future direction to extract more reservoir implications for the
subsurface of Oman
One of the main producing reservoirs in Lower Cretaceous strata in
the region is the Shu'aiba Formation. The depositional setting of the
Fig. 16. Bathymetry model highlighting exposed surfaces. All surfaces were exposed between 0.1 and 1 Ma.
58
Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60
Shu'aiba Formation is highly complex and comprises several deposi-
tional environments including open-marine settings, shallow marine
settings (rudist-rich), shoals and lagoon (semi-restricted setting) (Jeong
et al., 2017). The best reservoir quality is found within the inner ramp
and is dominated by Lithocodium/Bacinella to backshoal grainstones.
Reservoir quality decreases with increasing micritic matrix and clay
content, typically with a decrease in quality in a north-westwards di-
rection (Jeong et al., 2017). Several facies schemes have been proposed
for the Shu'aiba Formation to understand this complexity. Nevertheless,
development of reservoir framework remains a challenging step in
constraining a 3-D geological model, as it requires mapping of in-
dividual clinoform surfaces that holds great complexity (Yose et al.,
2006). Clinoform geometries have proven to have big impact on con-
nectivity between injectors and producers in Shuabia reservoirs. Hence,
seismic-scale flow units and barriers are often mapped to visualise in-
jector-producer well-connectivity (Yose et al., 2006). Generating high-
resolution, detailed stratigraphic models could capture facies change
down the profile of each single clinoform (mainly due to water depth
and wave energy change) that could significantly enhance the char-
acterisation of individual flow units. Moreover, there is a considerable
diagenetic overprint in Shu'aiba reservoirs. Diagenesis is mostly facies
selective and is related to sequence-stratigraphic surfaces (e.g. exposure
surfaces) (Yose et al., 2006). Combining both depositional facies and
sequence-stratigraphic framework in forward modelling could improve
reservoir characterisation and management (i.e. placing injectors and
producers), as it predicts key exposure surfaces and their thicknesses.
M. Al-Salmi et al.
Studies of Shu'aiba reservoir reveals a very ordered system, where
changes in stratal geometries and facies distribution are closely related
to long-term accommodation history (Yose et al., 2006). Other factors
such as relative sea-level changes, local tectonics and energy flux cause
significant carbonate platform asymmetry between the northern and
southern margins of the Shuabia platform (Yose et al., 2006). The
northern margin developed a broad grain-dominated sand belt, fol-
lowed by strong progradation system. On the other hand, the southern
margin is characterised by high-energy rudist shoals that cover a broad
area of the margin (Yose et al., 2006). Producing reservoir-scale 4D
models could provide valuable insights into carbonate platform asym-
metry, as it enables the integration of a wide range of depositional
controls and testing their relationships.
We propose that applying Dionisos 4D forward stratigraphic mod-
elling to a broader set of subsurface data in Oman could be used to: (1)
complement stochatic modelling and (2) to enhance the predictability
and confidence level on reservoir models (Hawie et al., 2015b). This is
because complex carbonate sedimentary geometries (i.e. rudist shoals,
algal mounds, development of clinoforms, aggradation and prograda-
tion of carbonate platforms) require a broad multi-disciplinary dataset
integration and understanding of various geological processes. For ex-
ample, a calibrated forward stratigraphic model was generated for the
three Lower Cretaceous reservoirs located on onshore oil field in Abu
Dhabi (Hawie et al., 2015b). A 200 × 200 m grid size and a 50 kyrs
time step were used to simulate these reservoirs, supported with sen-
sitivity analysis (Hawie et al., 2015b). These models consider in situ
production and transport by waves, gravity and water influx (Hawie
et al., 2015b). A maximum of 35 wells were used to calibrate the model,
which has resulted in the generation of 14 carbonate textures for the
different reservoirs (Hawie et al., 2015b). For example, the model
predicts patchy rudist shoals developing on gentle inner ramp paleo-
topographic highs. At the shelf edge, a more continuous belt is ex-
pected, as the energy is the strongest, whereby mudstone/wackstone
deposits dominate the basin (Hawie et al., 2015b). The Hawie et al.,
2015b study forms a good analogue to Shu'aiba and Kharaib reservoirs
in North Oman, where mapping clinoforms remains a challenging step,
yet very critical to understand producers-injectors connectivity in re-
servoirs (Yose et al., 2006). Generating high-resolution, detailed stra-
tigraphic models could capture facies change down the profile of each
single clinoform (mainly due to water depth and wave energy change)
that could significantly enhance the characterisation of individual flow
units, as shown by Hawie et al. (2015b) study.
Another forward stratigraphic modelling study of the Lower
Cretaceous carbonates of Saudi Arabia was presented by Cantrell et al.
(2015). The Cantrell et al. (2015) study, unlike our study and the work
of Hawie et al., 2015, is based on applying hydrolic-process equations
where both the hydrolic flow and sediment supply are explicitly cal-
culated (using the package SedSim). The study area (127 × 187 km),
modelled using a 1 × 1 km cartersian grid and a simulation timestep of
20 kyr from 125 to 116 Ma, encompasses Shu'aiba Formation sediments
from the extensive back-ramp carbonates in Saudi Arabia; the en-
vironment of deposition modelled in Cantrell et al. (2015) is thus more
proximal to the shoreline than the shelf-edge environment of deposition
modelled in our study. Four main environment of deposition were
modelled in the Cantrell et al. (2015) study, with maximum carbonate
production rates of 200 m/Ma (compared to our production rates of
250–325 m/Ma for the shelf edge). A detailed comparison of the two
models is beyond the scope of this contribution, in part because the
environments of depositions modelled are different. We note however
that both the diffusive and the hydrodynamic-based models lead to the
modelling of prograding clinoforms, and to realistic thickness maps (see
Cantrell et al., 2015). This reinforces the point that forward modelling
of carbonate sequences can be a valuable addition to the geologist's
toolkit.
59
Marine and Petroleum Geology 99 (2019) 45–60
6. Conclusion
Carbonate platform geometries are a result of multiple controls,
including sediment production, sea-level fluctuations and differential
subsidence. Forward modelling results of the Lower Cretaceous in
Oman showed that the controlling factors of the carbonate architecture
varied through time: (1) eustasy played a significant role in the car-
bonate development during the first second-order super-sequence; (2)
the clinoform geometries and their lateral continuity are mainly con-
trolled by the magnitude of the transport coefficients and the bathy-
metry, (3) subsidence was the primary control for the observed ag-
gradational stacking patterns during the Hauterivian-Aptian and (4)
differential subsidence and wave energy play a crucial role in facies
distribution. Finally, testing the proposed model against published data
shows that it successfully predicts the regional facies stacking patterns
and the depositional geometries as suggested, for example, by Droste
and Van Steenwinkel (2004), and Pratt and Smewing (1993). Moreover,
regional-scale observations and interpretations from the model can be
extrapolated in a useful way to the subsurface (e.g. exposure surfaces,
grain-size distribution).
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by data and previous fieldwork from the
Qatar Carbonate and Carbon Storage Research Centre, funded by Qatar
Petroleum, Shell, and the Qatar Science and Technology Park. We thank
the associate editor Istvan Csato, as well as Rainer Zühlke and an
anonymous reviewer for their comments that help improve this
manuscript.
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